世卫组织官网：切尔诺贝利事故的真实规模 ——20 年后联合国报告给出明确答案及修复方法 世界卫生组织、国际原子能机构、联国合开发计划署联合新闻发布 2005 年 9 月 5 日，日内瓦 一个超过 100 名科学家组成的国际团队得出结论：总共最高可达 4 千人可能最终因受到 20 年前切尔诺贝利核电站事故的辐射而死亡。 不过，到 2005 年中为止，因受到此次灾难的辐射而直接致死的不到 50 人，几乎全部是受到高度辐射的抢险工人。他们当中很多在事故后几个月内死亡，也有的迟至 2004 年才去世。 给出这些最新数字的是一份里程碑式的摘要报告《切尔诺贝利的遗产：健康、环境和社会经济影响》，刚刚由切尔诺贝利论坛公布。摘要基于一份三册、 600 页的报告，包含了几百名科学家、经济学家、健康专家的工作，评估了这次史上最大核事故的 20 年影响。切尔诺贝利论坛由 8 个联合国专门机构组成，包括国际原子能机构、世界卫生组织、联合国开发计划署、粮农组织、联合国环境署、联合国人道主义协调委员会办公室、联合国原子辐射效应科学委员会、世界银行，以及白俄罗斯、俄罗斯联邦、乌克兰政府。 全文如下，参见世界卫生组织官网 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr38/en/ Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident 20 Years Later a UN Report Provides DefinitiveAnswers and Ways to Repair Lives Joint News Release WHO/IAEA/UNDP 5September 2005 | Geneva - A total of up to 4000people could eventually die of radiation exposure from the Chernobyl nuclearpower plant (NPP) accident nearly 20 years ago, an international team of morethan 100 scientists has concluded. As of mid-2005, however, fewer than 50 deaths had beendirectly attributed to radiation from the disaster, almost all being highlyexposed rescue workers, many who died within months of the accident but otherswho died as late as 2004. The new numbers are presented in a landmark digest report,“Chernobyl’s Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts,” justreleased by the Chernobyl Forum. The digest, based on a three-volume, 600-pagereport and incorporating the work of hundreds of scientists, economists andhealth experts, assesses the 20-year impact of the largest nuclear accident inhistory. The Forum is made up of 8 UN specialized agencies, including theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World Health Organization (WHO),United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Office forthe Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), United Nations ScientificCommittee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), and the World Bank, aswell as the governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. “This compilation of the latest research can help to settlethe outstanding questions about how much death, disease and economic falloutreally resulted from the Chernobyl accident,” explains Dr. Burton Bennett,chairman of the Chernobyl Forum and an authority on radiation effects. “Thegovernments of the three most-affected countries have realized that they needto find a clear way forward, and that progress must be based on a soundconsensus about environmental, health and economic consequences and some goodadvice and support from the international community.” Bennett continued: “This was a very serious accident withmajor health consequences, especially for thousands of workers exposed in theearly days who received very high radiation doses, and for the thousands morestricken with thyroid cancer. By and large, however, we have not found profoundnegative health impacts to the rest of the population in surrounding areas, norhave we found widespread contamination that would continue to pose asubstantial threat to human health, within a few exceptional, restrictedareas.” The Forum’s report aims to help the affected countriesunderstand the true scale of the accident's consequences and also suggests waysthe governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine might addressmajor economic and social problems stemming from the accident. Members of theForum, including representatives of the three governments, will meet September6 and 7 in Vienna at an unprecedented gathering of the world’s experts onChernobyl, radiation effects and protection, to consider these findings andrecommendations. Major study findings Dozens of important findings are included in the massivereport: Approximately 1000 on-site reactor staff and emergency workers were heavily exposed to high-level radiation on the first day of the accident; among the more than 200 000 emergency and recovery operation workers exposed during the period from 1986-1987, an estimated 2200 radiation-caused deaths can be expected during their lifetime. An estimated five million people currently live in areas of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine that are contaminated with radionuclides due to the accident; about 100 000 of them live in areas classified in the past by government authorities as areas of “strict control”. The existing “zoning” definitions need to be revisited and relaxed in light of the new findings. About 4000 cases of thyroid cancer, mainly in children and adolescents at the time of the accident, have resulted from the accident’s contamination and at least nine children died of thyroid cancer; however the survival rate among such cancer victims, judging from experience in Belarus, has been almost 99%. Most emergency workers and people living in contaminated areas received relatively low whole body radiation doses, comparable to natural background levels. As a consequence, no evidence or likelihood of decreased fertility among the affected population has been found, nor has there been any evidence of increases in congenital malformations that can be attributed to radiation exposure. Poverty, “lifestyle” diseases now rampant in the former Soviet Union and mental health problems pose a far greater threat to local communities than does radiation exposure. Relocation proved a “deeply traumatic experience” for some 350,000 people moved out of the affected areas. Although 116 000 were moved from the most heavily impacted area immediately after the accident, later relocations did little to reduce radiation exposure. Persistent myths and misperceptions about the threat of radiation have resulted in “paralyzing fatalism” among residents of affected areas. Ambitious rehabilitation and social benefit programs started by the former Soviet Union, and continued by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, need reformulation due to changes in radiation conditions, poor targeting and funding shortages. Structural elements of the sarcophagus built to contain the damaged reactor have degraded, posing a risk of collapse and the release of radioactive dust; A comprehensive plan to dispose of tons of high-level radioactive waste at and around the Chernobyl NPP site, in accordance with current safety standards, has yet to be defined. Alongside radiation-induced deaths and diseases, the reportlabels the mental health impact of Chernobyl as “the largest public healthproblem created by the accident” and partially attributes this damagingpsychological impact to a lack of accurate information. These problems manifestas negative self-assessments of health, belief in a shortened life expectancy,lack of initiative, and dependency on assistance from the state. “Two decades after the Chernobyl accident, residents in theaffected areas still lack the information they need to lead the healthy andproductive lives that are possible,” explains Louisa Vinton, Chernobyl focalpoint at the UNDP. “We are advising our partner governments that they mustreach people with accurate information, not only about how to live safely inregions of low-level contamination, but also about leading healthy lifestylesand creating new livelihoods.” But, says Dr Michael Repacholi, Manager of WHO'sRadiation Program, “the sum total of the Chernobyl Forum is a reassuring message.” He explains that there have been 4000 cases of thyroidcancer, mainly in children, but that except for nine deaths, all of them haverecovered. Otherwise, the team of international experts found no evidencefor any increases in the incidence of leukemia and cancer among affectedresidents. The international experts have estimated that radiationcould cause up to about 4000 eventual deaths among the higher-exposed Chernobylpopulations, i.e., emergency workers from 1986-1987, evacuees and residents of themost contaminated areas. This number contains both the known radiation-inducedcancer and leukaemia deaths and a statistical prediction, based on estimates ofthe radiation doses received by these populations. As about quarter of peopledie from spontaneous cancer not caused by Chernobyl radiation, theradiation-induced increase of only about 3% will be difficult to observe.However, in the most exposed cohorts of emergency and recovery operationworkers some increase of particular cancer forms (e.g., leukemia) in particulartime periods has already been observed. The predictions use six decades ofscientific experience with the effects of such doses, explained Repacholi. Repacholi concludes that “the health effects of theaccident were potentially horrific, but when you add them up using validatedconclusions from good science, the public health effects were not nearly assubstantial as had at first been feared.” The report’s estimate for the eventual number of deaths isfar lower than earlier, well-publicized speculations that radiation exposurewould claim tens of thousands of lives. But the 4000 figure is not fardifferent from estimates made in 1986 by Soviet scientists, according to DrMikhail Balonov, a radiation expert with the International Atomic Energy Agencyin Vienna, who was a scientist in the former Soviet Union at the time of theaccident. As for environmental impact, the reports are alsoreassuring, for the scientific assessments show that, except for the stillclosed, highly contaminated 30 kilometer area surrounding the reactor, and someclosed lakes and restricted forests, radiation levels have mostly returned toacceptable levels. “In most areas the problems are economic and psychological,not health or environmental,” reports Balonov, the scientific secretary of theChernobyl Forum effort who has been involved with Chernobyl recovery since thedisaster occurred. Recommendations Recommendations call for focusing assistance efforts onhighly contaminated areas and redesigning government programs to help thosegenuinely in need. Suggested changes would shift programs away from those thatfoster “dependency” and a “victim” mentality, and replacing them withinitiatives that encourage opportunity, support local development, and givepeople confidence in their futures. In the health area, the Forum report calls for continuedclose monitoring of workers who recovered from Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS)and other highly exposed emergency personnel. The Report also calls for focusedscreening of children exposed to radioiodine for thyroid cancer and highlyexposed clean-up workers for non-thyroid cancers. However, existing screeningprograms should be evaluated for cost-effectiveness, since the incidence ofspontaneous thyroid cancers is increasing significantly as the targetpopulation ages. Moreover, high quality cancer registries need continuinggovernment support. In the environmental realm, the Report calls for long termmonitoring of caesium and strontium radionuclides to assess human exposure andfood contamination and to analyse the impacts of remedial actions andradiation-reduction countermeasures. Better information needs to be provided tothe public about the persistence of radioactive contamination in certain foodproducts and about food preparation methods that reduce radionuclide intake.Restrictions on harvesting of some wild food products are still needed in someareas. Also in the realm of protecting the environment, the Reportcalls for an “integrated waste management program for the Shelter, theChernobyl NPP site and the Exclusion Zone” to ensure application of consistentmanagement and capacity for all types of radioactive waste. Waste storage anddisposal must be dealt with in a comprehensive manner across the entireExclusion Zone, according to the Report. In areas where human exposure is not high, no remediationneeds to be done, points out Balonov. “If we do not expect health orenvironmental effects, we should not waste resources and effort on low priority,low contamination areas,” he explains. “We need to focus our efforts andresources on real problems.” One key recommendation addresses the fact that large partsof the population, especially in rural areas, still lack accurate informationand emphasizes the need to find better ways both to inform the public and toovercome the lack of credibility that hampered previous efforts. Even thoughaccurate information has been available for years, either it has not reachedthose who need it or people do not trust and accept the information and do notact upon it, according to the Report. This recommendation calls for targeting information tospecific audiences, including community leaders and health care workers, alongwith a broader strategy that promotes healthy lifestyles as well as informationabout how to reduce internal and external radiation exposures and address themain causes of disease and mortality. In the socioeconomic sphere, the Report recommends a newdevelopment approach that helps individuals to “take control of their own livesand communities to take control of their own futures.” The Governments, theReport states, must streamline and refocus Chernobyl programs through moretargeted benefits, elimination of unnecessary benefits to people in lesscontaminated areas, improving primary health care, support for safe foodproduction techniques, and encouragement for investment and private sectordevelopment, including small and medium-size enterprises. Notes Vinton, “The most important need is for accurateinformation on healthy lifestyles, together with better regulations to promotesmall, rural businesses. Poverty is the real danger. We need to take steps toempower people.” Answers to Longstanding Questions How much radiation were people exposed to as a result ofthe accident? With the exception of on-site reactor staff and emergency workers exposedon 26 April, most recovery operation workers and those living in contaminatedterritories received relatively low whole body radiation doses, comparable tobackground radiation levels and lower than the average doses received byresidents in some parts of the world having high natural background radiationlevels. For the majority of the five million people living in the contaminatedareas, exposures are within the recommended dose limit for the general public,though about 100 000 residents still receive more. Remediation of those areasand application of some agricultural countermeasures continues. Furtherreduction of exposure levels will be slow, but most exposure from the accidenthas already occurred. How many people died and how many more are likely to diein the future? The total number of deaths already attributable to Chernobyl or expectedin the future over the lifetime of emergency workers and local residents in themost contaminated areas is estimated to be about 4000. This includes some 50emergency workers who died of acute radiation syndrome and nine children whodied of thyroid cancer, and an estimated total of 3940 deaths fromradiation-induced cancer and leukemia among the 200 000 emergency workers from1986-1987, 116 000 evacuees and 270 000 residents of the most contaminatedareas (total about 600 000). These three major cohorts were subjected to higherdoses of radiation amongst all the people exposed to Chernobyl radiation. The estimated 4000 casualties may occur during the lifetime of about 600000 people under consideration. As about quarter of them will eventually diefrom spontaneous cancer not caused by Chernobyl radiation, theradiation-induced increase of about 3% will be difficult to observe. However,in the most highly exposed cohorts of emergency and recovery operation workers,some increase in particular cancers (e.g., leukemia) has already been observed. Confusion about the impact has arisen owing to the fact that thousands ofpeople in the affected areas have died of natural causes. Also, widespreadexpectations of ill health and a tendency to attribute all health problems toradiation exposure have led local residents to assume that Chernobyl relatedfatalities were much higher than they actually were. What diseases have already occurred or might occur in thefuture? Residents who ate food contaminated with radioactive iodine in the daysimmediately after the accident received relatively high doses to the thyroidgland. This was especially true of children who drank milk from cows who hadeaten contaminated grass. Since iodine concentrates in the thyroid gland, thiswas a major cause of the high incidence of thyroid cancer in children. Several recent studies suggest a slight increase in the incidence ofleukemia among emergency workers, but not in children or adult residents ofcontaminated areas. A slight increase in solid cancers and possibly circulatorysystem diseases was noted, but needs to be evaluated further because of thepossible indirect influence of such factors as smoking, alcohol, stress andunhealthy lifestyle. Have there been or will there be any inherited orreproductive effects? Because of the relatively low doses to residents of contaminatedterritories, no evidence or likelihood of decreased fertility has been seenamong males or females. Also, because the doses were so low, there was noevidence of any effect on the number of stillbirths, adverse pregnancyoutcomes, delivery complications or overall health of children. A modest butsteady increase in reported congenital malformations in both contaminated anduncontaminated areas of Belarus appears related to better reporting, notradiation. Did the trauma of rapid relocation cause persistentpsychological or mental health problems? Stress symptoms, depression, anxiety and medically unexplained physicalsymptoms have been reported, including self-perceived poor health. Thedesignation of the affected population as “victims” rather than “survivors” hasled them to perceive themselves as helpless, weak and lacking control overtheir future. This, in turn, has led either to over cautious behavior andexaggerated health concerns, or to reckless conduct, such as consumption ofmushrooms, berries and game from areas still designated as highly contaminated,overuse of alcohol and tobacco, and unprotected promiscuous sexual activity. What was the environmental impact? Ecosystems affected by Chernobyl have been studied and monitoredextensively for the past two decades. Major releases of radionuclides continuedfor ten days and contaminated more than 200 000 square kilometers of Europe.The extent of deposition varied depending on whether it was raining whencontaminated air masses passed. Most of the strontium and plutonium isotopes were deposited within 100kilometres of the damaged reactor. Radioactive iodine, of great concern afterthe accident, has a short half-life, and has now decayed away. Strontium andcaesium, with a longer half life of 30 years, persist and will remain a concernfor decades to come. Although plutonium isotopes and americium 241 will persistperhaps for thousands of years, their contribution to human exposure is low. What is the scope of urban contamination? Open surfaces, such as roads, lawns and roofs, were most heavilycontaminated. Residents of Pripyat, the city nearest to Chernobyl, were quicklyevacuated, reducing their potential exposure to radioactive materials. Wind,rain and human activity has reduced surface contamination, but led to secondarycontamination of sewage and sludge systems. Radiation in air above settledareas returned to background levels, though levels remain higher where soilshave remained undisturbed. How contaminated are agricultural areas? Weathering, physical decay, migration of radionuclides down the soil andreductions in bioavailability have led to a significant reduction in thetransfer of radionuclides to plants and animals. Radioactive iodine, rapidlyabsorbed from grasses and animal feed into milk, was an early concern andelevated levels were seen in some parts of the former Soviet Union and SouthernEurope, but, given the nuclide’s short half life, this concern abated quickly.Currently and for the long term, radiocaesium, present in milk, meat and someplant foods, remains the most significant concern for internal human exposure,but, with the exception of a few areas, concentrations fall within safe levels. What is the extent of forest contamination? Following the accident, animals and vegetation in forest and mountainareas had high absorption of radiocaesium, with persistent high levels inmushrooms, berries and game. Because exposure from agricultural products hasdeclined, the relative importance of exposure from forest products hasincreased and will only decline as radioactive materials migrate downward intothe soil and slowly decay. The high transfer of radiocaesium from lichen toreindeer meat to humans was seen in the Artic and sub-Arctic areas, with highcontamination of reindeer meat in Finland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. Theconcerned governments imposed some restrictions on hunting, includingscheduling hunting season when animals have lower meat contamination. How contaminated are the aquatic systems? Contamination of surface waters throughout much of Europe declined quicklythrough dilution, physical decay, and absorption of radionuclides in bedsediments and catchment soils. Because of bioaccumulation in the aquatic foodchain, though, elevated concentrations of radiocaesium were found in fish fromlakes as far away as Germany and Scandinavia. Comparable levels ofradiostrontium, which concentrates in fish bone, not in muscle, were notsignificant for humans. Levels in fish and waters are currently low, except inareas with “closed” lakes with no outflowing streams. In those lakes, levels ofradiocaesium in fish will remain high for decades and, therefore, restrictionson fishing there should be maintained. What environmental countermeasures and remediation havebeen taken? The most effective early agricultural countermeasure was removingcontaminated pasture grasses from animal diets and monitoring milk forradiation levels. Treatment of land for fodder crops, clean feeding and use ofCs-binders (that prevented the transfer of radiocaesium from fodder to milk)led to large reductions in contamination and permitted agriculture to continue,though some increase in radionuclide content of plant and animal products hasbeen measured since the mid-1990s when economic problems forced a cutback intreatments. Some agricultural lands in the three countries have been taken outof use until remediation is undertaken. A number of measures applied to forests in affected countries and inScandinavia have reduced human exposure, including restrictions on access toforest areas, on harvesting of food products such as game, berries andmushrooms, and on the public collection of firewood, along with changes inhunting to avoid consumption of game meat where seasonal levels of radiocaesiummay be high. Low income levels in some areas cause local residents to disregardthese rules. What were radiation-induced effects on plants andanimals? Increased mortality of coniferous plants, soil invertebrates and mammalsand reproductive losses in plants and animals were seen in high exposure areasup to a distance of 20-30 kilometers. Outside that zone, no acuteradiation-induced effects have been reported. With reductions of exposurelevels, biological populations have been recovering, though the genetic effectsof radiation were seen in both somatic and germ cells of plants and animals.Prohibiting agricultural and industrial activities in the exclusion zonepermitted many plant and animal populations to expand and created,paradoxically, “a unique sanctuary for biodiversity.” Does dismantlement of the Shelter and management ofradioactive waste pose further environmental problems? The protective shelter was erected quickly, which led to someimperfections in the shelter itself and did not permit gathering complete dataon the stability of the damaged unit. Also, some structural parts of theshelter have corroded in the past two decades. The main potential hazard posedby the shelter is the possible collapse of its top structures and the releaseof radioactive dust. Strengthening those unstable structures has been performed recently, and constructionof a New Safe Confinement covering the existing shelter that should serve formore than 100 years, starts in near future. The new cover will allowdismantlement of the current shelter, removal of the radioactive fuel mass fromthe damaged unit and, eventually, decommissioning of the damaged reactor. A comprehensive strategy still has to be developed for dealing with thehigh level and long-lived radioactive waste from past remediation activities.Much of this waste was placed in temporary storage in trenches and landfillsthat do not meet current waste safety requirements. What was the economic cost? Because of policies in place at the time of the explosion and theinflation and economic disruptions that followed the break-up of the SovietUnion, precise costs have been impossible to calculate. A variety of estimatesfrom the 1990s placed the costs over two decades at hundreds of billions ofdollars. These costs included direct damage, expenditures related to recoveryand mitigation, resettlement of people, social protection and health care forthe affected population, research on environment, health and the production ofclean food, radiation monitoring, as well as indirect losses due to removingagricultural lands and forests from use and the closing of agriculture andindustrial facilities, and such additional costs as cancellation of the nuclearpower program in Belarus and the additional costs of energy from the loss ofpower from Chernobyl. The costs have created a huge drain on the budgets of thethree countries involved. What were the main consequences for the local economy? Agriculture was hardest hit, with 784 320 hectares taken from production.Timber production was halted in 694,200 hectares of forest. Remediation made“clean food” production possible in many areas but led to higher costs in theform of fertilizers, additives and special cultivation processes. Even wherefarming is safe, the stigma associated with Chernobyl caused marketing problemsand led to falling revenues, declining production and the closure of somefacilities. Combined with disruptions due to the collapse of the Soviet Union,recession, and new market mechanisms, the region’s economy suffered, resultingin lower living standards, unemployment and increased poverty. All agriculturalareas, whether affected by radiation or not, proved vulnerable. Poverty is especially acute in affected areas. Wages for agriculturalworkers tend to be low and employment outside of agriculture is limited. Manyskilled and educated workers, especially younger workers, left the region.Also, the business environment discourages entrepreneurial ventures and privateinvestment is low. What impact did Chernobyl and the aftermath have on localcommunities? More than 350 000 people have been relocated away from the most severelycontaminated areas, 116 000 of them immediately after the accident. Even whenpeople were compensated for losses, given free houses and a choice ofresettlement location, the experience was traumatic and left many with no employmentand a belief that they have no place in society. Surveys show that those whoremained or returned to their homes coped better with the aftermath than thosewho were resettled. Tensions between new and old residents of resettlementvillages also contributed to the ostracism felt by the newcomers. Thedemographic structure of the affected areas became skewed since many skilled,educated and entrepreneurial workers, often younger, left the areas leavingbehind an older population with few of the skills needed for economic recovery. The older population has meant that deaths exceed births, which reinforcesthe perception that these areas are dangerous places to live. Even when pay ishigh, schools, hospitals and other essential public services are short ofqualified specialists. What has been the impact on individuals? According to the Forum’s report on health, “the mental health impact ofChernobyl is the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident todate.” People in the affected areas report negative assessments of their healthand well-being, coupled with an exaggerated sense of the danger to their healthfrom radiation exposure and a belief in a shorter life expectancy. Anxiety overthe health effects of radiation shows no signs of diminishing and may even bespreading. Life expectancy has been declining across the former Soviet Union,due to cardiovascular disease, injuries and poisoning, and notradiation-related illness. How have governments responded? The resettlement and rehabilitation programs launched in Soviet conditionsproved unsustainable after 1991 and funding for projects declined, leaving manyprojects unfinished and abandoned and many of the promised benefits underfunded. Also, benefits were offered to broad categories of “Chernobyl victims”that expanded to seven million now receiving or eligible for pensions, specialallowances and health benefits, including free holidays and guaranteedallowances. Chernobyl benefits deprive other areas of public spending ofresources, but scaling down benefits or targeting only high-risk groups isunpopular and presents political problems. Given significant reduction of radiation levels during past twenty years,governments need to revisit the classification of contaminated zones. Many areaspreviously considered to be at risk are in fact safe for habitation andcultivation. Current delineations are far more restrictive than demonstratedradiation levels can justify. The report identifies the need to sharpen priorities and streamline the programsto target the most needy, noting that reallocating resources is likely to face“strong resistance from vested interests. One suggestion calls for a “buyout” of the entitlement to benefits in return for lump sum start-up financingfor small businesses.
Article 16. (1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. (3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. Artikolo 16. Plenaĝaj viroj kaj virinoj, sen ia ajn limigo pro raso, nacieco aŭ religio, rajtas edziĝi kaj fondi familion. Iliaj rajtoj estas egalaj koncerne la geedziĝon, dum la geedzeco kaj koncerne eksedziĝon. Geedziĝo okazu sole laŭ libera kaj plena konsento de la geedziĝontoj. La familio estas la natura kaj fundamenta grupunuo de la socio, kaj ĝi rajtas ricevi protekton de la socio kaj de la Ŝtato. 第16条 ㈠ 成年男女，不受种族、国籍或宗教的任何限制有权婚嫁和成立家庭。他们在婚姻方面，在结婚期间和在解除婚约时，应有平等的权利。 ㈡ 只有经男女双方的自由和完全的同意，才能缔婚。. ㈢ 家庭是天然的和基本的社会单元，并应受社会和国家的保护 。. 【笔记：男女平等，结婚自由。两厢情愿，禁止逼婚。组建家庭，社会保障。】 Article 17. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property . Artikolo 17 Ĉiu rajtas proprieti havaĵon, kaj sola kaj en asociiĝo kun aliaj. Al neniu estu arbitre forprenita lia proprieto. 第17条 ㈠ 人人得有单独的财产所有权以及同他人合有的所有权。 ㈡ 任何人的财产不得任意剥夺 。. 【笔记：私有财产，基本人权。】 Article 18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance . Artikolo 18. Ĉiu havas la rajton je libereco de penso, konscienco kaj religio; tiu ĉi rajto inkluzivas la liberecon ŝanĝi sian religion aŭ kredon, kaj liberecon manifesti, ĉu sola ĉu kune kun aliaj, ĉu publike ĉu private, sian religion aŭ kredon per instruado, praktikado, adorado kaj observado. . 第18条 人人有思想、良心和宗教自由的权利；此项权利包括改变他的宗教或信仰的自由，以及单独或集体、公开或秘密地以教义、实践、礼拜和戒律表示他的宗教或信仰的自由 。. 【笔记：思想无罪，宗教自由。】 Article 19. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers . Artikolo 19. Ĉiu havas la rajton je libereco de opinio kaj esprimado; ĉi tiu rajto inkluzivas la liberecon havi opiniojn sen intervenoj de aliaj, kaj la rajton peti, ricevi kaj havigi informojn kaj ideojn per kiu ajn rimedo kaj senkonsidere pri la landlimoj. 第19条 人人有权享有主张和发表意见的自由；此项权利包括持有主张而不受干涉的自由，和通过任何媒介和不论国界寻求、接受和传递消息和思想的自由 。. 【笔记：言论无罪，发表自由。】 Article 20. (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Artikolo 20. Ĉiu havas la rajton je libereco de pacema kunvenado kaj asociiĝo. Neniu estu devigita aparteni al asocio. 第20条 ㈠ 人人有权享有和平集会和结社的自由。 ㈡ 任何人不得迫使隶属于某一团体 。. 【笔记：集会随愿，结社自由。】 Article 21. (1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures . Artikolo 21 Ĉiu homo rajtas partopreni la regadon de sia lando, aŭ rekte aŭ pere de libere elektitaj reprezentantoj. Ĉiu rajtas je egala aliro al publika servo en sia lando. La volo de la popolo estu la bazo de la aŭtoritato de la registaro; tiu volo estu esprimata per regulaj kaj aŭtentikaj elektoj, kiuj okazu per universala kaj egala balotrajto, kaj per sekreta voĉdono aŭ ekvivalentaj liberaj voĉdonaj proceduroj. . 第21条 ㈠ 人人有直接或通过自由选择的代表参与治理本国的权利。 ㈡ 人人有平等机会参加本国公务的权利。 ㈢ 人民的意志是政府权力的基础；这一意志应以定期的和真正的选举予以表现，而选举应依据普遍和平等的投票权，并以不记名投票或相当的自由投票程序进行 。. 【笔记：民可参政， 天下为公 。人民意愿，政府之基。平等 投票 ，自由 选举 。】 Article 22. Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. Artikolo 22 Ĉiu, kiel membro de la socio, havas rajton je socia sekureco kaj povas postuli la realigon, per naciaj klopodoj kaj internacia kunlaboro, kaj konforme al la organizo kaj disponeblaj rimedoj de ĉiu Ŝtato, de tiuj ekonomiaj, sociaj kaj kulturaj rajtoj, kiuj estas nepre necesaj por lia digno kaj por la libera disvolviĝo de lia personeco. 第22条 每个人，作为社会的一员，有权享受社会保障，并有权享受他的个人尊严和人格的自由发展所必需的经济、社会和文化方面各种权利的实现，这种实现是通过国家努力和国际合作并依照各国的组织和资源情况 。. 【笔记：社会保障，人人受惠。】 Article 23. (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Artikolo 23 Ĉiu havas rajton je laboro, je libera elekto de sia okupo, je justaj kaj favoraj laborkondiĉoj kaj je protekto kontraŭ senlaboreco. Ĉiu, sen ia ajn diskriminacio, rajtas ricevi egalan salajron pro egala laboro. Ĉiu, kiu laboras, rajtas ricevi justan kaj favoran kompenson, kiu certigu por li mem kaj por lia familio ekziston konforman al homa digno, kaj kiun suplementu, laŭnecese, aliaj rimedoj de socia protekto. Ĉiu rajtas formi kaj aliĝi sindikatojn por protekto de siaj interesoj. 第23条 ㈠ 人人有权工作、自由选择职业、享受公正和合适的工作条件并享受免于失业的保障。 ㈡ 人人有同工同酬的权利，不受任何歧视。 ㈢ 每一个工作的人，有权享受公正和合适的报酬，保证使他本人和家属有一个符合人的尊严的生活条件，必要时并辅以其他方式的社会保障。 ㈣ 人人有为维护其利益而组织和参加工会的权利。 【笔记：自由择业，有权工作。同工同酬，保障失业。最低工薪，体面生存。组织工会，保障权益。】 Article 24. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. Artikolo 24 Ĉiu havas rajton je ripozo kaj libertempo, inkluzive racian limigon de la laborhoroj kaj periodajn feriojn kun salajro. 第24条 人人有享有休息和闲暇的权利，包括工作时间有合理限制和定期给薪休假的权利 。. 【笔记：带薪休假，有 劳有逸，劳者休闲，天经地义 。】 Article 25. (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. . Artikolo 25 Ĉiu havas rajton je vivnivelo adekvata por la sano kaj bonfarto de si mem kaj de sia familio, inkluzive de nutraĵo, vestaĵoj, loĝejo kaj medicina prizorgo kaj necesaj sociaj servoj, kaj la rajton je sekureco en okazo de senlaboreco, malsano, malkapablo, vidvineco, maljuneco aŭ alia perdo de la vivrimedoj pro cirkonstancoj ekster sia povo. Patrineco kaj infaneco rajtigas al specialaj prizorgoj kaj helpo. Ĉiuj infanoj, egale ĉu ili naskiĝis en aŭ ekster geedzeco, ricevu saman socian protekton. 第25条 ㈠ 人人有权享受为维持他本人和家属的健康和福利所需的生活水准，包括食物、衣着、住房、医疗和必要的社会服务；在遭到失业、疾病、残废、守寡、衰老或在其他不能控制的情况下丧失谋生能力时，有权享受保障。 ㈡ 母亲和儿童有权享受特别照顾和协助。一切儿童，无论婚生或非婚生，都应享受同样的社会保护。 【笔记：全民保障，大势所趋。人人受惠， 社会福利： 救济失业，社保病残，孤寡有助， 老有所依 。体面生存， 衣食住医 。婚生私生，同等呵护。 照顾妇孺，社会之责。 】 Article 26. (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children Artikolo 26 Ĉiu havas rajton je edukiĝo. La edukado estu senpaga, almenaŭ en la elementa kaj fundamenta stadioj. La elementa edukado estu deviga. La teknika kaj porprofesia edukado estu ĝenerale akirebla, kaj pli alta edukado estu egale akirebla por ĉiuj laŭ ties meritoj. Edukado celu la plenan disvolvon de la homa personeco kaj plifortigon de la respekto al la homaj rajtoj kaj fundamentaj liberecoj. Ĝi kreskigu komprenon, toleron kaj amikecon inter ĉiuj nacioj, rasaj aŭ religiaj grupoj, kaj antaŭenigu la agadon de Unuiĝintaj Nacioj por konservo de paco. Gepatroj havas unuavican rajton elekti la specon de la edukado, kiun ricevu iliaj infanoj. . 第26条 ㈠ 人人都有受教育的权利，教育应当免费，至少在初级和基本阶段应如此。初级教育应属义务性质。技术和职业教育应普遍设立。高等教育应根据成绩而对一切人平等开放。 ㈡ 教育的目的在于充分发展人的个性并加强对人权和基本自由的尊重。教育应促进各国、各种族或各宗教集团间的了解、容忍和友谊，并应促进联合国维护和平的各项活动。 ㈢ 父母对其子女所应受的教育的种类，有优先选择的权利 。. 【笔记：初教 免费 ，人人得享，初教普及，人人有责。职业培训，有教无类。高等教育，唯才是举。教育宗旨，发展个性，尊重人权，宽容理解，促进和平。】 Article 27. (1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. (2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. Artikolo 27 Ĉiu rajtas libere partopreni la kulturan vivon de la komunumo, ĝui la artojn kaj partopreni sciencan progreson kaj ĝiajn fruktojn. Ĉiu havas rajton je protekto de la moralaj kaj materialaj interesoj rezultantaj el eventualaj sciencaj, literaturaj aŭ artaj produktaĵoj, kiujn li aŭtoris. 第27条 ㈠ 人人有权自由参加社会的文化生活，享受艺术，并分享科学进步及其产生的福利。 ㈡ 人人对由于他所创作的任何科学、文学或美术作品而产生的精神的和物质的利益，有享受保护的权利 。. 【笔记：文化艺术，科技进步，人人得益，全民受惠。文艺创作，智慧产权，法律保障。】 Article 28. Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. Artikolo 28 Ĉiu havas rajton je socia kaj internacia organizo, en kiu la rajtoj kaj liberecoj difinitaj en ĉi tiu Deklaracio povas esti plene realigitaj . 第28条 人人有权要求一种社会的和国际的秩序，在这种秩序中，本宣言所载的权利和自由能获得充分实现 。. 【笔记：人权保障，社会必然。】 Article 29. (1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Artikolo 29 Ĉiu havas devojn al la komunumo, en kiu, sole, estas ebla la libera kaj plena disvolviĝo de lia personeco. En la uzado de siaj rajtoj kaj liberecoj, ĉiu estu subigita sole al tiuj limigoj, kiuj estas jure difinitaj ekskluzive kun la celo certigi adekvatan rekonon kaj respekton por la rajtoj kaj liberecoj de aliaj kaj por konformiĝi al justaj postuloj de moralo, publika ordo kaj ĝenerala bonfarto en demokrata socio. Tiuj ĉi rajtoj kaj liberecoj estas en neniu okazo efektivigeblaj kontraŭe al la celoj kaj principoj de Unuiĝintaj Nacioj. . 第29条 ㈠ 人人对社会负有义务，因为只有在社会中他的个性才可能得到自由和充分的发展。 ㈡ 人人在行使他的权利和自由时，只受法律所确定的限制，确定此种限制的唯一目的在于保证对旁人的权利和自由给予应有的承认和尊重，并在一个民主的社会中适应道德、公共秩序和普遍福利的正当需要。 ㈢ 这些权利和自由的行使，无论在任何情形下均不得违背联合国的宗旨和原则 。. 【笔记：社会维系，人人有责。个性自由，充分发挥。他人权益，不得侵犯。】 Article 30. Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein. Artikolo 30 Nenio en ĉi tiu Deklaracio estu interpretita kiel implico, ke iu ajn Ŝtato, grupo aŭ persono iel ajn rajtas entrepreni ian ajn agadon aŭ plenumi ian ajn agon, kiu celus detrui kiun ajn el la rajtoj kaj liberecoj ĉi-ene difinitaj. 第30条 本宣言的任何条文，不得解释为默许任何国家、集团或个人有权进行任何旨在破坏本宣言所载的任何权利和自由的活动或行为 。. 【笔记： 人权为上，不容损伤。】 【相关】 《世界人权宣言》是文明世界的圣经 2015-07-28 《人权宣言》读书笔记（序言篇） 2015-07-31 《人权宣言》读书笔记（1/2） 2015-07-31 《社会主义人权歌》 2015-08-01 http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/UDHRIndex.aspx
当今世界气候变化和环境问题日益加剧，特别是温室气体的排放导致的全球变暖，引起了海平面上升、冰川退缩等一系列破坏自然生态系统平衡问题的出现。为了防止剧烈的气候变化对人类造成伤害，各国政府纷纷加入《联合国气候变化框架公约》，并鼓励研究与应用新型可再生能源来替代化石燃料。对于太阳能和风能等可再生能源，由于资源丰富，近几年其装机容量迅速增加。但是，这些可再生能源受环境因素的影响，不能保证实时供应。同时，各地资源分布的不均衡也致使其使用范围受限制。而电能，这种灵活、高效、成熟的能量形态赋予了可再生能源应用腾飞的翅膀，将成为可再生能源主要的存贮方式。而近几年来，随着物联网时代的到来，手机等智能终端越来越普及，信息传感设备的更加智能化和小型化要求在更小的体积内实现更多的技术应用，这对其电能存贮系统的能量密度和输入输出功率提出了更高的要求。因此，关于电能存贮的研究受到广泛关注。目前常用的电能存贮系统主要分为锂离子电池和电容器。锂离子电池是索尼公司于1990 年最先提出的，经过多年发展，虽然成本高，但由于具有较高的能量密度（180Wh·kg -1 ），目前仍是应用最广的电能量存贮系统。但是，锂离子电池的充放电过程属于化学氧化还原反应，受电解质扩散控制，其功率密度较低，充放电稳定性不高，可重复使用次数也有限。而传统的电容器充放电只是物理过程，电解质离子吸附在电极表面，能在数秒内完成充放电过程，其功率密度能达到10kW·kg -1 。由于不存在化学过程，电容器的重复使用次数能够达到数十万次。但是，正因为电容器的电荷只能贮存在电极有限的表面上，其能量密度远低于锂离子电池。超级电容器作为一种新型电容器，则被期望能够综合锂离子电池和传统电容器两者的优点。超级电容器根据电荷存贮机理可以分为电化学双电层电容器和赝电容器。电化学双电层电容是离子在电极表面附近发生物理吸附所引起的，电极的面积越大，离子在电极表面吸附的就越多，电容也越大，因此，提高电化学双电层电容的关键在于使用具有高比表面积和良好电导性的电极材料。目前关于石墨烯、碳纳米管等碳材料的研究较多；同时，也有研究表明，多孔材料的结构如孔径尺寸和分布对电容也会产生影响，通过对材料的结构进行设计优化，可以获得较高的电容。虽然电化学双电层电容具有优越的功率密度和充放电稳定性，然而，它具有能量密度较低的缺点。电化学赝电容，和锂离子电池类似，是通过电池材料上的活性物质表面的可逆氧化还原反应产生的化学能来将电能存贮和释放的，因此具有较高的能量密度。这类活性材料主要包括过渡金属氧化物和导电高分子材料。但是由于存在氧化还原反应，赝电容和锂离子电池一样，其功率密度和充放电稳定性不高。综上所述，获得具有电化学双电层电容和电化学赝电容两者优点的超级电容器——既具有较高功率密度，又有较高能量密度——已成为研究人员的共识。目前电极材料的研究热点主要是石墨烯等导电碳材料和导电高分子材料与具有较高电化学赝电容的过渡金属氧化物等材料的复合 。有研究人员提出建立所谓“纳米复合超级电容器”的概念，这种复合超级电容器的正负电极材料是将钛酸锂等锂离子电池材料嵌入到活性炭或其他碳材料模板中 。这样既克服了超级电容器能量密度低的缺陷，又保证了电化学双电层电容较高的功率密度的优点。超级电容器的研究除了获得具有优异的电化学性能之外，在实际生产应用中成本的降低也是重要的目标之一。柔性电子技术，作为一种新兴电子技术，极大地降低了电子器件的制造成本，并将带来一场电子革命。手机、可穿戴电子设备和电子屏等器件的柔性化将成为未来发展的趋势，而柔性超级电容器作为一种柔性的电能贮存器件，也将拥有广阔的市场需求。柔性超级电容器不仅仅要求电极材料本身具有优越的电化学性能，也要能够与柔性材料结合成具有高柔性的电极。目前研究较多的柔性材料包括金属（包括铝、铜、钛等）、碳材料（包括石墨烯、碳纳米管、碳纤维等）、织物（包括纤维、棉花和涤纶）、导电高分子等材料 。而如何在柔性基底上获得较高的电容特性，仍须继续深入研究。目前，超级电容器所具备的性能，不管是电化学性能还是成本控制，暂时都还不能达到人们的期望。因此，关于超级电容器的研究仍将继续，而对超级电容器能量存贮机理的深入探析与理解，以及各种新型材料的研发与问世，将大大促进高性能超级电容器的发展，最终使之成为实用化、低成本、高性能的新能源产品。 参考文献 Salunkhe R R, Lee Y H, Chang K H, et al. Nanoarchitectured Graphene-Based Supercapacitors for Next- Generation Energy- Storage Applications . Chemistry-A European Journal,2014, 20: 13838-13852. . Naoi K, Naoi W, Aoyagi S, et al. New Generation “Nanohybrid Supercapacitor” . Accounts of Chemical Research, 2013, 46(5): 1075-1083. . Dubal D P, Kim J G, Kim Y, et al. Supercapacitors Based on Flexible Substrates: An Overview . Energy Technology, 2014, 2: 325-341. . 文/邹飞，周海涛 （编辑 王丽娜）
标签: 联合国
