What behind in the fractal current sheet region? 磁湍流精细拓扑结构演化不仅是随尺度降低拓扑结构满足分形规律这样简单——电流片主x点附近，等离子体运动将不再稳定流动。 e.g 扰动-湍流发育-湍流充分过程算例 1. Gif format file for macro-global scale turbulent magnetic topological structure evolution process: http://ddl.escience.cn/f/yDiB 2. Gif format file for micro-local scale turbulent magnetic fine topological structure evolution process: http://ddl.escience.cn/f/yDiV 3. General relationship between particle (e.g electron) flows, magnetic flux and Reconnection strucrure (Diffusion+separatrix regions) http://ddl.escience.cn/f/yDjg Relationship between the macro-global scale and micro-local scale: 1/4
Well, I don't need to be reminded where I am, but I am, constantly. The internet is testing my patient, and the 2G pretends to be 4G on my new cell (with four dots for the availability). I know I can't watch any YouTube clips, but I forgot google takes me nowhere. Are all these really man-made, or men not doing enough to put us in the 21st century? ps. LH, I know what you would say, but I couldn't help myself.
Behind palaeobotany Natural history http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history For other uses, see Natural history (disambiguation) . Naturalistredirects here. For other uses, see Naturalist (disambiguation) . Natural history is the research and study of organisms including plants or animals in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it,with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals . Grouped among the natural sciences , natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a very broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. So while natural history dates historically from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world , through to the scattered European Renaissance scientists working in near isolation, today's field is more of a cross discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists and scientific knowledge of many specialty sciences. A person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. ========================= Definitions Historical: The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis . Its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened (see also History below).In antiquity , it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elder 's encyclopedia of this title , published circa 77 to 79 AD,covers astronomy , geography , man and his technology , medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Until well into the nineteenth century, knowledge was considered by Europeans to have two main divisions: the humanities (including theology ),and studies of nature. Studies of nature could in turn be divided, with natural history being the descriptive counterpart to natural philosophy , the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry ,while natural history included the biological and geological sciences.The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the gentleman scientists , many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional science society meetings such as the RoyalSociety and the French Academy of Sciences – bothf ounded during the seventeenth century. Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits. Modern: Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field,creating a plurality of definitions with a number of common themes among them.For example, while natural history is most often defined as a type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed. Modern definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by Marston Bates: Natural history is the study of animals and Plants - of organisms. ... I like to think, then,of natural history as the study of life at the level of the individual - of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment,how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities and this more recent definition by D.S.Wilcove and T. Eisner: The close observation of organisms—their origins,their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species. This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environment, both past and present,such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: A student of natural history, or anaturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: Descriptive ecology and ethology. Recently, several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field as the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component, and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy. These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the Patient interrogation of a landscape while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo. A slightly different, but equally expansive framework for natural history is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading natural history museums , which often include elements of Anthropology, Geology, Paleontology and Astronomy along with Botany and Zoology, or include both cultural and natural components of the world. The plurality of definitions for this field has recently been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a range of definitions have recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history. ================= History Ancient times: Natural history begins with Aristotle and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world.Natural history, as a discipline, had existed since classical times, and fifteenth-century Europeans were very familiar with Pliny the Elder's Historia Naturalis . From the ancient Greeks until the work of Carolus Linnaeus (also known as Carl Linnaeus, or Carl von Linné) and other 18th century naturalists, the main concept of natural history was the scalanaturae or Great Chain of Being , a conceptual arrangementof minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex lifeforms on a linear scale of increasing perfection, culminating in our species. Natural history was understood by Pliny the Elder to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology,astronomy, technology, art and man. Dioscorides ' De Materia Medica is often said to be the oldest and most valuable work in the early history of botany. A Greek manuscript of Aristotle's Biological Works , written in Constantinople in the mid-9th century, and preserved at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, is probably the oldest surviving manuscript of biological texts. Medieval: While natural history was basically static in medieval Europe, it continued to be developed by Arabic scholars during the Arab Agricultural Revolution. Al-Jahiz described early natural history ideas such as the struggle for existence ( Malthus ' phrase), and the idea of a food chain . He was an early adherent of environmental determinism . Al-Dinawari is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants , in which he described at least 637 plants and discussed plant development from germination (sprouting) to death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit. Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati developed an early scientific method for botany, introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica , and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations. His student Ibnal-Baitar wrote a pharmaceutical encyclopedia describing 1,400 plants, foods , and drugs , 300 of which were his own original discoveries. A Latin translation of his work was useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries. Earth sciences such as geology were also studied extensively by Arabic geologists , but by Avicenna's time, around 1000, the Arab Empire was in decline and scientists were not free to publish their ideas. From the 13th century, the work of Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into Christian philosophy , particularly by Thomas Aquinas , forming the basis for natural theology . During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists,particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual monsters. Andrea Cesalpino was the creator of one of the first herbaria and the inventor of botanical systematics. Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with Otto Brunfels and Hieronymus Bock . Other important contributors to the field were Valerius Cordus , Konrad Gesner ( Historiae animalium ), Frederik Ruysch , or Gaspard Bauhin . The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into taxonomic groups , culminating in the system ofthe Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus . Birth of scientific biology: A significant contribution to English natural history was made by parson-naturalists such as Gilbert White , William Kirby , John George Wood , and John Ray , who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. In modern Europe ,professional disciplines such as physiology ,botany, zoology ,geology, and palaeontology were formed. Natural history ,formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an amateur activity, rather than a part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland it was believed that the study of natural history contributed to good mental health. Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the study of birds , butterflies, seashells ( malacology / conchology ),beetles and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until the modern evolutionary synthesis ).Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving livingo rganisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that supportthem), ethology (the scientific study of animal behavior), and evolutionary biology (the study of the relationships between life-forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology. Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world's large natural history collections, such as the Natural History Museum, London , andthe National Museum of Natural History in Washington D.C. Three of the greatest English naturalists of the nineteenth century, Henry Walter Bates , Charles Darwin , and Alfred Russel Wallace —who all knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of remote parts of the world—the Amazon basin , the Galapagos islands , and the Malay archipelago , among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory based science. ================== Museums Further information: List of natural history museums Natural history museums , which evolved from cabinets of curiosities , played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own morphological research. Societies The term natural history alone, or sometimes together with archeology, forms the name of many national, regional and local natural history societies that maintain records for birds (ornithology), mammals (mammalogy), insects ( entomology ), fungi ( mycology ) and plants (botany). They may also have microscopical and geological sections. Examples of these societies in Britain include the Natural History Society of Northumbria founded in 1829, British Entomological and Natural History Society founded in 1872, Birmingham Natural History Society, Glasgow Natural History Society, London Natural History Society founded in 1858, Manchester Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880, Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society , Sheffield , founded in 1918. The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many civil servants took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in Britain .(See also Indian natural history ) ------------------ See also Timeline of zoology Timeline of entomology Timeline of ornithology Evolutionary history of life and Prehistoric life Nature documentary Nature study and Nature writing ( Natural science ) Russian naturalists Nature : Natural environment and Natural landscape Timeline of natural history , Timeline of evolution , and Natural philosophy Big History and Naturalism (philosophy) Terra: The Nature of Our World (video podcast) ================= References 1. Jump up ^ NaturalHistory WordNet Search, princeton.edu. 2. Jump up ^ Brown,Lesley (1993), The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historicalprinciples , Oxford : Clarendon, ISBN 0-19-861271-0 3. Jump up ^ Koerner,Lisbet (1999). Linnaeus: Nature and Nation . Harvard: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-09745-2 . 4. Jump up ^ Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, Natural order:historical studies of scientific culture, Sage, 1979. 5. Jump up ^ Thomas Lowe Fleischner, The Way of Natural History ,Trinity University Press, 2011. 6. Jump up ^ Marston Bates, The nature of natural history ,Scribners, 1954. 7. Jump up ^ D. S Wilcove and T. Eisner, The impending extinctionof natural history, Chronicle of Higher Education 15 (2000): B24 8. Jump up ^ H. W. Greene and J. B. Losos, Systematics,Natural-History, and Conservation - Field Biologists Must Fight a Public-ImageProblem, Bioscience 38 (1988): 458-462 9. Jump up ^ G. A. Bartholomew, The Role of Natural History inContemporary Biology, Bioscience 36 (1986): 324-329 Jump up ^ H.W. Greene, Organisms in nature as a central focus for biology, Trends in Ecology Evolution 20 (2005):23-27 Jump up ^ S. G Herman, “Wildlife biology and natural history: time for a reunion, The Journal of wildlife management 66, no. 4 (2002): 933–946 Jump up ^ T. L. Fleischner, Natural history and the spiral of offering, Wild Earth 11, no. 3/4 (2002): 10–13 Jump up ^ Barry Lopez, Arctic Dreams , Vintage, 1986. Jump up ^ American Museum of Natural History, Mission Statement, http://www.amnh.org/about/ Jump up ^ Field Museum, Mission Statement, http://fieldmuseum.org/about/mission Jump up ^ The Natural History Museum, Mission Statement, http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/index.html Jump up ^ National Natural History Museum of Chile , Mission Statement, http://www.dibam.cl/historia_natural/contenido.asp?id_contenido=277id_submenu=650id_menu=43 Jump up ^ http://declinetorebirth.org/conversations/an-accepted-way-of-viewing-art Jump up ^ http://declinetorebirth.org/ Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder (2004). Natural History: A Selection . Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044413-1 . Jump up ^ Gulsel M. Kavalali (2003). Urtica: therapeutic and nutritional aspects of stinging nettles . CRC Press . p.15. ISBN 0-415-30833-X ^ Jump up to: a b c Natural History Timeline . HistoryofScience.com. Jump up ^ Conway Zirkle (1941), Natural Selection before the Origin of Species, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1): 71-123. Jump up ^ Frank N. Egerton, A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological, Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America , April 2002: 142-146 Jump up ^ Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 25 (3), pp. 268-307 . Jump up ^ Fahd, Toufic, Botany and agriculture, p. 815 , in Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3 , Routledge , ISBN 0-415-12410-7 Jump up ^ Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West , Cambridge University Press , pp. 813–852, ISBN 0-521-52994-8 Jump up ^ Diane Boulanger (2002), The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology, OISE Papers , in STSE Education , Vol. 3. Jump up ^ Richard Myers (2003). The Basics of Chemistry . Greenwood Publishing Group . p.13. ISBN 0-313-31664-3 Jump up ^ Patrick Armstrong (2000). The English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion . Gracewing Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85244-516-7 . Retrieved 31 March 2013. Jump up ^ Diarmid A. Finnegan (2008), 'An aid to mental health': natural history, alienists and therapeutics in Victorian Scotland, Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 39 (3): 326–337, doi : 10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.06.006 , PMID 18761284 =================== Further reading Allen, David Elliston (1994), The Naturalist in Britain: a social history , New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 270, ISBN 0-691-03632-2 Liu, Huajie (2012), Living as a Naturalist , Beijing: Peking University Press, p. 363, ISBN 978-7-301-19788-2 Peter Anstey (2011), Two Forms of Natural History , Early Modern Experimental Philosophy . Atran, Scott (1990), Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science , Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 376, ISBN 978-0-521-43871-1 Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000), Finding Order in Nature: The Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson . Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore. Kohler, Robert E. (2002), Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology . University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Mayr, Ernst. (1982), The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance . The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts. Rainger, Ronald; Keith R. Benson; and Jane Maienschein (eds) (1988), The American Development of Biology . University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia.
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