http://www.nltk.org/book/ Natural Language Processing with Python – Analyzing Text with the Natural Language Toolkit Steven Bird, Ewan Klein, and Edward Loper This version of the NLTK book is updated for Python 3 and NLTK 3. The first edition of the book, published by O'Reilly, is available at http://nltk.org/book_1ed/ . (There are currently no plans for a second edition of the book.) 0. Preface 1. Language Processing and Python 2. Accessing Text Corpora and Lexical Resources 3. Processing Raw Text 4. Writing Structured Programs 5. Categorizing and Tagging Words (minor fixes still required) 6. Learning to Classify Text 7. Extracting Information from Text 8. Analyzing Sentence Structure 9. Building Feature Based Grammars 10. Analyzing the Meaning of Sentences (minor fixes still required) 11. Managing Linguistic Data (minor fixes still required) 12. Afterword: Facing the Language Challenge Bibliography Term Index
Simulated nitrogen deposition significantly reduces soil respiration in an evergreen broadleaf forest in western China Shixing Zhou, Yuanbin Xiang, Liehua Tie, Bohan Han, Congde Huang https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204661 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327920145 Abstract Soil respiration is the second largest terrestrial carbon (C) flux; the responses of soil respiration to nitrogen (N) deposition have far-reaching influences on the global C cycle. N deposition has been documented to significantly affect soil respiration, but the results are conflicting. The response of soil respiration to N deposition gradients remains unclear, especially in ecosystems receiving increasing ambient N depositions. A field experiment was conducted in a natural evergreen broadleaf forest in western China from November 2013 to November 2015 to understand the effects of increasing N deposition on soil respiration. Four levels of N deposition were investigated: control (Ctr, without N added), low N (L, 50 kg N ha −1 ·a −1 ), medium N (M, 150 kg N ha −1 ·a −1 ), and high N (H, 300 kg N ha −1 ·a −1 ). The results show that (1) the mean soil respiration rates in the L, M, and H treatments were 9.13%, 15.8% ( P 0.05) and 22.57% ( P 0.05) lower than that in the Ctr treatment (1.56 ± 0.13 μmol·m −2 ·s −1 ), respectively; (2) soil respiration rates showed significant positive exponential and linear relationships with soil temperature and moisture ( P 0.01), respectively. Soil temperature is more important than soil moisture in controlling the soil respiration rate; (3) the Ctr, L, M, and H treatments yielded Q 10 values of 2.98, 2.78, 2.65, and 2.63, respectively. N deposition decreased the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration; (4) simulated N deposition also significantly decreased the microbial biomass C and N, fine root biomass, pH and extractable dissolved organic C ( P 0.05). Overall, the results suggest that soil respiration declines in response to N deposition. The decrease in soil respiration caused by simulated N deposition may occur through decreasing the microbial biomass C and N, fine root biomass, pH and extractable dissolved organic C. Ongoing N deposition may have significant impacts on C cycles and increase C sequestration with the increase in global temperature in evergreen broadleaf forests.
研读 Natural Language Engineering（自然语言工程） 它为何可以成为SSCI和SCI以及AHCI三检索期刊？ 这个问题值得思考。 附录： Get access Contains open access ISSN: 1351-3249 (Print) , 1469-8110 (Online) Editor: Professor Ruslan Mitkov University of Wolverhampton, UK Editorial board Natural Language Engineering meets the needs of professionals and researchers working in all areas of automatic language processing, whether from the perspective of theoretical or corpus linguistics, translation, lexicography, computer science or engineering. Its aim is to bridge the gap between traditional computational linguistics research and the implementation of practical applications with potential real-world use. As well as publishing original research articles on a broad range of topics - from text analysis, machine translation, information retrieval, speech processing and generation to integrated systems and multi-modal interfaces - it also publishes special issues on specific natural language processing methods, tasks or applications. The journal welcomes survey papers describing the state of the art on a specific topic. Natural Language Engineering also publishes the popular Industry Watch and Emerging Trends columns as well as book reviews. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/natural-language-engineering
我所知道的美国克利夫兰自然历史博物馆 English introduction: Founded in 1920 the Cleveland Museum of Natural History (CMNH) is located in the university circle of Cleveland, Ohio. More than 5 million specimens and artifacts with the increasing amount of fossil plants and pollen micro-slides are housed in the research-oriented Museum, which has become one of the top 10 natural history museums in the United States. It is believed that CMNH serves as important facility for paleobotanical studies in the States. The founder and first curator of the Museum’s Department of Paleobotany is Dr. Shya Chitaley (1918--2013), Indian American paleobotanist, who was considered to be a third-generation member of Albert Charles Seward(1863--1941) academic family. Perhaps few young students know that Shya Chitaley studied with Thomas Maxwell Harris (FRS, 1903--1983) in the University of Reading (UK) in the early 1950s. After Dr. Shya Chitaley worked as a professional paleobotanist in India for about 30 years, she got retired and then moved to Cleveland, Ohio in 1978. Two years later, Shya initiated her second paleobotanical career in CMNH at age of 62. It seems quite uncommon that Shya worked in Cleveland for 30 years and made great contribution to the rapid emergence of CMNH paleobotany. In 2011, Dr. Shya Chitaley got retired for the second time at age of 93! 位于美国俄亥俄州东北部的克利夫兰自然历史博物馆 (The Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland,Ohio ) 是北美地区很知名的自然历史博物馆之一。它是俄亥俄州最大的自然历史博物馆，也是美国古植物学研究的重要平台。 Fig.1. 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆 (Photo credit: cited from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History ) ∮ 1 地理位置和人文环境 克利夫兰市位于美国俄亥俄州东北部，坐落在伊利湖 ( Lake Erie )南岸 ，它是 Cuyahoga County之县府所在地。该市设立于1796年，制造业发达。2013年人口统计数字为39万多人，在全美国位居第48，而在 俄亥俄州位居第 2 。 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆地处该市中心以东 8 公里的大学城。 教育机构包括：西方储备大学（ Case Western Reserve University ） , 克利夫兰州立大学 ，克利夫兰艺术学院（ Cleveland Institute of Art ）， 克利夫兰音乐学院（ Cleveland Institute of Music ），Cuyahoga社区学院（ Cuyahoga Community College ）等。其中， 西方储备大学（ Case Western Reserve University ）是非常著名的研究型私立大学。 另外， Ohio Technical College（ 俄亥俄理工学院 ）也在 克利夫兰。 ∮ 2 立馆使命和基本 概况 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆建立于 1920 年。经过约一个世纪的发展，该馆成为集科学研究、科普教育和标本展示为一体的综合博物馆。克利夫兰自然历史博物馆的使命是：“通过科研和教育激发人们热爱自然、保护自然多样性、酿造健康生活和培养引领可持续性未来的帅才。”（ Mission statement: To inspire, through science and education, a passion for nature, the protection of natural diversity, the fostering of health and leadership to a sustainable future. ） 目前，克利夫兰自然历史博物馆收藏各类标本达 5 00 多万件，涵盖古生物学、动物学、考古学、矿物学、鸟类学等学科。像世界上的大多数自然历史博物馆一样，克利夫兰自然历史博物馆的硬件条件包括动植物、矿物、古生物化石等展厅楼以及一个天文馆 ( Shafran Planetarium ) 。除此之外， 克利夫兰自然史博物馆还拥有 5,400 英亩（ acres ）（ =2,186 公顷）的自然保护地（ Natural Areas ）。这片保护地用于科研的野外示范实验室“ model scientific field laboratories ” ，让科研人员在人类活动影响较少的环境中开展长期研究。为此， 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆设立了“ 自然保护地管理部”（ Natural Areas Division ）和“保护区与生物多样性中心” (The Center for Conservation Biodiversity ）。 Fig.2. 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆的自然保护区 (Photo credit: cited from https://wwwNaNnh.org/discover/nature/Natural-Areas-Program ) 针对馆藏标本和研究工作的需要，克利夫兰自然历史博物馆设立了多个研究单元，包括：考古学、植物学、无脊椎动物化石、矿物学、鸟类学、古植物和古生态学等【 Archaeology, Botany, Human Health EvolutionaryMedicine, Invertebrate Paleontology, Invertebrate Zoology, Kirtlandia ResearchInternship Program, Library Archives, Mineralogy, Ornithology,Paleobotany Paleoecology, Physical Anthropology, Vertebrate Paleontology Vertebrate Zoology 】。参见： https://wwwNaNnh.org/c-r/ ∮ 3 古植物学和古生态学 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆的古植物学事业的开拓者是富有传奇色彩的美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley （ 1918--2013 ）。 Chitaley 博士在该馆创建了古植物学研究部 (Department of Paleobotany)。 从学术谱系角度说， Shya Chitaley 属于 “ Seward 学术家族 ” 的第 3 代成员【注：作者这一代系第 5 代成员】。 1952—1955 年， Shya Chitaley 在英国雷丁大学 (The University of Reading) 植物系跟随国际著名古植物学家 Tom Harris 教授 (FRS, 1903--1983) 学习，专攻古植物学。 1955 年， Shya Chitaley 从雷丁大学获得博士学位，返回印度工作。 1978 年， Shya Chitaley 教授在印度结束了她的第一个古植物学职业生涯，退休后移居美国。 1980 年，时年 62 岁的 Shya 在克利夫兰自然历史博物馆 (Cleveland Museumof Natural History) 开启了她的第 2 个古植物学职业生涯。 Shya Chitaley 博士在该馆连续工作了 31 年，于 2011 年初第 2 次退休！ Fig. 3 . 美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley （ 1918--2013 ） (Photo credit: citedfrom http://www.ncfclub.org/shya.html ) 目前，克利夫兰自然历史博物馆设立了“古植物和古生态研究部” ( Department of Paleobotany and Paleoecology) 。该馆收藏以下标本 : （ 1 ） 植物大化石标本（ Paleobotany Collection ） 计有 3 万多份。其中， “ Hoskins Collection ” 由辛辛那提大学馈赠； “ Chitaley Collection ” 为 Shya Chitaley 一生在印度和美国采集的标本； “ I-71 Collection ” 是 20 世纪 60 年代修建 71 号公路时采集的泥盆纪标本； “ Romans Collection ” 由 Robert C. Romans 馈赠【注： Romans 供职于 Bowling Green State University— 生物系】。 (2) 孢粉标本（ Pollen Collection ） 计有 3 万 5 千多份。其中， “ Livingstone Pollen Collection ” 由 Dr.Daniel Livingstone 馈赠； “ Chitaley Pollen Collection ” 为 Shya Chitaley 的科学遗产。 (3 ) 撕片（ Peels Collection ） 共有 4000 多张煤核的撕片（ cellulose acetate peels from coal balls ）。 (4 ) 教学标本（ Teaching Collection ） 计有 400 多块植物大化石标本和 300 多张孢粉片子，可以借给幼儿园 — 高中（ K-12 ）教师用于教学。参见： https://wwwNaNnh.org/c-r/paleobotany-paleoecology https://wwwNaNnh.org/paleobotany-paleoecology/collection-database -------------------------- Qigao sun (孙启高 2015年11月29日初步整理) Story of Paleobotany Series (No.412) Umbrella of American paleobotany-164 博物馆与古植物学 (Museum Paleobotany) 29 SPS-Museum and Palaeobotany-10th ed.pdf ==================== 相关阅读： Cleveland city, Ohio, USA https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland The Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Ohio https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History https://wwwNaNnh.org/about-the-museum/history https://wwwNaNnh.org/education https://wwwNaNnh.org/Nature-Wildlife https://wwwNaNnh.org/discover/nature/Natural-Areas-Program Lake Erie( 伊利 湖 ) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Erie 美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley （ 1918--2013 ） http://www.ncfclub.org/shya.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shya_Chitaley Umbrella of American palaeobotany— 54 : 古植物学的故事 201 期 Story of PalaeobotanySeries (No.201) 美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley （ 1918--2013 ）活了两辈子 American-Indian palaeobotanist Shya Chitaley (1918--2013) built her palaeobotanical careers twice: one in Indian and the other in the USA http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-735861.html 2013-10-25 02:37 古植物学的故事 240 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.240) Seward umbrella of world palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-845010.html 2014-11-2100:13 《古植物学的故事》（ 88） 英国古植物学的传承 (3): 名师T.M. Harris教授 Story of Palaeobotany Series (88): An interesting palaeobotanical lineage in the UK(Part III)-- Thomas Maxwell Harris (FRS, 1903---1983 ) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-399059.html 发表于 2010-12-30 12:29:29 《古植物学的故事》（ 87 ） 英国古植物学的传承 (2): 一代宗师 SirAlbert Charles Seward Story of Palaeobotany Series (87): An interesting palaeobotanical lineage in the UK(Part II)-- Sir Albert CharlesSeward (FRS, 1863--1941 ) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-398913.html 发表于 2010-12-30 0:34:38 --------------------------- Umbrella of American palaeobotany— 51 : 古植物学的故事 (169 期 ) 美国古植物学家 John HobartHoskins （ 1896---1957 ） Storyof Palaeobotany Series (169): Distinguishedpalaeobotanist John Hobart Hoskins （ 1896---1957 http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-591902.html http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=591902 2012-7-1322:27 古植物学的故事 372期 Storyof Paleobotany Series (No.372) 尊重自然历史尊重学术历史 铁打的营盘 VS 流水的兵 : Paleobotanyvs Paleobotanist http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-903352.html 2015-7-6 22:06 古植物学的故事 228 期 Storyof Palaeobotany Series (No.228) Umbrella ofAmerican palaeobotany--1: An unfinished list of American palaeobotanists http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-826366.html 2014-9-1005:45 古植物学的故事 370期 Storyof Paleobotany Series (No.370) Umbrellaof American paleobotany-129- Open the Umbrella of Americanpaleobotany -- 撑开美国古植物学之伞 http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-901814.html 2015-7-1 00:02 ========================================= (9 th Edition) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-769047.html 2014-2-20 05:26 2014 年 2 月 19 日 --------------------------------- 古植物学的故事 324 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.324) Umbrella of American palaeobotany—88: 我所知道的美国芝加哥菲尔德自然历史博物馆 http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-877553.html 2015-3-27 00:07 PalaeobotanyTragedy 古植物学悲剧 6 古植物学的故事 316 期 Storyof Palaeobotany Series (No.316) 朱为庆和他的植物演化展览室 ZhuWeiqing （ 1933-- ） and his Palaeobotany Museum inBeijing http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-871984.html 2015-3-500:25 古植物学的故事 224 期 Storyof Palaeobotany Series (No.224) 古植物学悲剧与奢望 (4) ： Palaeobotanical Tragedies and AudaciousHopes (4) Lovelybut Lost mini-Museum of Fossil Plants in Beijing, P.R. China 北京一个永远消失的植物演化展览室 http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-810176.html 2014-7-8 23:58 古植物学的故事 223 期 未来内蒙古自治区自然历史博物馆及古植物学 FutureNatural History Museum of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in Huhehot and palaeobotany (outline) FutureNHM of Inner Mongolia (Huhehot) and palaeobotany (outline) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-806315.html 2014-6-25 04:43 古植物学的故事 221 期 未来新疆自然历史博物馆及古植物学 FutureNHM of Xinjiang and palaeobotany (outline) FutureNatural History Museum of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and palaeobotany(outline) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-804894.html 2014-6-2005:24 古植物学的故事 220 期 未来云南自然历史博物馆及古植物学 FutureNHM of Yunnan and palaeobotany (outline) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-804546.html 2014-6-1901:12 古植物学的故事 215 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.215) 未来西藏自治区自然科学博物馆的古植物学挑战 Futuremuseum of natural science of Tibet and palaeobotanical challenge http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-791069.html 2014-5-401:36 古植物学的故事 214 期 广西自然博物馆的古植物学研究方兴未艾 Thebrilliant future of palaeobotany of the Natural History of Museum of Guangxi,China (in Chinese) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-790513.html 2014-5-203:37 古植物学的故事 213 期 愿天津自然博物馆为中国古植物学撑起一片蓝天！ MayTianjin Natural History Museum become one of great platforms for Chinesepalaeobotany! http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-790248.html 2014-4-3023:28 古植物学的故事 212 期 对上海自然博物馆的古植物学奢望 Mywild palaeobotany wish to Shanghai Natural History Museum http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-789595.html 2014-4-2903:36 古植物学的故事 211 期 北京自然博物 馆 的古植物学使命 Palaeobotanical mission of Beijing Museum ofNatural History http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-786634.html 2014-4-2003:55 ------------------------- 11. 北京大学不需要一流的自然历史博物馆吗？ http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-765165.html 2014-2-7 07:33 10. 中国国家自然历史博物馆烧钱吗？ Will the National Museum ofNatural History of China need tons of dollars http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-765151.html 2014-2-702:44 9. 关于建设中国国家自然历史博物馆的路径问题 Possible paths to the successfulestablishment of the National Museum of Natural History of China http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-764592.html 2014-2-5 08:39 8. 为什么中国国家自然历史博物馆一直处于难产状态？ Why does the pending project for foundingthe National Museum of Natural History of China have long-term adversity likehorrible dystocia? http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-763599.html 2014-1-3108:03 刘海涛 :难产的国家自然博物馆 出处： http://www.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=6731k_author = 作者： 刘海涛 发布时间： 2002-07-15 15:14:30 转载： http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=563215 2012-4-2422:28 7 . 中国博物馆行业管理的主要公权机关 The main authorities for the administration of various museums in China http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-761114.html 2014-1-22 00:51 6. 国立中央研究院自然历史博物馆之名称仍然很响亮！ An overview of the National Museum of Natural History ofAcademia Sinica http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-760328.html 2014-1-19 01:13 5. 建设中国国家自然历史博物馆涉及诸多部门的法律或法规 The establishment and development of the future NationalMuseum of Natural History of China and some laws or regulations adopted bydifferent departments of Chinese government http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-757269.html 2014-1-9 01:12 4. 中国国家自然历史博物馆的使命 The missions of the National Museum of Natural History of China http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-754359.html 2013-12-31 05:13 2013-12-31 05:13 3. 中国生物和地球科学标本收藏概览 An overview of the life and earth science collections in China http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-752597.html 2013-12-2500:11 2. 与古植物学无关的中国国家博物馆 NationalMuseum of China (NMC) unrelated to palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-752067.html 2013-12-23 05:34 1. 北京自然博物馆主楼与标牌 The Main building and sign of Beijing Museum of NaturalHistory http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-737907.html 2013-11-1 00:09 ===========================
Journal of natural history是个双月刊，以为在这个杂志上投稿可能会比较快一些，结果令我大跌眼镜，我们的一篇蜚蠊分类的文章，历时一年多才在线发表，编辑不是太给力！不过好在虽然没有收版面费，但杂志还是给了一个免费下载的链接。 http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/gXVDBbiWznheSYC4hwSH/full
To NSFC: On funding Chinese palaeobotany How should the National Natural Science Foundation of China grant palaeobotany? 中国国家自然科学基金委员会该如何资助古植物学项目？ 孙启高 2014 年 4 月 23 日初稿， 6 月 20 日修改于Amherst, MA 古植物学 (Palaeobotany) 具有鲜明的跨学科特点，它既是古生物学的一个分支，又是植物学的一个分支。中国国家自然科学基金委员会地球科学部和生命科学部均接受古植物学的项目申请，国际合作局和中德科学中心也接受古植物学的相关项目申请。 20 多年来的实践表明：中国国家自然科学基金委员会为发展中国古植物学研究事业做出了重要贡献。考虑到欧美古植物学发展的历史经验，针对中国古植物学当前所面临的现实情况，我认为，在今后相当长的历史时期里 中国国家自然科学基金委员会有必要在国家层面通过项目资助方式逐步提升 中国古植物学的综合实力和整体水平。 一、核心价值 坚持公开、公平和公正的项目评审原则； 遵循中国《古生物化石保护条例》和《古生物化石保护条例实施办法》； 增强中国古植物学从业人员的职业操守； 培养青年学生的科学精神和专业精神。 二、国家利益 促进中国古植物学研究国家体系建设； 促进中国古植物学实现全面崛起。 三、如何资助 3-1 将植物化石标本采集、保存技术和平台建设等工作纳入资助范围； 3-2 将植物化石的馆藏条件纳入项目评议之基本内容； 3-3 优先支持植物化石馆藏条件好、且研究基础好的自然历史博物馆系统的古植物学研究人员或团队； 3-4 支持拥有自然历史博物馆或标本馆等良好馆藏条件的综合性大学及其古植物学研究人员或团队； 3-5 支持拥有自然历史博物馆或标本馆等良好馆藏条件的科研院所及其古植物学研究人员或团队； 3-6 对于植物化石标本馆藏条件差、标本管理差、或学术信用不良的学术机构和个人不予资助。 四、理由陈述 古植物学的研究对象是地质历史时期的植物化石（包括孢子与花粉）。古植物学具有鲜明的跨学科特点，它是植物学、地质学、生态学和博物馆研究之间的相互交叉、相互渗透的活跃领域。古植物学属于纯粹的自然历史，不仅具有学术理论价值，而且具有实践应用价值和社会服务作用。 针对古植物学的跨学科特点，欧美诸国在漫长的古植物学发展过程，逐步建立了符合古植物学自身发展规律的研究体制和维系模式。自然历史博物馆成为古植物学坚实稳固的研究平台。美国古植物学的研究力量主要分布在高水平的研究型博物馆，如：位于美国首都华盛顿的史密松国立自然历史博物馆。美国一些大学的古植物学研究也“博物馆化”，即在大学所属博物馆进行，如：耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆、佛罗里达大学自然历史博物馆等，从而构成了美国古植物学研究的国家体系或研究平台。 在尖锐对抗的国际冷战大环境下，在复杂多变的国内政治运动中，在中国特色的社会主义计划经济条件下，中国古植物学研究力量的分布格局初步形成于 20 世纪 50 年代初至 70 年代末，在整体上并没有依托自然历史博物馆之平台。符合世界古植物学历史发展潮流的中国古植物学研究国家体系还没有完全建立起来。 近 30 年来，中国古植物学在外部面临着社会快速转型的严峻挑战，在内部面临着学术思想、学术道路和学术体制的多重阻碍。许多研究者和机构面临着生存危机，在改革大潮中、在社会转型中不得不走上自生自灭的发展道路，不得不演绎“树倒猢狲散”的古植物学悲剧。 通过对中国古植物学研究力量的分布格局进行历史透视，我们认为，中国的自然历史博物馆在总体上还没有对中国古植物学的本土化和国际化发挥应有的作用，还没有在中国古植物学研究国家体系建设中承担中流砥柱的作用。我们可以肯定，如果没有自然历史博物馆的有力支撑，中国古植物学无法稳定持续发展，无法实现全面崛起之学术使命，中国古植物学的未来也不可能有光明的前途。 五、相关阅读 《 古生物化石保护条例》已经 2010 年 8 月 25 日国务院第 123 次常务会议通过，现予公布，自 2011 年 1 月 1 日起施行。 http://wap.mlr.gov.cn/dzhj/gswhs/zcfg/fgwj/201109/t20110929_972323.htm 《古生物化石保护条例实施办法》已经 2012 年 12 月 11 日国土资源部第 4 次部务会议通过，现予以发布，自 2013 年 3 月 1 日起施行。 http://wap.mlr.gov.cn/dzhj/gswhs/zcfg/fgwj/201301/t20130114_1174795.htm (7th Edition) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-769047.html 古植物学基金会工作目录（第 1 辑） Foundation of palaeobotany catalogue (1st ed.) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-764558.html 古植物学的故事 217 期 Storyof Palaeobotany Series (No.217) 影响中国植物化石（或古植物学）命运的人和法 The persons and laws related to the fate of Chinese fossil plants or palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-798196.html 2014-5-2800:19 ------------------------------- 本期编目 古植物学的故事 222 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.222) 古植物学基金会系列 (5) Foundation of Palaeobotany Series (5) To NSFC: On funding Chinese palaeobotany How should the National Natural Science Foundation of China grant palaeobotany? 中国国家自然科学基金委员会该如何资助古植物学项目？ http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-805195.html 2014-6-21 01:13
快放暑假了,有大一大二的学生给我打电话,说暑假想到我实验室参与实验, 我想学生能学到什么呢,如果能学到下列招聘要求所需要的技能就达到目标了。 Responsibilities and Duties: Extract, perform pre-fractionation of extracts and prepare samples for various bioassays. Conduct bioassay-guided fractionation of crude extracts to isolate and identify active fractions. Participate in the development of processes for the isolation, separation and purification of targeted compounds from various microbial and plant sources. Continue fractionation and isolation studies until a single active compound or component is present. Able to accurately use standard laboratory equipment (e.g., balances, pipettes, centrifuges, etc.). Develop analytical method in order to efficiently optimize pipeline and developing products using HPLC, LCMS. Ability to design and independently perform tasks and provide accurate results. Effectively plans work schedule and able to utilize resources for timely completion of assigned projects. Document and maintain legible, accurate, and complete laboratory records. Trains, mentors, and assists less experienced staff. Maintains a clean and safe laboratory work environment. Assists in writing reports and protocols, including SOPs and methods. Effectively organize, prioritize and follow-up on work assignments. Ability to understand a variety of instructions furnished in written, oral, diagram, or schedule form. Ability to multi-task and work in a fast paced environment. Promotes a cohesive team environment. Work independently and as a member of a team. Establish and maintain effective working relationships Other duties as assigned. Qualifications: A successful candidate has a B.S. in Chemistry, Biochemistry, or Analytical Chemistry with preferably 1-3 years of work experience with a basic understanding of Natural Products Chemistry. Essential experience with relevant separation methods, including centrifugation, liquid-liquid and solid-liquid extractions, fractionation, chromatography (Column chromatography, preparative HPLC). The candidate is expected to have good organizational and record keeping skills and the ability to work effectively in a multi-project team-focused environment and to collaborate with colleagues to achieve goals. Specific experience in bench scale laboratory processes relevant to preparation of agricultural or pharmaceutical chemical products is a plus. Strong verbal and written communication skills. Experience writing scientific documents. Working knowledge of Microsoft suite of programs: Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Project, Outlook and Adobe The individual should appreciate ourentrepreneurial, fast-paced, agile, and dynamic work setting. He/she should beenthusiastic and energetic, goal-driven, and highly motivated to complete tasksin a timely, efficient manner. The candidate should also thrive in a strongteam environment, be a self-starter and comfortable speaking up in companymeetings. An individual who is positive, interactive, resourceful andcreative in problem solving by thinking “out of the box” will be highly valuedin this role. 摘自一个招聘广告 http://www.indeed.com/viewjob?jk=f543c6cc0b8d4671q=%22natural+products+chemistry%22tk=18qpg6qie069g0n3from=jaalid=9b4974ffb4075adcutm_source=jobseeker_emailsutm_medium=emailutm_campaign=job_alerts 此外还要加Elucidation of chemical structures by 1D and 2D NMR Natural Product Scientist Apply with Indeed The mission of our client is to be the world's premier consumer products’company focused on convenient foods and beverages. They seek to provideopportunities for growth and enrichment to our employees, our business partnersand the communities in which they operate. And in everything they do, theystrive for honesty, fairness and integrity. Job Description · Supports thediscovery of new active botanical ingredients. · Executes labexperiments for the extraction, isolation and identification of naturalproducts. · Communicates resultswith appropriate partners. · Identifies andperforms feasibility testing (sensory, stability etc..) on new ingredients todrive innovation, productivity or improved quality. Responsibilities · Supports thediscovery of new active botanical ingredients · Executes labexperiments for the extraction, isolation and identification of naturalproducts · Ability to work aflexible schedule if needed · Communicates resultswith appropriate partners · Open-minded,innovative, takes initiatives, practical problem-solver · Ability to work onmultiple priorities at one time · Good organizationalskills with attention to detail · Correct entry intocheminformatics system · Ability to manage,balance, and prioritize competing projects to assure appropriate support isprovided Qualifications · MS Degree in NaturalProducts Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry or related field with at least 2years’ experience in food/ingredient/pharmaceutical industry desired. BS degreein Food Science or Scientific Field will be considered with at least 5 years’experience in Natural Products Discovery or relevant Analytical Chemistryresearch. · RD experiencerequired. · Experience with UPLC,LC/MS, Prep-LC and NMR. · Knowledge andunderstanding of bioassay screening · Experience working inand supporting a High Throughput Discovery environment · Technical depth inAnalytical Chemistry, Natural Products Discovery · Proficient inMicrosoft Office – specifically Excel 5. http://www.aplitrak.com/?adid=Y21lbGJvdXJuZS42Njg1MC4xNzYwQGhibWF0cml4LmFwbGl0cmFrLmNvbQ http://www.pharmacognosy.us/jobs
Professor of Natural Philosophy INFORMATON ON UK SIDE: Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedleian_Professor_of_Natural_Philosophy The Sedleian professor of natural philosophy is the name of a chair at the Mathematical Institute of the University of Oxford. The Sedleian Chair was founded bySir William Sedley who, by his will dated 20 October 1618, left the sum of ₤2,000 to the University of Oxfordfor purchase of lands for its endowment. Sedley's bequest took effect in 1621with the purchase of an estate at Waddesdon in Buckinghamshire to produce the necessary income. It is regarded as the oldest of the scientific chairs. Holders include: Edward Lapworth , 1621–1638 John Edwards , 1638–1648 Joshua Crosse , 1648–1660 Thomas Willis , 1660–1675 Thomas Millington , 1675–1704 James Fayrer , 1704–1719 Hon Charles Bertie , 1719–1741 Joseph Browne , 1741–1767 Benjamin Wheeler , 1767–1782 Thomas Hornsby , 1782–1810 George Leigh Cooke , 1810–1853 Bartholomew Price , 1853–1898 Augustus Love , 1899–1940 vacant 1940–1946 Sydney Chapman , 1946–1953 George Frederick James Temple , 1953–1968 Albert E. Green , 1968–1977 Thomas Brooke Benjamin , 1979–1995 John Macleod Ball , 1996– ============================ Professor of Natural Philosophy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor_of_Natural_Philosophy The Chair of NaturalPhilosophy is a professorship at the University of Glasgow , in Scotland, which was established in 1727 The Nova Erectio of King James VI of Scotland shared the teaching of moral philosophy, logic and natural philosophy among the regents. In 1727 separate chairs were instituted. Professors of natural philosophy Robert Dick, Snr MA MD (1727) Robert Dick, Jnr MA MD (1751) John Anderson MA (1757) James Brown MA MD (1796) William Meikleham MA LLD (1803) William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin of Largs GCVO MA DCL LLD FRS (1846) Andrew Gray MA LLD FRS (1899) Harold Albert Wilson MA DSc FRS (1924) Edward Taylor Jones DSc LLD (1926) Philip Ivor Dee CBE MA FRS Robert Patton Ferrier BSc MA PhD FRSE (1973) ========================= Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonian_Professor_of_Natural_Philosophy The Jacksonian Professorship of Natural Philosophy is one of the senior chairs in Natural and Experimental philosophy at Cambridge University , and was founded in1782 by a bequest from the Reverend Richard Jackson. In 1782 the Reverend Richard Jackson of Tarrington , Herefordshire, and a former fellow of Trinity College died, leaving a fifth of the income from his estate to the head gardener of the university's physic garden and the remainder to found the Professorship of Natural and Experimental Philosophy that now bears his name. His will specified the details of the professor with much precision, including that preference should be given to candidates from Trinity and men from Staffordshire , Warwickshire , Derbyshire and Cheshire , and that any holder must search for a cure for gout! The will also stated that his lectures should promote real and useful knowledge by showingor doing something in the way of experiment upon the subject undertaken to be treated, and its early holders consequently tended towards the experimental end of the field, such as chemists and engineers . More recently, it has been decided that the professorship should permanently be associated with physics . The first holder of the position was the mathematician and chemist Isaac Milner , elected to the post in 1783. One result of the bequest was that a building was erected to allow public lectures for the professor, as well as the professor of botany. It was the University's first building to be specifically designed for the teaching of science. Jacksonian Professors Isaac Milner (1783-1792) Francis Wollaston (1792-1813) William Farish (1813-1837) Robert Willis (1837-1874) James Dewar (1875-1923) Charles Wilson (1925-1935) Edward Appleton (1936-1939) John Cockcroft (1939-1946) Otto Frisch (1947-1972) Alan Cook (1972-1990) Malcolm Longair (1991-2008) James Stirling (2008-2013 ---------------------------- Professor of Natural Philosophy David MacKay http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/directory/mackayd Department of Physics CavendishLaboratory http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/ ============================ INFORMATION ON AMERICAN SIDE: Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy The Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy is an endowed professorship established at Harvard College in 1727 by Thomas Hollis . The incumbents have been: Isaac Greenwood (1727–1737) John Winthrop (1737–1779) Samuel Williams (1779–1789) Samuel Webber (1789–1806) John Farrar (1807–1838) Joseph Lovering (1838–1888) Benjamin Osgood Peirce (1888–1914) Wallace Clement Sabine (1914–1919) (1919–1921) Theodore Lyman (1921–1926) Percy Williams Bridgman (1926–1950) John Hasbrouck Van Vleck (1951–1969) Andrew Gleason (1969–1992) Bertrand Halperin (1992-) John Winthrop http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Winthrop_(educator) John Winthrop (December 19, 1714 – May 3, 1779) was the 2nd Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in HarvardCollege . He was a distinguished mathematician , physicist and astronomer , born in Boston , Mass. His great-great-grand father, also named JohnWinthrop , was founder of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He graduated in 1732 from Harvard , where, from 1738 until his death he served as professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. Professor Winthrop was one of the foremost men of science in America during the 18th century, and his impact on its early advance in New England was particularly significant. Both Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) probably owed much of their early interest in scientific research to his influence. He also had a decisive influence in the early philosophical education of John Adams ,during the latter's time at Harvard. He corresponded regularly with the Royal Society in London—as such, one of the first American intellectuals of his time to be taken seriously in Europe. He was noted for attempting to explain the great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 as ascientific—rather than religious—phenomenon, and his application of mathematical computations to earthquake activity following the great quake has formed the basis of the claim made on his behalf as the founder of the scienceof seismology . Additionally, he observed the transits of Mercury in 1740 and 1761 and journeyed to New found land to observe a transit of Venus . He traveled in a ship provided by the Province of Massachusetts - probably the first scientific expedition ever sent out by any incipient American state. He served as acting president of Harvard in 1769 and again in 1773; but both times declined the offer of the full presidency on the grounds of old age. During the nine months in 1775-1776 when Harvard moved to Concord, Massachusetts , Winthrop occupied the house which was later to become famous as The Way side , home to Louisa May Alcott and Nathaniel Hawthorne . Additionally, he was actively interested in public affairs, was for several years a judge of probate in Middlesex County, was a member of the Governor's Council in 1773-74, and subsequently offered the weight of his influence to the patriotic cause in the Revolution . -------------------- Philosophy - Departmental History http://philosophy.sas.upenn.edu/department-history EARLY YEARS Philosophy has been taught continuously in the University of Pennsylvania and its predecessors since 1755, when the bachelor of arts degree was first offered. The first teacher of philosophy was William Smith,first Provost of the newly founded Academy of Philadelphia. The various branches of philosophy, which included logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy,and natural philosophy, formed the core of the College curriculum. A professor of Ethics was named in 1755, a joint appointment in Classics and Metaphysics was made in 1756, and the first professor of Natural Philosophy was named in 1762. Throughout the nineteenth century there was a professor of Moral Philosophy, who was typically a clergyman and often the Provost (chief academic officer) of the University. The professor of Natural Philosophy was a chemist or physicist. The arts faculty in general was known as the faculty in philosophy. ……..
Behind palaeobotany Natural history http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history For other uses, see Natural history (disambiguation) . Naturalistredirects here. For other uses, see Naturalist (disambiguation) . Natural history is the research and study of organisms including plants or animals in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it,with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals . Grouped among the natural sciences , natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a very broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. So while natural history dates historically from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world , through to the scattered European Renaissance scientists working in near isolation, today's field is more of a cross discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists and scientific knowledge of many specialty sciences. A person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. ========================= Definitions Historical: The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis . Its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened (see also History below).In antiquity , it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elder 's encyclopedia of this title , published circa 77 to 79 AD,covers astronomy , geography , man and his technology , medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Until well into the nineteenth century, knowledge was considered by Europeans to have two main divisions: the humanities (including theology ),and studies of nature. Studies of nature could in turn be divided, with natural history being the descriptive counterpart to natural philosophy , the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry ,while natural history included the biological and geological sciences.The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the gentleman scientists , many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional science society meetings such as the RoyalSociety and the French Academy of Sciences – bothf ounded during the seventeenth century. Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits. Modern: Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field,creating a plurality of definitions with a number of common themes among them.For example, while natural history is most often defined as a type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed. Modern definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by Marston Bates: Natural history is the study of animals and Plants - of organisms. ... I like to think, then,of natural history as the study of life at the level of the individual - of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment,how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities and this more recent definition by D.S.Wilcove and T. Eisner: The close observation of organisms—their origins,their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species. This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environment, both past and present,such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: A student of natural history, or anaturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: Descriptive ecology and ethology. Recently, several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field as the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component, and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy. These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the Patient interrogation of a landscape while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo. A slightly different, but equally expansive framework for natural history is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading natural history museums , which often include elements of Anthropology, Geology, Paleontology and Astronomy along with Botany and Zoology, or include both cultural and natural components of the world. The plurality of definitions for this field has recently been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a range of definitions have recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history. ================= History Ancient times: Natural history begins with Aristotle and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world.Natural history, as a discipline, had existed since classical times, and fifteenth-century Europeans were very familiar with Pliny the Elder's Historia Naturalis . From the ancient Greeks until the work of Carolus Linnaeus (also known as Carl Linnaeus, or Carl von Linné) and other 18th century naturalists, the main concept of natural history was the scalanaturae or Great Chain of Being , a conceptual arrangementof minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex lifeforms on a linear scale of increasing perfection, culminating in our species. Natural history was understood by Pliny the Elder to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology,astronomy, technology, art and man. Dioscorides ' De Materia Medica is often said to be the oldest and most valuable work in the early history of botany. A Greek manuscript of Aristotle's Biological Works , written in Constantinople in the mid-9th century, and preserved at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, is probably the oldest surviving manuscript of biological texts. Medieval: While natural history was basically static in medieval Europe, it continued to be developed by Arabic scholars during the Arab Agricultural Revolution. Al-Jahiz described early natural history ideas such as the struggle for existence ( Malthus ' phrase), and the idea of a food chain . He was an early adherent of environmental determinism . Al-Dinawari is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants , in which he described at least 637 plants and discussed plant development from germination (sprouting) to death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit. Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati developed an early scientific method for botany, introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica , and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations. His student Ibnal-Baitar wrote a pharmaceutical encyclopedia describing 1,400 plants, foods , and drugs , 300 of which were his own original discoveries. A Latin translation of his work was useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries. Earth sciences such as geology were also studied extensively by Arabic geologists , but by Avicenna's time, around 1000, the Arab Empire was in decline and scientists were not free to publish their ideas. From the 13th century, the work of Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into Christian philosophy , particularly by Thomas Aquinas , forming the basis for natural theology . During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists,particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual monsters. Andrea Cesalpino was the creator of one of the first herbaria and the inventor of botanical systematics. Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with Otto Brunfels and Hieronymus Bock . Other important contributors to the field were Valerius Cordus , Konrad Gesner ( Historiae animalium ), Frederik Ruysch , or Gaspard Bauhin . The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into taxonomic groups , culminating in the system ofthe Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus . Birth of scientific biology: A significant contribution to English natural history was made by parson-naturalists such as Gilbert White , William Kirby , John George Wood , and John Ray , who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. In modern Europe ,professional disciplines such as physiology ,botany, zoology ,geology, and palaeontology were formed. Natural history ,formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an amateur activity, rather than a part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland it was believed that the study of natural history contributed to good mental health. Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the study of birds , butterflies, seashells ( malacology / conchology ),beetles and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until the modern evolutionary synthesis ).Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving livingo rganisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that supportthem), ethology (the scientific study of animal behavior), and evolutionary biology (the study of the relationships between life-forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology. Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world's large natural history collections, such as the Natural History Museum, London , andthe National Museum of Natural History in Washington D.C. Three of the greatest English naturalists of the nineteenth century, Henry Walter Bates , Charles Darwin , and Alfred Russel Wallace —who all knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of remote parts of the world—the Amazon basin , the Galapagos islands , and the Malay archipelago , among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory based science. ================== Museums Further information: List of natural history museums Natural history museums , which evolved from cabinets of curiosities , played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own morphological research. Societies The term natural history alone, or sometimes together with archeology, forms the name of many national, regional and local natural history societies that maintain records for birds (ornithology), mammals (mammalogy), insects ( entomology ), fungi ( mycology ) and plants (botany). They may also have microscopical and geological sections. Examples of these societies in Britain include the Natural History Society of Northumbria founded in 1829, British Entomological and Natural History Society founded in 1872, Birmingham Natural History Society, Glasgow Natural History Society, London Natural History Society founded in 1858, Manchester Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880, Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society , Sheffield , founded in 1918. The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many civil servants took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in Britain .(See also Indian natural history ) ------------------ See also Timeline of zoology Timeline of entomology Timeline of ornithology Evolutionary history of life and Prehistoric life Nature documentary Nature study and Nature writing ( Natural science ) Russian naturalists Nature : Natural environment and Natural landscape Timeline of natural history , Timeline of evolution , and Natural philosophy Big History and Naturalism (philosophy) Terra: The Nature of Our World (video podcast) ================= References 1. Jump up ^ NaturalHistory WordNet Search, princeton.edu. 2. Jump up ^ Brown,Lesley (1993), The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historicalprinciples , Oxford : Clarendon, ISBN 0-19-861271-0 3. Jump up ^ Koerner,Lisbet (1999). Linnaeus: Nature and Nation . Harvard: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-09745-2 . 4. Jump up ^ Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, Natural order:historical studies of scientific culture, Sage, 1979. 5. Jump up ^ Thomas Lowe Fleischner, The Way of Natural History ,Trinity University Press, 2011. 6. Jump up ^ Marston Bates, The nature of natural history ,Scribners, 1954. 7. Jump up ^ D. S Wilcove and T. Eisner, The impending extinctionof natural history, Chronicle of Higher Education 15 (2000): B24 8. Jump up ^ H. W. Greene and J. B. Losos, Systematics,Natural-History, and Conservation - Field Biologists Must Fight a Public-ImageProblem, Bioscience 38 (1988): 458-462 9. Jump up ^ G. A. Bartholomew, The Role of Natural History inContemporary Biology, Bioscience 36 (1986): 324-329 Jump up ^ H.W. Greene, Organisms in nature as a central focus for biology, Trends in Ecology Evolution 20 (2005):23-27 Jump up ^ S. G Herman, “Wildlife biology and natural history: time for a reunion, The Journal of wildlife management 66, no. 4 (2002): 933–946 Jump up ^ T. L. Fleischner, Natural history and the spiral of offering, Wild Earth 11, no. 3/4 (2002): 10–13 Jump up ^ Barry Lopez, Arctic Dreams , Vintage, 1986. Jump up ^ American Museum of Natural History, Mission Statement, http://www.amnh.org/about/ Jump up ^ Field Museum, Mission Statement, http://fieldmuseum.org/about/mission Jump up ^ The Natural History Museum, Mission Statement, http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/index.html Jump up ^ National Natural History Museum of Chile , Mission Statement, http://www.dibam.cl/historia_natural/contenido.asp?id_contenido=277id_submenu=650id_menu=43 Jump up ^ http://declinetorebirth.org/conversations/an-accepted-way-of-viewing-art Jump up ^ http://declinetorebirth.org/ Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder (2004). Natural History: A Selection . Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044413-1 . Jump up ^ Gulsel M. Kavalali (2003). Urtica: therapeutic and nutritional aspects of stinging nettles . CRC Press . p.15. ISBN 0-415-30833-X ^ Jump up to: a b c Natural History Timeline . HistoryofScience.com. Jump up ^ Conway Zirkle (1941), Natural Selection before the Origin of Species, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1): 71-123. Jump up ^ Frank N. Egerton, A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological, Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America , April 2002: 142-146 Jump up ^ Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 25 (3), pp. 268-307 . Jump up ^ Fahd, Toufic, Botany and agriculture, p. 815 , in Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3 , Routledge , ISBN 0-415-12410-7 Jump up ^ Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West , Cambridge University Press , pp. 813–852, ISBN 0-521-52994-8 Jump up ^ Diane Boulanger (2002), The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology, OISE Papers , in STSE Education , Vol. 3. Jump up ^ Richard Myers (2003). The Basics of Chemistry . Greenwood Publishing Group . p.13. ISBN 0-313-31664-3 Jump up ^ Patrick Armstrong (2000). The English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion . Gracewing Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85244-516-7 . Retrieved 31 March 2013. Jump up ^ Diarmid A. Finnegan (2008), 'An aid to mental health': natural history, alienists and therapeutics in Victorian Scotland, Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 39 (3): 326–337, doi : 10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.06.006 , PMID 18761284 =================== Further reading Allen, David Elliston (1994), The Naturalist in Britain: a social history , New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 270, ISBN 0-691-03632-2 Liu, Huajie (2012), Living as a Naturalist , Beijing: Peking University Press, p. 363, ISBN 978-7-301-19788-2 Peter Anstey (2011), Two Forms of Natural History , Early Modern Experimental Philosophy . Atran, Scott (1990), Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science , Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 376, ISBN 978-0-521-43871-1 Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000), Finding Order in Nature: The Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson . Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore. Kohler, Robert E. (2002), Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology . University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Mayr, Ernst. (1982), The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance . The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts. Rainger, Ronald; Keith R. Benson; and Jane Maienschein (eds) (1988), The American Development of Biology . University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia.
Natural philosophy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy This article is about the philosophical study of nature. For the current in the 19th-century German idealism, see Naturphilosophie . Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Latin philosophianaturalis ) was the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science . It is considered to be the precursor of natural sciences such as physics . Natural science historically developed out of philosophy or, more specifically, natural philosophy. At older universities ,long-established Chairs of Natural Philosophy are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors .Modern meanings of the terms science and scientists date only tothe 19th century. The naturalist-theologian WilliamWhewell was the one who coined the term scientist .The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word to 1834.Before then, the word science meant any kind of well-established knowledge and the label of scientist did not exist. Some examples of the application of the term natural philosophy to what we today would call natural science are IsaacNewton 's 1687 scientific treatise, which is known as The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait's 1867 treatise called Treatise on Natural Philosophy which helped define much of modern physics. Origin and evolution of the term The term natural philosophy preceded our current natural science (from the Latin, scientia ,meaning knowledge) when the subject of that knowledge or study isthe workings of nature. Natural philosophy pertains to the work of analysis and synthesis of common experience and argumentation to explain or describe nature—while, in the 16th century and earlier, science is used exclusively as a synonym for knowledge or study. The term science ,as in natural science , gained its modern meaning when acquiring knowledge through experiments (special experiences) under the scientific method became its own specialized branch of study apart from natural philosophy. In the 16th century, Jacopo Zabarella was the first person appointed as a professor of Natural Philosophy -- at the University of Padua in 1577. In the 14th and 15th centuries, natural philosophy referred to what is now physical science . From the mid-19th century, when it became increasingly unusual for scientists to contribute to both physics and chemistry , it just meant physics , and is still used in that sense in degree titles at the University of Oxford . Natural philosophy was distinguished from the other precursor of modern science, natural history , in that the former involved reasoning and explanations about nature (and after Galileo , quantitative reasoning), whereas the latter was essentially qualitative and descriptive. Scope of natural philosophy In Plato's earliest known dialogue, Charmides distinguishes between science or bodies of knowledge that produce a physical result, and those that do not.Natural philosophy has been categorized as a theoretical rather than a practical branch of philosophy (like ethics). Sciences that guide arts and draw on the philosophical knowledge of nature may produce practical results, but these subsidiary sciences (e.g., architecture or medicine) go beyond natural philosophy. The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe.Some ideas presupposes that change is a reality. Although this may seem obvious, there have been some philosophers who have denied the concept of metamorphosis, such as Plato's predecessor Parmenides and later Greek philosopher Sextus Empiricus , and perhaps some Eastern philosophers. George Santayana , in his Scepticism and Animal Faith, attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven. If his reasoning is sound, it follows that to be a physicist, one must restrain one's skepticism enough to trust one's senses, or else rely on anti-realism . René Descartes ' metaphysical system of Cartesian Dualism describes two kinds of substance: matter and mind. According to this system, everything that is matter is deterministic and natural—and so belongs to natural philosophy—and everything that ismind is volitional and non-natural, and falls outside the domain of philosophy of nature. Branches and subject matter of natural philosophy Major branches of natural philosophy include astronomy and cosmology ,the study of nature on the grand scale; etiology , the study of (intrinsic and sometimes extrinsic) causes ; the study of chance , probability and randomness; the study of elements ; the study of the infinite and the unlimited (virtual or actual); the study of matter ; mechanics ,the study of translation of motion and change; the study of nature or the various sources of actions; the study of natural qualities ; the study of physical quantities ; the study of relations between physical entities; and the philosophy of space and time . (Adler,1993) History of natural philosophy See History of physics , History of chemistry and History of astronomy for the history of natural philosophy prior to the 17th century. Man's mental engagement with nature certainly predates civilization and the record of history.Philosophical, specifically non-religious thought about the natural world goes back to ancient Greece. These lines of thought began before Socrates, who turned from his philosophical studies from speculations about nature to a consideration of man, viz., political philosophy. The thought of early philosophers such Parmenides , Heraclitus ,and Democritus centered on the natural world. Plato followed Socrates in concentrating on man.It was Plato's student, Aristotle, who, in basing his thought on the natural world, returned empiricism to its primary place, while leaving room in the world for man. Martin Heidegger observes that Aristotle was the originator of conception of nature that prevailed in the Middle Ages into the modern era: The Physics is a lecture in which he seeks to determine beings that arise on their own, τὰ φύσει ὄντα , with regard to their being .Aristotelian physics is different from what we mean today by this word,not only to the extent that it belongs to antiquity whereas the modern physical sciences belong to modernity , rather above all it is different by virtue of the fact that Aristotle's physics is philosophy,whereas modern physics is a positive science that presupposes a philosophy .... This book determines the warp and woof of the whole of Western thinking, even at that place where it, as modern thinking, appears to think at odds with ancient thinking. But oppositionis invariably comprised of a decisive, and often even perilous, dependence.Without Aristotle's Physics there would have been no Galileo. Aristotle surveyed the thought of his predecessors and conceived of nature in a way that charted a middle course between their excesses. Plato's world of eternal and unchanging Forms ,imperfectly represented in matter by a divine Artisan ,contrasts sharply with the various mechanistic Weltanschauungen ,of which atomism was, by the fourth century at least, the most prominent… This debate was to persist throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a shot in the arm from Epicurus …while the Stoics adopted a divine teleology … The choice seems simple:either show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system. This was how Aristotle… when still a young acolyte of Plato, saw matters. Cicero … preserves Aristotle's own cave-image : if troglodytes were brought on a sudden into the upper world, they would immediately supposeit to have been intelligently arranged. But Aristotle grew to abandon this view; although he believes in a divine being, the Prime Mover is not the efficient cause of action in the Universe, and plays no part in constructing or arranging it... But, although he rejects the divine Artificer, Aristotle does not resort to a pure mechanism of random forces. Instead he seeks to find a middle way between the two positions, one which relies heavily on the notion of Nature, or phusis . Aristotle recommended four causes as appropriate for the business of the natural philosopher, or physicist, “and if he refers his problems back to all of them, he will assign the ‘why’ in the way proper to his science—the matter, the form, the mover, ‘that for the sake of which’”. While the vagrancies of the material cause are subject to circumstance, the formal, efficient and final cause often coincide because in natural kinds, the mature form and final cause are one and the same. The capacity to mature into a specimen of one's kind is directly acquired from “the primary source of motion”, i.e., from one's father, whose seed ( sperma ) conveys the essential nature (commonto the species), as a hypothetical ratio . Science has always been asystematic knowledge of causes. From the late Middle Ages and into the modern era, the tendency has been to narrow science to the consideration of efficient or agent causes, and those of a particular kind: The action of an efficient cause may sometimes, but not always, be described in terms of quantitative force. The action of an artist on a block of clay, for instance, can be described in terms of how many pounds of pressure per square inch is exerted on it. The efficient causality of the teacher in directing the activity of the artist, however,cannot be so described… The final cause acts on the agent to influence or induce her to act. If the artist works to make money, making money is in some way the cause of her action. But we cannot describe this influence in terms of quantitative force. The final cause acts,but it acts according to the mode of final causality, as an end or good that induces the efficient cause to act. The mode of causality proper to the final cause cannot itself be reduced to efficient causality, much less to the mode of efficient causality we call force. Figures in natural philosophy The scientific method has ancient precedents and Galileo exemplifies a mathematical understanding of nature which is the hallmark of modern natural scientists. The 19th-century distinction of a scientific enterprise apart from traditional natural philosophy has its roots in prior centuries. Proposals for a more inquisitive and practical approach to the study of nature are notable in Francis Bacon , whose ardent convictions did much to popularize his insightful Baconian method . The late 17th-century natural philosopher Robert Boyle wrote a seminal work on the distinction between physics and metaphysics called, A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature , aswell as The Skeptical Chymist , after which the modern science of chemistry is named, (as distinct from proto-scientific studies of alchemy ). These works of natural philosophy are representative of a departure from the medieval scholasticism taught in European universities , and anticipate in many ways, the developments which would lead to science as practiced in the modernsense. As Bacon would say, vexing nature to reveal hersecrets, ( scientific experimentation ), rather than amere reliance on largely historical, even anecdotal , observations of empirical phenomena ,would come to be regarded as a defining characteristic of modern science , if not the very key to its success. Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the scholastic sciences in theory, practice and doctrine. However, he meticulously recorded observational detail on practical research, and subsequently advocated not only this practice, but its publication, both for successful and unsuccessful experiments, so as to validate individual claims by replication. For sometimes we use the word nature for that Author of nature whom the schoolmen ,harshly enough, call natura naturans , as when it is said that nature tha t made man partly corporeal and partlyimmaterial . Sometimes we mean by the nature of a thing the essence , or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call the quiddity of a thing, namely, the attribute or attributes on whose score it is what it is, whether the thing be corporeal or not,as when we attempt to define the nature of an angel , or of a triangle ,or of a fluid body, as such. Sometimes we take nature for an internal principle of motion ,as when we say that a stone let fall in the air is by nature carried towards the centre of the earth , and, on the contrary, that fire or flame does naturally move upwards toward heaven . Sometimes we understand by nature theestablished course of things, as when we say that nature makes the night succeed the day , nature hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take nature for an aggregate of powers belonging to a body, especially aliving one, as when physicians say that nature is strong or weak orspent, or that in such or such diseases nature left to herself will dothe cure . Sometimes we take nature for the universe , or system of the corporeal works of God , as when it is said of a phoenix , or a chimera , that there is no such thing in nature ,i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would expressby nature a semi-deity or other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of. — RobertBoyle , A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature The modern emphasis is less on abroad empiricism (one that includes passive observation of nature's activity),but on a narrow conception of the empirical concentrating on the control exercised through experimental (active) observation for the sake of control of nature. Nature is reduced to a passive recipient of human activity. Current work in natural philosophy In the middle of the 20thcentury, ErnstMayr 's discussions on the teleology of nature brought up issues that were dealt with previously by Aristotle (regarding finalcause ) and Kant (regarding reflective judgment ). Especially since themid-20th-century European crisis, some thinkers argued the importance of looking at nature from a broad philosophical perspective, rather than what they considered a narrowly positivist approach relying implicitly on a hidden,unexamined philosophy. One line of thought grows from the Aristotelian tradition, especially as developed by ThomasAquinas . Another line springs from Edmund Husserl , especially as expressed in The Crisis of European Sciences .Students of his such as Jacob Klein and Hans Jonas more fully developed his themes. Among living scholars, Brian David Ellis , Nancy Cartwright , David Oderberg , and John Dupré are some of the more prominent thinkers who can arguably be classed as generally adopting a more open approach to the natural world. Ellis (2002) observes the rise of a New Essentialism. David Oderberg (2007) takes issue with other philosophers, including Ellis to a degree, who claim to be essentialists.He revives and defends the Thomistic-Aristotelian tradition from modern attempts to flatten nature to the limp subject of the experimental method. References 1. Jump up ^ Michael J.Crowe, Mechanics from Aristotle to Einstein (Santa Fe, NM: Green Lion Press, 2007), 11. 2. Jump up ^ Martin Heidegger, The Principle of Reason , trans. Reginald Lilly, (Indiana University Press, 1991), 62- 63 . 3. Jump up ^ See especially Physics , books I II. 4. Jump up ^ Hankinson, R. J.(1997). Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought . Oxford University Press.p. 125. ISBN 978-0-19-924656-4 . 5. Jump up ^ Aristotle, Physics II.7. 6. Jump up ^ Michael J. Dodds, Science, Causality and Divine Action: Classical Principles for Contemporary Challenges, CTNS Bulletin 21:1 . 7. Jump up ^ Dodds 2001, p.5. 8. Jump up ^ More, LouisTrenchard (January 1941). Boyle as Alchemist. Journal of the History of Ideas (University of Pennsylvania Press) 2 (1): 61–76. doi : 10.2307/2707281 . JSTOR 2707281 . 9. Jump up ^ Boyle, Robert;Stewart, M.A. (1991). SelectedPhilosophical Papers of Robert Boyle . HPC Classics Series. Hackett.pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-0-87220-122-4 . LCCN 91025480 . 10. Jump up ^ Teleologyand Randomness in the Development of Natural Science Research: Systems,Ontology and Evolution Interthesis, v. 8, n. 2, p. 316-334, jul/dec.2011 11. Jump up ^ E.A. Burtt, Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company,1954), 227-230. 12. Jump up ^ See his The Philosophy of Nature: A Guide to the New Essentialism 2002. ISBN0-7735-2474-6 13. Jump up ^ David S.Oderberg, Real Essentialism (Routledge, 2007). ISBN0415323649 Further reading Adler, Mortimer J. (1993). The Four Dimensions of Philosophy: Metaphysical, Moral, Objective, Categorical . Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-500574-X . E.A. Burtt , Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1954). Philip Kitcher , Science, Truth, and Democracy. Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Science. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. LCCN:2001036144 ISBN 0-19-514583-6 Bertrand Russell , A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1945) Simon Schuster, 1972. Santayana, George (1923). Scepticism and Animal Faith . Dover Publications . pp. 27–41. ISBN 0-486-20236-4 . David Snoke , Natural Philosophy: A Survey of Physics and Western Thought. Access Research Network, 2003. ISBN 1-931796-25-4 . Nancy R. Pearcey and Charles B. Thaxton , The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy (Crossway Books, 1994, ISBN 0891077669 ). External links Aristotle's Natural Philosophy , Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Institute for the Study of Nature A Bigger Physics , a talk at MIT by Michael Augros Other articles
(5 th Edition) 1. 美国国家自然历史博物馆概览 http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-724802.html 2013-9-1404:27 2. 英国科学家 James Smithson(1765--1829) 的遗嘱与美国 史密森 研究院 （ Smithsonian Institution ） http://b bs.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-732180.html 2013-10-12 01:39 3. James Smithson(1765--1829) 与美国 史密森 研究院 （ Smithsonian Institution ） http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-732469.html 2013-10-13 04:54 (To be continued) -------------------------------------------------------------------- 古植物学的故事 199 期 以古植物学为例谈建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性（提纲） http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=702778 http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-702778.html 2013-6-26 06:48 Story of PalaeobotanySeries (No.199) How to promote the rapidrise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XVIII) Palaeobotany is employedto illustrate the necessity and urgency of establishing the National Museum ofNatural History of China (NMNHC) 古植物学的故事 171 期 伟大的国家需要伟大的自然历史博物馆 -- 关于建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性的论证工作之简要回顾 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.171): How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XVII) Great nation has a facility ofgreat museum of natural history ----A brief historical perspectiveof the necessity and urgency of establishing the National Museum of NaturalHistory of China(NMNHC) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=594335 2012-7-21 14:36 古植物学的故事 168 期 树倒猢狲散与古植物学灾难 ---- 博物馆（标本馆）之研究平台对古植物学的重要性 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.168): How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XVI) Palaeobotanicalcatastrophes like rats abandoning a sinking ship -----Museumsor herbarium as important facility for palaeobotanical studies. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=59157 9 2012-7-12 22:36 古植物学的故事 159 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.159): How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XIV) The Statutes of the People ’ sRepublic of China on Fossil Conservation and the future of Chinese palaeobotany 《 古生物化石保护条例 》与古植物学 http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=570962 2012-5-14 22:00 古植物学的故事 158 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.158): Birbal Sahni 古植物学研究所及其博物馆 ( 标本馆 ) ------ 古植物学研究的“印度模式” How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XIII) An Indian model: An autonomous institute of palaeobotany (Lucknow, India) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=568666 2012-5-8 22:09 古植物学的故事 157 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.157): 耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“美国模式” How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XII) An American model: Palaeobotanicalstudies of the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=space uid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567922 2012-5-6 22:57 古植物学的故事 156 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.156): 瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“瑞典模式” How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XI) A Swedish model: Palaeobotanicalstudies of the Swedish Museum of Natural History(Stockholm) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567568 2012-5-5 22:30 古植物学的故事 155 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series(No.155): 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之十） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆有什么用？ How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part X) The roles of the National Museum of NaturalHistory of China http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567169 2012-5-4 23:25 古植物学的故事 152 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之九） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ Story of Palaeobotany Series(152): How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part IX) Where is the National Museum of NaturalHistory of China? http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=563627 2012-4-25 22:05 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 3 】 古植物学的故事 147 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之五） 中国国家自然历史博物馆势在必建 ---- 科研是办好博物馆的生命线 Story of Palaeobotany Series(147): How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part V) TheNational Museum of Natural History of China should be established---Theworld-class original research is a life line for the development of the museum. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=500218 2011-10-23 22:30 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 2 】 古植物学的故事 (133 期 ) 美国古植物学是如何崛起的 ？ ( 之十六 ) 美国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学崛起 Story of Palaeobotany Series (133): How did American palaeobotany rise? (Part XVI) American museums of naturalhistory and the rapid rise of American palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=485370 2011-9-11 23:17 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 1 】 古植物学的故事（ 132 期） 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之一） 中国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学未来 Story of Palaeobotany Series(132): How to promote the rapid rise ofChinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part I) China’s museums of natural historyand the future of Chinese palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=481614 2011-8-31 21:41
美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley （ 1918-2013 ） 活了两辈子 人生一世，草木一春。通常一个人仅有一辈子，但有的人却活了两辈子。美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley （ 1918--2013）对古植物学事业无比痴迷、无比执着。自1948年起，她为印度古植物学事业工作了30年，于1978年在印度退休。 1980 年，时年 62 岁的 Shya 开始供职于美国俄亥俄州克利夫兰自然历史博物馆 (Cleveland Museum of Natural History) ，她又在古植物学领域辛勤工作了 31 年。 2011 年初， Shya Chitaley 在美国退休。 2013 年 3 月 31 日 Shya Chitaley 在美国去世，享年 95岁。 一、 Shya Chitaley 的家庭和教育背景 Shyamala ShyaChitaley 于 1918 年 2 月 15 日出生在位于印度西部 Maharashtra 省的 Nasik 镇。 1934 年，年仅 16 岁的 Shya 嫁到印度中部大城市 Nagpur ，丈夫是一位律师。 1942 年， Shya Chitaley 在印度 Nagpur 大学完成本科学习（在植物学、化学和动物学领域接受训练），获得理学学士学位（ B.Sc., botany, chemistry and zoology, University ofNagpur, India ）。 1945 年， Shya Chitaley 在印度 Nagpur 大学获得植物学专业的硕士学位 （ M.Sc., botany, University of Nagpur, India ）。 受“ Ida Smith 国际奖学金”的资助（ Ida Smith International Fellowship for Doctoral Research in England ）， 1952—1955 年 Shya Chitaley 在英国雷丁大学 (The University of Reading)植物系跟随国际著名古植物学家Tom Harris 教授(FRS, 1903--1983)学习，专攻古植物学。 Shya Chitaley 的博士学位论文工作主要是研究产自印度中部晚白垩世至始新世地层的 Deccan Intertrappean 植物群（ Deccan Intertrappeanflora ）。 1955 年， Shya Chitaley 从雷丁大学获得博士学位，她的博士论文基本信息如下： Personal author: Shyamala Dinker Chitaley Title:Contributions to the knowledge of the Deccan intertrappean flora of India. Publishing information: Reading, 1955. General note/s: Thesis (PhD.) - University of Reading, Department of Botany. 二、 Shya Chitaley 在印度的古植物学职业生涯 1948 年， Shya Chitaley 开始担任 Nagpur 与 Mumbai 理学院植物系（ Botany Department, Institute of Science-Nagpur Mumbai ）的讲师； 1961 年起担任副教授； 1974 年起担任教授。 Shya Chitaley 在印度的古植物学兴趣主要是研究 Deccan Intertrappean 植物群中矿化的被子植物和松柏类生殖器官，先后培养 15 位博士。 三、 Shya Chitaley 在美国的古植物学职业生涯 1978 年， Shya Chitaley 与她丈夫和小儿子一起从印度移民到 美国俄亥俄州克利夫兰。 1980 年， Shya Chitaley 到 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆开始她的第二个职业古植物学研究生涯。 Shya Chitaley 是该馆第一位古植物学家，她收集了大量植物化石标本和研究文献，创建了该馆的古植物学部，为 克利夫兰地区古植物学的发展做了大量开拓性的工作。 Shya Chitaley 在 克利夫兰自然历史博物馆的研究工作转向产自晚泥盆纪（距今 3.63 亿年）克利夫兰页岩中的石松类植物化石，取得了一系列成果。 四、主要学术荣誉 2004 年获俄亥俄州自然资源局特别奖励（ Cardinal Award, Ohio Department of Natural Resources ）。 2006 年获得印度 Birbal-Savitri Sahni 基金会“终身成就奖”。 2010 年获美国植物学会古植物学分会“古植物学贡献奖”。 2011 年获美国中西部博物馆协会“杰出职业生涯奖”。 孙启高 2013 年 10 月 24 日写于美东 ================== 本期编目 古植物学的故事 201 期 美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley （ 1918--2013） 活了两辈子 =========================== 附：美籍印度裔古植物学家 Shya Chitaley 的出版目录： 1949. On a new species of Dadoxylon, Dadoxylon chandaensis,sp., nov. the District of Chanda, C. P. J. Ind. Bot. Soc.,28:172-180. 1949. On a new species of Dadoxylon, Dadoxylon eocenum, sp.nov. From the District of Chhindwara, C. P.India. J. Ind. Bot. Soc.,28:227-237. 1950. Fossil flower from the Mohgaonkalan beds ofChhindwara, C. P. India. Sci. Cult., Calcutta 15:446-447 1950a. Central Provinces, Mohgaonkalan, ChhindwaraDistrict: Microflora of the Deccan Intertrappean cherts: in Palaeobotany inIndia VII. J. Ind. Bot Soc., 29:30. 1951. Fossil Microflora of Mohgaonkalan beds of the MadhyaPradesh, India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 17:373-383. 1954. (Issued in 1956) On a fructification from theintertrappean flora of the Madhya Pradesh, India. Palaeobotanist Lucknow,3:9-17. 1955. Contribution to the knowledge of the DeccanIntertrappean flora of India. Thesis submitted for Ph.D degree atthe University of Reading, England. 1955a. A further contribution to the knowledge ofSahnianthus. J. Ind. Bot. Soc., 34:121-129. 1956. (Issued in 1958). On fructification of Tricoccitestrigonum Rode, Palaeobotanist Lucknow, 5:2,56-63. 1957. Comparison of fruits from the Deccan Intertrappeanrocks of India with those of the London Clay of England. Proc. 44th Ind.Sci. Cong. 1957. Further report on the fossil microflora from theMohgaonkalan beds. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., 23:2, 69-79. 1958. Seeds of Viracarpon hexaspermum Sahni from theIntertrappean Beds of Mohgaonkalan, India. J. Ind. Bot. Soc., 37:408-411. 1959 Therapeutic Aspects of Paleobotany, IX InternationalBotanical Cong. Aug 19 -29, Montreal. 1959. Palaeobotany and Medicine. The EasternPharmacist. 2:(16), 13-14. 1960. A new specimen of Nipa fruit from Mohgaoncherts. Nature 186:495 1960a. Nipa fruit from the Deccan Intertrappeans ofIndia. Bull. Bot. Soc. College Science, Nagpur, 1:1, 31-35. 1961. Therapeutical importance of plants of By-Gone Ages.Proc. Symposium, Production and Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants inIndia, 27. 1962. Synopsis of the Literature on the Deccan IntertrappeanFlora of India published during 1928-1960. Nagpur Times Publication,1-68. 1962a. On the plant fossils and fossiliferous locality atMohgaonkalan (India). Bull. Bot. Soc. Coll. Sci. Nagpur,3:15-21. 1962b. Roots with aerenchyma. Current Science, 31:387. 1962c. A fossil wood of Rutaceae from DeccanIntertrappean beds of India. Proc. Raj. Acad. Sci., 9:Pt. II, 31-34. 1963. Therapeutic importance of Plant Fossils. Bull. RRL., 1, No. 2, 83-84. 1964. Botanical Megaslides with stabilizedcolours. Abst. X, International Bot. Congress, Edinburgh, 351-352. 1964a. Further observations on Sahnipushpam. J. Ind. Bot. Soc., 43:69-74. 1964b. Newtechnique of preparing specimens for herbarium. Science and Culture,30:341. 1965. An improved method of mounting fossil sections. Annals of Botany, N. S. 29, 114, 225-227. 1966. Herbarium specimens in colour and slide. Invention and Intelligence, 2:5-7. 1967. Preservation of natural colours in pollen and spores -A new technique and its utility. Bull. Palynol. India, 2 3.:99-100. 1967a. Preservation of Gnetum material in colour. Curr. Sci.,35:17,444. 1968. On Aerorhizos harrisii Gen. et sp. nov. fromIndia. J. Ind. Bot. Soc.,67:7-12. 1968a. (Issued in 1969) Sonneratiorhizos raoi, Gen. et sp. nov. from theDeccan Intertrappean beds of India. Palaeobotanist Lucknow, 17:244-246. 1968b. A new method of pollen preparation. J. Palynol. Lucknow, 5:129- 131. (With S. U. Deshpande). 1969. Anatomical studies of fossil fruit of Nypa, Symposiumon Recent advances in anatomy of seed plants, Aligarh, Monograph - Recent Advances in the Anatomy of Tropical Seed Plants -Delhi. 235-248. (With E.M. V. Nambudiri). 1969a. Sapindoxylon chhindwarensis, sp. nov. A fossil dicot wood from DeccanIntertrappean beds of India. J. Ind. Bot. Soc., 48:39-43. (WithL.J. Shallom). 1969b. On a new technique for permanent preparations offossil microflora. J. Palynol. Lucknow, 5:132-138. (With M. Z. Patel). 1969c. Viracarpon sahnii, sp. nov. from the DeccanIntertrappean beds of Mahurzari, India. J. Sen Memorial Volume Calcutta,331-334. (With L. J. Shallom and V. Mehta). 1969d. Anatomical studies of petrified Nypa fruits fromthe Deccan Intertrappean beds of India. Proc. 11th Int. Bot.Congr., Seattle, 32. (With E. M. V. Nambudiri). 1969. A new method of pollen preparation. 1969e. A new technique for preparing permanent stainedmicroslides. Proc. 11th Int. Bot. Congr., Seattle, 32. (With D. V.Chitaley). 1969f. (Issued in 1970) Further contribution tothe knowledge of Dicotylirhizos sahnii Rao. Palaeobotanist Lucknow,18:151-153. (With M. T. Sheikh). 1970. A petrified leaf from the Deccan Intertrappean beds ofIndia. J. Bom. Bio. Soc., 13(2):30-36. (With G. V. Patil). 1970a. Pollen physiological studies in Carica papaya.The Botanique Nagpur, 1:15-21. (With S. U. Deshpande). 1970b. A petrified monocot leaf from the Deccan Intertrappean cherts ofIndia. The Botanique Nagpur, 1:47-48. (With M. Z. Patel). 1970c. Zizyphus intertrappea sp. nov. from the DeccanIntertrappean beds of India. Proc 57th Indian Aci. Congr:210. ( With S. A. Paradkar and P. S. Meshram). 1970. Further contribution to our knowledge ofDicotylirnizos sahnii Roa. 1970d. (Issued in 1972), Palynology of Pomegranate (Punicagranium L) (J. Palynol.), 6:91-95. (With S. U. Deshpande). 1971. An infected grain from the Deccan Intertrappean chertsof Mohgaonkalan, India. J. Indian Bot. Sci., 50:137-142. (With M.T. Sheikh). 1971a. A dicotyledonous stem from the Deccan Intertrappeancherts of Mohgaonkalan, India. J. Bom. Bio. Soc., 14(2):50-57. (With M.Z. Patel). 1971b. Pollen physiological studies in Sesbania grandiflora(Poir). The Botanique Nagpur, 2:151-156. (With S. D. Naik). 1971c. Reinvestigation of Shuklanthus superbum, Verma. TheBotanique Nagpur, 2:41-49. (With G. V. Patil). 1971d. Pollinia and pollen germination in Calotropisgigantea (Linn.). Proc. 58th Ind. Sci. Cong. 446. (With A. A. Saoji). 1971e. (Issued in 1972), Surangea mohgaoense gen. et sp.nov. A pteridophytic fructification from the Deccan Intertrappean beds of India. Geophytology Lucknow, 1:123-126. (With M. T. Sheikh.) 1971f. (Issued in 1973), Sahniocarpon harrisi, gen. et sp.nov. from the Deccan Intertrappean beds of India, Palaeobotanist Lucknow,Silver Jubilee Volume, 20(3):288-292. (With G. V. Patil). 1971g. (Issued in 1973), Rodeites Sahni - Reinvestigated -II. Palaeobotanist Lucknow, Silver Jubilee Volume, 20(3):293-296. (With S. A.Paradkar). 1971h. (Issued in 1973), A ten locular petrified fruitfrom the Deccan Intertrappean series of India. Palaeobotanist Lucknow,20(3):297-299. (With M. T. Sheikh). 1971i. An Ebenaceous fossil wood with deuteromycetous fungusfrom the Deccan Intertrappean beds of Mohgaonkalan, India. The BotaniqueNagpur, 3:99-105 (With G. V. Patil). 1972. Rodeites, Sahni - Reinvestigated - I. J. Linn. Soc. London, 65:109-117. (With S. A. Paradkar). 1972a. Palynological studies in Bauhinia variegata, TheBotanique Nagpur, 3:27-34. (With A. A. Saoji). 1972b. A Petrified Rhamnaceous wood from the DeccanIntertrappean beds of Mohgaonkalan. The Botanique Nagpur, 3:41-44. (With U. R. Kate). 1972c. (Issued in 1974), Deccananthu savitrii, a newpetrified flower from the Intertrappean beds of India. PalaeobotanistLucknow 21(3):317-320. 1972d. Microflora of Intertrappean and Lameta formationof India. Symposium Palaeopalynology and Indian Stratigraphy Calcutta,212-219. (With M. Z. Patel). 1972e. Screening of Datura, Ricinus, Bauhinia andNerium, pollen grains for free amino acids. The Botanique Nagpur,3:125-128. (With A. A. Saoji). 1972f. (Issued in 1974), Palaeogene angiosperms ofIndia (excepting Woods). Aspects and Appraisal of Indian Palaeobotany:321-331. 1973. Harrisocarpon sahnii gen. et sp. nov. from the DeccanIntertrappean beds of Mohgaonkalan. District Chhindwara, India.Geophytology Lucknow, 3:36-41. (With E. M. V. Nambudiri). 1973a. Study of airspora of Nagpur at high altitudes -I. A preliminary report, The Botanique Nagpur, 4:27-34. (With A.Bajaj). 1973b. Harrisostrobus intertrappeum gen. et sp. nov. apetrified gymnospermous cone from the Deccan Intertrappean beds of India. Palaeontographica, 144 Abt (B):25-30 Stuttgart. (With M.T. Sheikh). 1973c. Effect of stigma and its extract on pollengermination. Jap. Journ. Palynol., 11:15-18. (With A. A. Saoji). 1974. On Notothylites nirulai gen et sp. nov., Apetrified sporogonium from the Deccan Intertrappean beds of Mohgaonkalan, M. P.India. Proc. 61st Sci. Congr., 37. (With N. R. Yawale). 1974a. An enigmatic fruit from the Deccan Intertrappeancherts of India, Proc. 61st Ind. Sci. Congr.,37-38. (With M. Z. Patel). 1974b. 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The Botanique Nagpur,6:239-242. 1975e. Placement of the Deccan Intertrappean plants insystematics. Proc 12th Internat. Bot Congr. Leningrad, 93. 1975f. Variables in botanical techniques. Proc. 12thInternat. Bot. Congr. Leningrad, 93. (With D. V. Chitaley). 1975g. Pollen calendar of Nagpur, 1st Indian Palynolo. Congr., 13-14. (With S. U. Deshpande). 1975h. Form, structure and function in Intertrappeanplants of Mohgaonkalan, India. Proc. Symp. Sardar Patel University, 18. 1976. Fungal remains from the Deccan Intertrappean bedsof Mohgaonkalan, India. Proc. 63rd Ind. Sci. Songr., 52. (With N.R.Yawale). 1976a. Germination and storage of pollinia inCalotropis gigantea (Linn) R BR. Ex. Ait. The Botanique Nagpur, 55-62.(With A. A. Saoji). 1976b. (Issued in 1977), Fungal remains from the DeccanIntertrappean beds of Mohgaonkalan, India. The Botanique Nagpur,7:189-194. (With N. R. Yawale). 1976c. Pollen calendar of Nagpur, India. Reviewof Paleobot. Palynol., 21:253-262. (With S. U. 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以古植物学为例谈建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性 （中文提纲） 孙启高 2013 年 6 月 25 日初稿于美东 我曾计划 2012 年暑假在北京完成本项工作，但拖了 1 年之久。由于很多纸质文献不在身边，我现在只能化繁就简，草拟一个开放的工作框架，以供大家参考。 关于建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性， 前人从国家层面已作大量论证，但仍有必要从技术层面进行专业分析，一方面从总体上进一步考虑中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性，另一方面以古植物学为例对此进行具体的阐述。 我们的态度是：用历史的眼光、世界的眼光和发展的眼光看待中国国家自然历史博物馆。 第一部分 总体上进一步考虑 1. 原则及使命： 维护科学利益和国家利益，完善《古生物化石保护条例》、 《博物馆管理办法》 等，促进世界古植物学的发展 2. 世界自然历史博物馆的发展趋势 在网络及大数据时代，高水平科学研究的、综合性自然历史博物馆呈现网状发展态势 -- 科学性、艺术性和社会性 自然历史博物馆之间的交流与合作（国内 / 国际） 自然历史博物馆与大学的协调发展 自然历史博物馆与研究所的协调发展 自然历史博物馆与社会公众的互动 3. 中国国家自然历史博物馆在国家层面的历史责任 有必要整合相关资源和研究力量，促进学科交叉，促进设备与信息共享 北京市属：北京自然博物馆等 中国科学院系统：有关研究机构和平台 4. 突破体制瓶颈 北京自然博物馆可以升格为中国国家自然历史博物馆吗？ 要吸取北京自然博物馆的经验和教训。不能将中国国家自然历史博物馆关在僵化的体制牢笼里，不能让它憋死在体制里 5. 推进相关法规的建设和实施 (1) 《古生物化石保护条例》 中华人民共和国国务院令 第 580 号 《古生物化石保护条例》已经 2010 年 8 月 25 日国务院第 123 次常务会议通过，现予公布，自 2011 年 1 月 1 日起施行。 总理 温家宝 二○一○年九月五日 (2) 《古生物化石保护条例实施办法》 中华人民共和国国土资源部令 第 57 号 《古生物化石保护条例实施办法》已经 2012 年 12 月 11 日国土资源部第 4 次部务会议通过，现予以发布，自 2013 年 3 月 1 日起施行。 部 长 徐绍史 2012 年 12 月 27 日 (3) 《博物馆管理办法》 中华人民共和国文化部令 第 35 号 《博物馆管理办法》已经 2005 年 12 月 22 日文化部部务会议审议通过，现予发布，自 2006 年 1 月 1 日起施行。 部 长 孙家正 二○○五年十二月二十二日 (4) 《北京市博物馆管理条例》 2000 年 9 月 22 日北京市第十一届人民代表大会常务委员会第二十一次会议通过 6. 专家管理与学术共同体建设与合作 (1) 中国国家古生物化石专家委员会 2010 年 12 月 23 日在北京成立，是中国古生物化石保护管理最高层次的科学决策咨询机构。 http://www.mlr.gov.cn/dzhj/gswhs/tzgg/201110/t20111007_980560.htm 国土资厅发 16 号 为加强古生物化石资源的保护与管理，中国国土资源部决定成立国家古生物化石专家委员会。 http://www.mlr.gov.cn/dzhj/gswhs/ (2) 中国自然科学博物馆协会 http://www.cansm.org/n11744816/index.html 中国自然科学博物馆协会自然博物馆专业委员会 http://www.cansm.org/n11744816/n11766140/n11770432/11802643.html 中国自然科学博物馆协会国土资源博物馆专业委员会 http://www.cansm.org/n11744816/n11766140/n11770432/13716655.html (3) 中国植物学会古植物学分会 中国古生物学会古植物学分会 7. 参照标准 NHM (London) http://www.nhm.ac.uk/ NMNH (Smithsonian NationalMuseum of Natural History) http://www.mnh.si.edu/ American Museum of NaturalHistory http://www.amnh.org/ 中国国家自然历史博物馆设置：矿物学、人类学、植物学、昆虫学、无脊椎动物学、脊椎动物学、古生物学等部门。古生物学包含古植物学。 第二部分 以古植物学为例简述建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性 1. 关于中国古植物学研究的国家体系 中国古植物学研究力量的分布格局存在体制上的脆弱性和不稳定性。 半个多世纪以来，中国古植物学的研究人员 ( 包括标本采集人员 ) 主要分布在中国科学院、高等院校、地质矿产、博物馆诸多部门。但是，各部门、各单位的古植物学发展水平与发展规模极不均衡，且极不稳定，有些部门或单位的古植物学研究工作已处于停顿状态或被世人淡忘了 。 中国古植物学研究力量的分布格局及其形成过程在某种程度上反映了 20 世纪下半叶中国古植物学的发展历史及其与国家需求之间的关系。 中国科学院是中国古植物学研究的火车头吗？ 单位利益与国家利益 中国古植物学研究的严重“小农意识” 2. 在国家层面加强植物化石标本的馆藏工作 中国在古植物学领域的科学积累是很有限的、是很不容易的，中国的古植物学事业一直在混沌中挣扎，一直在昏暗中摸索。低水平的、粗放的、很不严肃的、很不严谨的学术管理甚为普遍，为中国古植物学事业带来极大浪费和损失，直接危害科学积累和学术声誉。 中国的植物化石标本浪费严重，有些学术机构竟然将植物化石标本当垃圾扔掉。 3. 中国国家自然历史博物馆与中国家自然科学基金委员会、中国地质调查局等基金组织和学术机构的关系 通过法律或协议形式在国家层面加强在植物化石标本的采集、馆藏和研究等合作。 4. 以中国国家自然历史博物馆为平台培养人才 中国国家自然历史博物馆本身应该具有培养古植物学人才的功能和作用。 目前，中国古植物学的教学与科研平台不多。大批古植物学博士改行，造成人才极大浪费。许多古植物学博士缺乏研究平台，不得不放弃古植物学研究。中国国家自然历史博物馆可以充当大型公共学术平台，服务古植物学博士的教学与科研，他们可以利用这个大型平台申请项目，开展研究。 5. 引领中国有关自然历史博物馆发展古植物学 美国古植物学的研究力量主要分布在高水平的、研究型博物馆。美国一些大学的古植物学研究也“博物馆化”，即在大学所属博物馆进行。美国古植物学的实际研究基本上与美国科学院没有关系。 中国的许多自然历史博物馆似乎不重视古植物学研究。 中国许多大学的古植物学研究似乎还没有同自然博物馆的发展自然而然地连结起来。 6. 古植物学在中国的普及工作相当落后 植物化石标本展示、知识普及等都很落后。中国国家自然历史博物馆可以开展这方面的工作，服务大众，服务社会。这样，中国古植物学会赢得广泛的理解和支持。 本期编目： 古植物学的故事 199 期 以古植物学为例谈建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性（提纲） Story of PalaeobotanySeries (No.199) How to promote the rapidrise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XVIII) Palaeobotany is employedto illustrate the necessity and urgency of establishing the National Museum ofNatural History of China (NMNHC) 相关阅读： 博物馆与古植物学专题 (Museum and Palaeobotany, 4th ed.) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-594451.html 2012-7-21 22:37 古植物学的故事 171 期 伟大的国家需要伟大的自然历史博物馆 -- 关于建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性与紧迫性的论证工作之简要回顾 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.171): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part XVII) Great nation has a facility of great museum of naturalhistory ----A brief historical perspective of the necessity andurgency of establishing the National Museum of Natural History of China (NMNHC) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=594335 2012-7-21 14:36 古植物学的故事 168 期 树倒猢狲散与古植物学灾难 ---- 博物馆（标本馆）之研究平台对古植物学的重要性 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.168): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part XVI) Palaeobotanical catastrophes like rats abandoning asinking ship -----Museums or herbarium as important facility forpalaeobotanical studies. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=591579 2012-7-12 22:36 古植物学的故事 159 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.159): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part XIV) The Statutes of the People ’ sRepublic of China on Fossil Conservation and the future of Chinese palaeobotany 《古生物化石保护条例》与古植物学 http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=570962 2012-5-14 22:00 古植物学的故事 158 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.158): Birbal Sahni 古植物学研究所及其博物馆 ( 标本馆 ) ------ 古植物学研究的“印度模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part XIII) An Indian model: An autonomous institute of palaeobotany(Lucknow, India) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=568666 2012-5-8 22:09 古植物学的故事 157 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.157): 耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“美国模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part XII) An American model: Palaeobotanical studies of the YalePeabody Museum of Natural History http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567922 2012-5-6 22:57 古植物学的故事 156 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.156): 瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“瑞典模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part XI) A Swedish model: Palaeobotanical studies of the SwedishMuseum of Natural History (Stockholm) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567568 2012-5-5 22:30 古植物学的故事 155 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.155): 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之十） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆有什么用？ How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part X) The roles of the National Museum of Natural History ofChina http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567169 2012-5-4 23:25 古植物学的故事 152 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之九） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ Story of Palaeobotany Series (152): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part IX) Where is the National Museum of Natural History of China? http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=563627 2012-4-25 22:05 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 3 】 古植物学的故事 147 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之五） 中国国家自然历史博物馆势在必建 ---- 科研是办好博物馆的生命线 Story of Palaeobotany Series (147): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part V) The National Museum of Natural History of China should beestablished---The world-class original research is a life line for thedevelopment of the museum. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=500218 2011-10-2322:30 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 2 】 古植物学的故事 (133 期 ) 美国古植物学是如何崛起的 ？ ( 之十六 ) 美国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学崛起 Story ofPalaeobotany Series (133): How didAmerican palaeobotany rise? (Part XVI) American museums of natural history and the rapid rise ofAmerican palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=485370 2011-9-11 23:17 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 1 】 古植物学的故事（ 132 期） 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之一） 中国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学未来 Story of Palaeobotany Series (132): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany inthe round? (Part I) China’s museums of natural history and the future ofChinese palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=481614 2011-8-31 21:41 古植物学的故事（ 32 ）： 简述中国古植物学研究力量的分布格局 Story of PalaeobotanySeries (No.32): Brief introduction to the distribution pattern of researchinstitutions of Chinese palaeobotany http://www.sciencenet.cn/blog/user_content.aspx?id=291308 发表于 2010-1-30 6:22:37 《古植物学的故事》内容预告（ 2012 年 6 月中旬 —8 月中旬） http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-225931-581556.html 2012-6-1223:24 ==============================
网址链接 1st European Conference on Natural ProductsSEPTEMBER 22, 2013 - SEPTEMBER 25, 2013, DECHEMA-HAUS, FRANKFURT AM MAIN Research and Applications The "Conference on Natural Products: Research and Applications" will bring together international experts from various communities dealing with current topics of bacterial, fungal and plant secondary metabolite research. Special emphasis will be taken to expedite interaction between applied industrial and academic topics such as natural functions of secondary metabolites, physiology and regulation, genome mining, synthetic biology and biodiversity plus exploitation, application and development. Topics Exploiting Plant Natural Products This session focusses on new strategies and methods for elucidation of pathways in plant secondary metabolism and their reconstitution in artificial systems. This includes all-embracing analyses of pathways with respect to regulation, enzymology, and evolution and the application of technologies like new sequencing approaches, genome analyses, and metabolomics combined with bioinformatic tools. - New sequencing / bioinformatic strategies for elucidating plant pathways - New analytical methods / metabolomics methods to explore flux and intermediates of plant pathways - Reconstitution (synthetic biology) of plant pathways - Enzymology of unusual plant-derived biosynthetic enzymes - Evolution of plant secondary metabolism Genome Mining and Biodiversity This topic will relate to methods to increase the probability of success in finding new biologically acitve molecules from terrestrial as well as marine fungal and microbial resources. Topics will include e.g.: 1. the advantage of chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic data to identify hitherto neglected species with great potential among taxonomic groups that are known to be creative producers of bioactive metabolites. 2. the value of innovative strategies and methods targeting the isolation and cultivation of new species that could hitherto not be explored 3. the fascinating options to employ genome mining and synthetic biology for exploitation of slow growing organisms that are difficult to culture and make their secondary metabolites available to biological screening through heterologous expression of the biosynthetic genes 4. the utility of innovative technologies to arouse silent biosynthetic genes Chemical and Biological Synthesis Within this topic all aspects of biosynthesis and synthesis of natural products will be merged. Topics will include e.g.: 1. precursor directed biosynthesis and mutasynthesis towards natural product analogues 2. novel biosynthetic enzymes and enzymatic systems for novel compounds and precursors 3. total synthesis of complex natural products 4. medicinal chemistry of natural products Natural Products - Synthesis, Derivatives and Application Over the years natural products have consistently delivered to the pipeline of drug approvals in all areas of human and animal diseases. Most recently the majority of approvals by the FDA in 2010 were natural products based. This session will focus on natural products which are advanced in the pipeline covering synthesis, pre-clinic and clinic as wells as recent approvals. Physiology and Regulation This session comprises talks concerning the molecular regulation of secondary metabolite biosynthesis in microorganisms. The physiological conditions under which gene clusters / biosynthetic pathways are activated will be addressed, as well as the regulatory genes involved. Furthermore the physiological importance of secondary metabolites for the producing organism as well as extra- and intracellular signals controlling biosynthetic processes will be discussed. Natural Functions of Secondary Metabolites to be completed Invited Keynote Speakers Mervyn Bibb, John Innes Centre, Norwich/UK Gerald F. Bills, The University of Texas, Houston, TX/USA Ian Graham, University of York/UK Craig Townsend, John Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD/USA
据美国食品协会（IFT）报道，加利福尼亚否决了“加利福尼亚人有权知道转基因食品”的37号提案。按照该提案，凡是包括转基因成分的食品必须在食品标签上标注“转基因”。如果该提案获得通过，将禁止转基因食品和其它食品一样使用“天然”食品标签，从而把两者区别开。但是，食品生产商更喜欢“天然”而努力绕开这种争论。 http://www.ift.org/food-technology/newsletters/ift-weekly-newsletter/2012/november/111412.aspx#headlines3 California rejects GMO labeling: What’s next for GMOs on food labels? On Nov. 6, California voters defeated Proposition 37 (53.1% to 46.9%), “The California Right to Know Genetically Engineered Food Act,” requiring label disclosure of foods containing genetically modified organisms (GMOs). If passed, the proposition would have prohibited GMO food and other processed food from being labeled “natural.” In the most recent ePerspective post, Karen C. Duester, President of Food Consulting Co., offers some considerations for food manufacturers given the rejection of Prop 37. As she explains, the issue of GMO labeling has put a spotlight on use of the “natural” claim. Companies are becoming more conservative surrounding the use of “natural” in an effort to steer clear of the controversy. Read Duester’s ePerspective post to see other ways that the Prop 37 rejection may impact food manufacturers.
第七届多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议与第十二届新能源国际学术会议以及工程热物理协会多相流年会将于10月26日-30日在西安召开 由动力工程多相流国家重点实验室连续举办六届的多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议（International Symposium on Multiphase Flow, Heat Mass Transfer and Energy Conversion (ISMF2012)，其第七届（7th International Symposium on Multiphase Flow, Heat Mass Transfer and Energy Conversion (ISMF2012)）由 中国 国家 自然科学基金会（National Natural Science Foundation of China）、 中国 教育部（Ministry of Education of China）， 中国 工程热物理学会（Chinese Society of Engineering Thermophysics）， 国际 氢能协会（International Association for Hydrogen Energy）， 西安交通大学（Xi’an Jiaotong University）资助， 由动力工程多相流国家重点实验室（State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, China）负责将于10月26日-30日在西安举办。届时由 中国 国家 自然科学基金会（National Natural Science Foundation of China）、 中国 教育部（Ministry of Education of China）， 中国 工程热物理学会（Chinese Society of Engineering Thermophysics）， 国际 氢能协会（International Association for Hydrogen Energy）， 西安交通大学（Xi’an Jiaotong University）资助， 亦由我实验室（State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, China）负责举办的第十二届新能源国际学术会议（The 12th International Conference on Clean Energy (ICCE 2012)），以及由我实验室负责本次举办的工程热物理协会多相流年会将于10月26日-30日与第七届多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议在西安联合召开。新能源国际学术会议将为 来自 学术界、产业界 以及政府 部门的科学家和工程师们 提供一个 分享研究观点 和 目前解决可持续发展、 环境 友好 以及国际 能源问题方案 的全球性交流平台 。所有参与新能源国际学术会议人员均可免费参加第七届多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议 。 多相流、传热传质及能量转化 已经进行了相当 广泛 的 研究 。 为了促进 在这一重要领域 的研究和 学术交流 ，我们已经 在 西安 成功举办了五次 国际多相流、传热传质学术研讨会 。 由T.N. Veziroglu 教授 和陈学俊教授的大力推动下 最初命名为“ 中国 美 两相 流动 和传热 研讨会 ” 的 第一次专题讨论会 于 1984年 成功举办 。1989年 举办的 第二次研讨会 正式命名为“ 多相流 及 传热 国际研讨会 ” 。 随后， 第三届和 第四届 多相流 及 传热 国际研讨会分别 于1994年 和 1999 年 成功举办 。 考虑到 环境保护和 全球气候变暖问题 ， 多相流 及 传热 国际研讨会将 会议 范围扩大 到 包含 能量转换 方面 ，主要是 可再生 的 清洁能源开发以及新 能源 转换 技术 ， 如 太阳能 ，氢能 ， 燃料电池及其联合研究 等 。 2005年举办的 第五 次 多相流 及 传热 国际研讨会 正式 更名为 现在 所使用会议 名称 “多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议 。 扩展的国际会议平台为多相流、传热传质以及能量转换领域的学者们提供了或者将提供更 新鲜的研究信息和科研 经验的交流契机 。 第六届多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议 由 电力工程 多相流 国家重点实验室在 2009年 成功举办。现我实验室又组织举办第七届多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议。 多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议之会议掠影 1st China-U.S.Seminar on Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transer,China 2nd International Symposium on Multiphase Flow and Heat Mass Transfer 3rd International Symposium on Multiphase Flow and Heat Mass Transfer 4th International Symposium on Multiphase Flow, Heat Mass Transfer and Energy Conversion 5th International Symposium on Multiphase Flow, Heat Mass Transfer and Energy Conversion 6th International Symposium on Multiphase Flow, Heat Mass Transfer and Energy Conversion 会议相关主要 附加信息如下： 多相流、传热传质及能量转化国际学术会议和新能源国际学术会议信息专门网站： http://www.icce2012.xjtu.edu.cn/welcome http://www.ismf2012.xjtu.edu.cn/welcome 会议日程-打印版.pdf
A Pythagorean triplet is a set of three natural numbers, a b c, for which, a 2 + b 2 = c 2 For example, 3 2 + 4 2 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5 2 . There exists exactly one Pythagorean triplet for which a + b + c = 1000. Find the product abc. a - expand.grid(1:250,250:500,250:500) a - a +a +a ==1000),] a - a ^2+a ^2==a ^2),] cat("三元组中abc的乘积是:", a *a *a , "\n") 三元组中abc的乘积是: 31875000
Direct access to desired genes Study of natural compounds made simpler: Bacterial researchers develop improved DNA technique Targeted exchange of DNA segments instead of tedious search: German and Chinese scientists have developed a technique for the direct isolation of genetic information from complex mixtures of different bacteria. Compounds produced by bacteria can often be used as pharmaceutics, for instance as antibiotics or chemotherapeutics. With the new method, they can be produced in the laboratory much easier than previously. The researchers describe this newly developed method in the journal Nature Biotechnology. The method is a joint achievement of researchers from the Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), a branch of the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI) in Braunschweig, the Biotechnology Centre of the Technical University Dresden, the College of Life Sciences in Hunan/China and the company Gene Bridges in Heidelberg. Workgroups of Professors Rolf Müller, Francis Stewart and Youming Zhang were involved. In addition to primary metabolism, which covers among other things the basic functions involved in housekeeping and reproduction, bacteria have also developed a number of secondary metabolic pathways. Products of these pathways are not essential for the survival of the bacteria, but help to improve adaptation to their environment. Many of these secondary metabolites are substances of pharmaceutical value. In order to characterize and analyze them for their potential medicinal application, researchers have to produce and isolate significant quantities of these compounds. Often it is difficult to harvest them from bacteria, as the exact conditions, under which the secondary metabolites are produced, are unknown. Thus scientists often isolate the genes, which are responsible for the production of the substance and transfer these to other bacteria that are easier to cultivate and produce the substance of interest. To date, scientists have used a so-called DNA library for this task, which contains the whole genetic information of an organism as small pieces. After creation of a library, researchers had to screen it for the candidate gene. If a complete copy was present, they would transfer it to a special small DNA molecule and implant it into the target bacterium. There was an additional obstacle for natural compounds: “Often, a larger number of genes, so called gene clusters, are needed for the production of secondary metabolites. Their isolation is rather difficult”, explains Rolf Müller, director of HIPS and head of the department of Microbial Natural Products. In the age of massive parallel DNA sequencing, the complete genomes of many bacteria are already known, and with them theoretically thousands of pathways for secondary metabolites. With the help of the newly described method of so-called “direct DNA cloning” genes for secondary metabolites can specifically be isolated and processed. The long detour via the DNA library can be bypassed. To achieve this, participating scientists Xiaoying Bian of HIPS and Jun Fu from the Biotechnological Centre of the Technical University of Dresden and their colleagues have improved the patented technology of homologous recombination: Certain enzymes can be used to exchange a gene segment for a different, similarly composed segment. If the order of the components at the beginning and at the end of the gene of interest is known, a similar segment can be constructed and exchanged enzymatically. In principle, this method is not novel. However the enzymes currently used, Red-alpha and Red-beta, are not efficient enough to employ this approach for the isolation of large DNA segments and hence do not allow the subsequent production of natural compounds in the lab. The researchers have now discovered that certain variants of the enzymes RecE and RecT work much better than Red-alpha and Red-beta. “Improved direct cloning makes it much simpler and shorter to isolate and characterize interesting secondary compounds” says Xiaoying Bian, one of the first authors of the study from HIPS. “The huge effort to create and screen a DNA library is now obsolete.” HIPS director Rolf Müller adds: “Many pathogenic bacteria have become resistant against common antibiotics and therefore it is crucial to find new substances to target infections. Our approach allows us to make use of the available complete genome sequences of many microorganisms for the targeted search for new compounds.” The researchers have already employed the simplified method for the direct transfer of several gene clusters from the luminescent bacteria Photorhabdus luminescens to Escherichia coli . In doing so, they have identified two previously unknown secondary metabolites, Luminmycin A and Luminmide A/B. Although this recently published study aims to illustrate the possibilities of the method, it also raises hopes for the discovery of novel natural compounds that can be used as antibiotics and thus lead to continued progress in fighting infectious diseases. Original Publication: Jun Fu, Xiaoying Bian, Shengbaio Hu, Hailong Wang, Fan Huang, Philipp M Seibert, Alberto Plaza, Liqiu Xia, Rolf Müller, A Francis Stewart Youming Zhang (2012) Full-length RecE enhances linear-linear homologous recombination and facilitates direct cloning and bioprospecting, Nature Biotechnology, 30, 440-446.
中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ 本期编目： 古植物学的故事 152 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之九） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ 有人问：中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ 很遗憾 ---- 到目前为止（ 2012 年 4 月 22 日）还没有“ 中国国家自然历史博物馆”。所以，大家现在看不到 “ 中国国家自然历史博物馆”。在 地大物博的中国建立世界一流的“ 中国国家自然历史博物馆”已是几代人的梦想，且依然是梦想。那么，为什么没有建立 “ 中国国家自然历史博物馆”呢？ ∮ 1 ：“ 中国国家自然历史博物馆”是一个好馆名，是很响亮的，也是国际接轨的。它所对应的英文名称是“ National Museum of Natural History of China ”（简称“ NMNHC ”）。“ NMNHC ”之缩写将来可以很方便地用于标本等信息的编码之需要，很容易为国际同行所理解。 ∮ 2 ：是否有必要建立中国国家自然历史博物馆？答案是肯定的 ---- 有必要。有关专家早已充分论证了建立中国国家自然历史博物馆的必要性和紧迫性。 ∮ 3 ：是否缺乏专门人才建设 中国国家自然历史博物馆？关于自然历史的研究当今中国已是学科门类齐全，专门人才也不缺。 ∮ 4 ：是否缺乏足够的资金建立中国国家自然历史博物馆？在当今中国，假如国家财政拨款，亿万富豪们也慷慨捐赠，这个问题是可以解决的。 ∮ 5 ：是否缺乏足够的土地空间 建立中国国家自然历史博物馆？专家们讨论过选址及相关问题，还可以继续讨论。 ∮ 6 ：是否缺乏强有力的主管部门负责协调并领导 中国国家自然历史博物馆的建设与发展？ NMNHC 隶属哪个部门比较合适？这是一个体制上的难题，因为涉及到国家利益、部门利益、单位利益、个人利益以及科学利益等一系列问题。 ∮ 7 ：是否有可能直接将北京自然博物馆升格为中国国家自然历史博物馆？这是一条捷径吗？ ∮ 8 ：是否有必要使中国国家自然历史博物馆成为中国古植物学研究的重要基地？未来的中国国家自然历史博物馆应该在中国古植物学研究事业的国家体系中占有举足轻重的地位。 中国人常说，名不正，言不顺；言不顺，事不成。纵然建立 中国国家自然历史博物馆属于名正言顺的好事情，可是，好事也不成。现在看来，中国国家自然历史博物馆的命运主要取决于科学政策制定及项目管理过程中顶层设计的战略性眼光。 孙启高 2012 年 4 月 22 日 ------------------ ---------- 相关资料与链接： 博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 专题 (2 nd ed.) 针对古植物学的跨学科特点，欧美诸国在漫长的古植物学发展过程中，逐步建立了符合古植物学自身发展规律的研究体制和维系模式。英国自然历史博物馆（伦敦）、德国柏林和法兰克福自然历史博物馆以及瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆等都是世界一流的研究型博物馆，同时肩负着重要的社会服务责任。这些博物馆收藏有丰富的植物化石标本，同时也是古植物学研究的重要基地。 美国古植物学的研究力量主要分布在高水平的研究型博物馆，如：位于美国 首都 华盛顿的史密松国立自然历史博物馆。美国一些大学的古植物学研究也“博物馆化”，即在大学所属博物馆进行，如：耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆、佛罗里达大学自然历史博物馆等，从而构成了美国古植物学研究的国家体系或研究平台。 尽管古植物学是一个冷门传统学科，普遍不景气，但是欧美古植物学拥有相对稳固的研究平台和相对稳定的学术体制，为维系古植物学之学科生存与发展提供了现实性的可能。 欧美古植物学的历史经验和维系模式值得中国有关学术机构和广大同仁认真考虑和学习。（参见：《古植物学简史与我们的使命》， p.139 ） 古植物学的故事 147 期 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 3 】 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之五） 中国国家自然历史博物馆势在必建 ---- 科研是办好博物馆的生命线 Story of Palaeobotany Series (147): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part V) The National Museum of Natural History of China should be established---The world-class original research is a life line for the development of the museum. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=500218 2011-10-23 22:30 古植物学的故事 (133 期 ) 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 2 】 美国古植物学是如何崛起的？ ( 之十六 ) 美国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学崛起 Story of Palaeobotany Series (133): How did American palaeobotany rise? (Part XVI) American museums of natural history and the rapid rise of American palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=485370 2011-9-11 23:17 古植物学的故事（ 132 期） 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 1 】 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之一） 中国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学未来 Story of Palaeobotany Series (132): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part I) China’s museums of natural history and the future of Chinese palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=481614 2011-8-31 21:41 难产的国家自然博物馆 出处： 原载 2001 年 3 月 29 日人民法院报 http://www.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=6731k_author = 作者： 刘海涛 发布时间： 2002-07-15 15:14:30 转载： http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=563215 2012-4-24 22:28 高校博物馆：大学的辉煌还是大学的鸡肋？ 出处： http://news.163.com/09/0325/07/5580MCHQ000120GU.html 转载： http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogid=481619 2011-8-31 22:03 高校博物馆如何走出“围墙” ? 出处： http://news.xinhuanet.com/society/2011-07/18/c_121680321.htm 转载： http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogid=481618 2011-8-31 21:59 辽宁古生物博物馆开馆仪式隆重举行 出处： http://210.30.208.76/html/zhxw/2011/5/1152117158790.html 转载： http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogid=459262 2011-6-25 22:05
Thanksto Mr Zong, Compressive sensing (CS) comes into my insight.Yes, it's exaxtly what i want, repressing signal or function,both can be referred"information", in an adaptive style, based on the information's structure. Wavelet is a good tool to extract information's structure from redundant original information, compressity have much space to be done.The phenomenon of ubiquitous compressibility raises very natural questions: why go to so much e?ort to acquire all the data when most of what we get will be thrown away? Can’t we just directly measure the part that won’t end up being thrown away? Yes, this technonogy is called COMPRSSIVE SENSING.CS methods represent, anaysis information at same time.Click http://dsp.rice.edu/cs to access CS world.
Dr. Flint是我的博士导师，关于申请有什么问题可以和我联系。 Graduate (PhD) Research Assistantships Available in Human Dimensions of Natural Resources University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Dept. of Natural Resources Environmental Sciences Applications are being considered for Ph.D. students to join Dr. Courtney Flint’s Community Natural Resources Lab beginning summer or fall 2012. Our current research examines interactions of values, knowledge, and conservation actions at multiple scales across multiple contexts by a variety of practitioners. Our research incorporates qualitative, quantitative, and spatial analytical methods. Current projects include: · Human dimensions of biodiversity and natural area conservation in the US · Comparative human-nature relationships and landscape sustainability in the US and Europe · Water quality perspectives and conservation practices in agricultural watersheds in Illinois · International human dimensions of coastal hazard mitigation Inquiries from interested applicants with a social science background may be sent to Dr. Flint at cflint@illinois.edu . More information can be found at http://communitynatres.nres.illinois.edu and about the NRES department at http://nres.illinois.edu .
Preface Space has long been the setting of especially intricate encounters between human aspirations and the implacable laws of the physical universe. It is a natural laboratory of fundamental science, at once the source of seminal conceptual achievements and bewildering mysteries. It has been the venue for both spectacular feats of engineering and tragic accidents. It has been the locus of uplifting collaboration among nations as well as ominous confrontation. It is an ever-compelling template on which popular imagination plays out. The resulting array of interests, attitudes, and emotions engaged in the practical utilization of space has made that topic an especially demanding problem of public policy. Because of the risks and expense involved in space operations, the burden so far has been borne primarily by the major national govern ments. And those governments have been driven primarily by national security considerations, the legacy of confrontations between the two global alliances that dominated the latter half of the twentieth century. The passing of that era and the progressive expansion of commercial utilization of space have clearly created a new situation but not as yet the decisive reformulation of basic purpose and operational policy that the change of circumstance can be expected to require. There has in fact been an argument about the basic character of the appropriate adjustment. An impulse emerging from within the United States government to dominate the utilization of space for national military advantage has been resisted by a nearly universal coalition of other countries defending the principle of equitable utilization for common benefit. If the outcome were to be directly decided by simple majority sentiment, the argument would have long since been settled. Most people when asked opt for collaboration and the pursuit of common interest; redirecting the inertia of established policy is anything but simple, however. The underlying argument involves a collision of intense convictions, and casual endorsement of common interest is often mixed with the residual fear of imperial aggression that is an enduring product of historical experience. The appropriate balance between collaboration and confrontation in the era of globalization is an unsettled question, and the implications for space policy have not been worked out in the necessary detail. The effort to do so is demanding, and will undoubtedly take some time. To stimulate the broad discussion that must accompany any fundamental redirection of policy, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences initiated the Reconsidering the Rules of Space project in 2002. Five occasional papers have been published dealing with, respectively, the basic laws of physics that apply to all space activity (The Physics of Space Security: A Reference Manual, by David Wright, Laura Grego, and Lisbeth Gronlund, 2005); the fundamental issues of security policy (Reconsidering the Rules of Space, by Nancy Gallagher and John Steinbruner, 2008); the policies of the principal national governments (United States Space Policy: Challenges and Opportunities, by George Abbey and Neal Lane, 2005, and Russian and Chinese Responses to U.S. Military Plans in Space, by Pavel Podvig and Hui Zhang, 2008); and the historical origins of China’s space program (A Place for One’s Mat: China’s Space Program, 1956– 2003, by Gregory Kulacki and Jeffrey G. Lewis, 2009). A European Approach to Space Security, by Xavier Pasco, is the sixth occasional paper of the series. It documents the efforts of EU members to develop common policies and practical collaboration for space missions related to security. It notes that the European community has not as yet been able to establish authoritative coordination of national military programs and warns that balancing those programs with increasingly important commercial and social interests is a generally unresolved problem. But it also suggests that EU efforts to develop collective rules, confidence-building measures, and codes of responsible conduct can make an important constructive contribution to working out global arrangements for space. John D. Steinbruner Professor of Public Policy, University of Maryland Director, Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM) Co-Chair, Committee on International Security Studies, American Academy of Arts and Sciences 原文见 http://www.amacad.org/publications/spaceEurope.pdf
Preface Space has long been the setting of especially intricate encounters between human aspirations and the implacable laws of the physical universe. It is a natural laboratory of fundamental science, at once the source of seminal conceptual achievements and bewildering mysteries. It has been the venue for both spectacular feats of engineering and tragic accidents. It has been the locus of uplifting collaboration among nations as well as ominous confrontation. It is an ever-compelling template on which popular imagination plays out. The resulting array of interests, attitudes, and emotions engaged in the practical utilization of space has made that topic an especially demanding problem of public policy. Because of the risks and expense involved in space operations, the burden so far has been borne primarily by the major national govern ments. And those governments have been driven primarily by national security considerations, the legacy of confrontations between the two global alliances that dominated the latter half of the twentieth century. The passing of that era and the progressive expansion of commercial utilization of space have clearly created a new situation but not as yet the decisive reformulation of basic purpose and operational policy that the change of circumstance can be expected to require. There has in fact been an argument about the basic character of the appropriate adjustment. An impulse emerging from within the U.S. government to dominate the utilization of space for national military advantage has been resisted by a nearly universal coalition of other countries defending the principle of equitable utilization for common benefit. If the outcome were to be directly decided by simple majority sentiment, the argument would have long since been settled. Most people when asked opt for collaboration and the pursuit of common interest; redirecting the inertia of established policy is anything but simple, however. The underlying argument involves a collision of intense convictions, and casual endorsement of common interest is often mixed with the residual fear of imperial aggression that is an enduring product of historical experience. The appropriate balance between collaboration and confrontation in the era of globalization is an unsettled question, and the implications for space policy have not been worked out in the necessary detail. The effort to do so is demanding, and will undoubtedly take some time. To stimulate the broad discussion that must accompany any fundamental redirection of policy, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences initiated the Reconsidering the Rules of Space project in 2002. Four occasional papers have been published dealing with, respectively, the basic laws of physics that apply to all space activity (The Physics of Space Security: A Reference Manual, by David Wright, Laura Grego, and Lisbeth Gronlund, 2005); the fundamental issues of security policy (Reconsidering the Rules for Space Security, by Nancy Gallagher and John Steinbruner, 2008); and the policies of the principal national governments (United States Space Policy: Challenges and Opportunities, by George Abbey and Neal Lane, 2005, and Russian and Chinese Responses to U.S. Military Plans in Space, by Pavel Podvig and Hui Zhang, 2008). A Place for One’s Mat: China’s Space Program, 1956–2003 is the fifth paper of the project series. Using Chinese-language sources, Gregory Kulacki and Jeffrey G. Lewis examine three formative events in the development of China’s utilization of space: the launch of the first satellite in 1970, the launch of the first communications satellite in 1984, and the first human spaceflight in 2003. They trace the origins and basic purposes of each of these efforts and set them in the context of China’s internal history. Their central observation is that China understood each of these efforts to be a measure of national accomplishment necessary to qualify for inclusion among the major spacefaring countries that set the rules. Equity appears to have been the principal concern of China’s political leadership. That motive is more legitimate and less belligerent than those typically attributed by foreign observers—the U.S. intelligence community in particular. The authors do not claim to provide a comprehensive account of China’s space program or an indisputable interpretation of its fundamental purposes. They do, however, provide evidence to be considered in any fair-minded assessment of the program’s global significance. John D. Steinbruner Professor of Public Policy, University of Maryland Director, Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM) Co-Chair, Committee on International Security Studies, American Academy of Arts and Sciences 原文见 http://www.amacad.org/publications/spaceChina.pdf
Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History 掠影 ( 二 ) 黄安年文 黄安年的博客 /2011 年12 月8 日 ( 美东时间 ) 发布 2010 年 12 月 23 日 , 家人带领两个外孙参观了位于耶鲁大学的 170 Whitney Avenue, New Haven, CT 的 Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, 这个博物馆引发孩子的极大兴趣。 照片（一） 26 张 , （二） 26 张 , （三） 16 张 , 是即时拍摄的。 *********************************** Yale Peabody Museum Mission The mission of the Peabody Museum is to serve Yale University by advancing our understanding of earth ’ s history through geological, biological, and anthropological research, and by communicating the results of this research to the widest possible audience through publication, exhibition, and educational programs. Fundamental to this mission is stewardship of the Museum ’ s rich collections, which provide a remarkable record of the history of the earth, its life, and its cultures. Conservation, augmentation and use of these collections become increasingly urgent as modern threats to the diversity of life and culture continue to intensify. A short history of the Yale Peabody Museum Yale University ’ s earliest museum collection, begun in the 18th century, was a miscellaneous assortment of “ natural and artificial curiosities ” from around the world typical of college collections of the time. Systematic collecting of specimens for teaching and research began in 1802 with the appointment of Benjamin Sillimanas Professor of Chemistry and Natural History. The outstanding mineral collection Silliman built for Yale, which he used in his pioneering teaching of geology and mineralogy, became an important source of public entertainment and one of the principal attractions for visitors to New Haven. Silliman ’ s activities helped to establish Yale as a major center of scientific education in the first half of the 19th century. Among the undergraduates attracted to the University by its scientific reputation was Othniel Charles Marsh. Marsh ’ s education and his postgraduate studies abroad were funded by his uncle, the wealthy international financier George Peabody.When toward the end of his life Peabody began to distribute his vast fortune to, among others, institutions concerned with education, Marsh persuaded his uncle to include Yale in his philanthropies. In 1866 the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University was founded with a gift of $150,000 for the construction of a museum building and the care and increase of the museum and its collections. O.C. Marsh was appointed Professor of Paleontology at Yale in 1866, the first such professorship in the United States, and only the second in the world. In addition to serving as director of the Peabody Museum, Marsh, with George Jarvis Brush (Mineralogy) and Addison Emery Verrill(Zoology), was also one of the Peabody Museum ’ s first three curators. Using his inheritance from his uncle, who died in 1869, Marsh proceeded to amass large collections vertebrate skeletons, vertebrate and invertebrate fossils, fossil footprints, and archaeological and ethnological artifacts. The first Peabody Museum building opened to the public in 1876, but its capacity was soon strained by the huge dinosaur bones that Marsh ’ s collectors were sending in to the rapidly growing collections. In 1917 it was demolished to make way for a major dormitory complex, the Harkness Quadrangle. Construction of a new building was delayed by World War I, and the collections were in nearly inaccessible storage for seven years, until the current Peabody Museum building became ready for occupancy in 1924. Dedicated in December 1925, the new building ’ s two-story Great Hall was specifically designed to accommodate some of O.C. Marsh ’ s dinosaurs, such the mounting of the giant “ Brontosaurus ” (Apatosaurus), completed in 1931 after six years of labor. In 1947 Rudolph F. Zallinger finished the fresco secco painting that is probably the Yale Peabody Museum ’ s best known feature, the 110-foot mural The Age of Reptiles on the south wall of the Great Hall. The new building, like the old one, quickly filled with growing collections and the people studying them. Bingham Laboratory, completed in 1959, and the Kline Geology Laboratory (1963), each connected to the Museum and helped to relieve the need for storage, work, and classroom space. Museum collections and staff are also housed in parts of three additional buildings, and a field station a few miles away on Long Island Sound provides varied research opportunities. In recognition of the importance of conserving the collections and of enabling scientists and scholars to study them properly, the University constructed the new Class of 1954 Environmental Science Center to house approximately half of the Museum ’ s collections and to provide space for collections-based teaching and research. Current efforts are addressing the conservation, education and research needs of the collections that make up the remaining portion of the Yale Peabody Museum ’ s more than 11 million specimens and objects requiring upgraded storage, lab and classroom facilities. Until 1922, the directorship was unofficially assumed by the Curator of Geology. The title was first used officially in 1922. 1866 – 1899 Othniel Charles Marsh 1899 – 1904 Charles Emerson Beecher 1904 – 1922 Charles Schuchert 1922 – 1938 Richard Swann Lull (Acting, 1936 – 38) 1938 – 1942 Albert Eide Parr 1942 – 1959 Carl Owen Dunbar 1959 – 1964 Sidney Dillon Ripley II 1964 David Challinor (Acting) 1964 – 1970 Alfred Walter Crompton 1970 – 1976 Charles Gald Sibley 1976 – 1979 Keith Stewart Thomson (Acting, 1976-77) 1979 – 1982 Karl Mensch Waage (Acting, 1979-80) 1982 – 1987 Leo Joseph Hickey 1987 – 1990 Willard Daniel Hartman (Acting, 1987-90; Director, 1990 July – December) 1991 – 1994 Alison Fettes Richard 1994 Edward Allen Adelberg (Acting) 1995 – 2002 Richard Lewis Burger 2003 – 2008 Michael John Donoghue 2008 Jay John Ague (Acting, July to December) 2009- Present Derek Ernest Gilmor Briggs http://peabody.yale.edu/about-us/mission-history ****************** George Peabody From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the London-based banker and philanthropist. For the southern USA capitalist, see George Foster Peabody. George Peabody Born February 18, 1795(1795-02-18) Peabody , Massachusetts, U.S. Died November 4, 1869(1869-11-04) (aged 74) London , England Resting place Harmony Grove Cemetery, Salem, Massachusetts Occupation Financier, Banker, Entrepreneur Net worth USD $16 million at the time of his death (approximately 1/556th of US GNP) Religion Unitarian Spouse none Children none Parents Thomas Peabody and Judith Dodge George Peabody (/?pi?b?di/ PEE-b?-dee; February 18, 1795 – November 4, 1869) was an American-British entrepreneur and philanthropist who founded the Peabody Trust in Britain and the Peabody Institute in Baltimore, and was responsible for many other charitable initiatives. Peabody was born in what was then South Danvers (now Peabody), Massachusetts. His family had Puritan antecedents in the state, but was poor, and as one of eight children George suffered some deprivations during his upbringing: these factors influenced his later philanthropic tendencies. His birthplace at 205 Washington Street in Peabody is now the George Peabody House Museum, a museum dedicated to preserving his life and legacy. One of his longtime business associates and friends was renowned banker and art patron William Wilson Corcoran. In 1816, he moved to Baltimore, where he would live for the next 20 years. Peabody first visited the UK in 1827 for business reasons, and over the next decade made four more trans-Atlantic trips, establishing a branch office in Liverpool, and later the banking firm of George Peabody Co. in London. In 1837 he took up permanent residence in London, remaining there for the rest of his life. In February 1867, on one of several return visits to the United States, and at the height of his financial success, Peabody's name was suggested by Francis Preston Blair as a possible Secretary of the Treasury in the cabinet of President Andrew Johnson. At about the same time, his name was also mentioned in newspapers as a future presidential candidate. Peabody described the presidential suggestion as a "kind and complimentary reference", but considered that he was too old for either office. Although he was briefly engaged in 1838 (and later allegedly had a mistress, who bore him a daughter, in Brighton), Peabody never married. He died in London on November 4, 1869, aged 74, at the house of his friend Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson. At the request of the Dean of Westminster and with the approval of the Queen, Peabody was given a temporary burial in Westminster Abbey. Peabody 's funeral in Westminster Abbey. His will provided that he be buried in the town of his birth, Danvers, Massachusetts, and Prime Minister Gladstone arranged for Peabody's remains to be returned to America on HMS Monarch, the newest and largest ship in Her Majesty's Navy. He was laid to rest in Harmony Grove Cemetery, in Salem, Massachusetts, on February 8, 1870. Peabody's death and the pair of funerals were international news, with hundreds of people participating in the ceremonies and thousands attending. Business While serving as a volunteer in the War of 1812, Peabody met Elisha Riggs, who, in 1814, provided financial backing for what became the wholesale dry goods firm of Riggs, Peabody Co., specializing in importing dry goods from Britain. Branches were opened in New York and Philadelphia in 1822. Riggs retired in 1829, and the firm became Peabody, Riggs Co., with Peabody as senior partner. Peabody first visited the UK in 1827 to purchase wares, and to negotiate the sale of American cotton in Lancashire. He subsequently opened a branch office in Liverpool, and British business began to play an increasingly important role in his affairs. He appears to have had some help in establishing himself from William and James Brown, the sons of another successful Baltimore businessman, the Irishman Alexander Brown, who managed their father's Liverpool office, opened in 1810. In 1835, Peabody established the banking firm of George Peabody Co. in London. It was founded to meet the increasing demand for securities issued by the American railroads, and – although Peabody continued to deal in dry goods and other commodities – he increasingly focused his attentions on merchant banking. The bank rose to become the premier American house in London. In 1854, Peabody took Junius Spencer Morgan (father of J. P. Morgan) into partnership to form Peabody, Morgan Co., and the two financiers worked together until Peabody ’ s retirement in 1864. Peabody frequently entertained and provided letters of introduction for American businessmen visiting London, and became known for the Anglo-American dinners he hosted in honor of American diplomats and other worthies, and in celebration of the Fourth of July. In 1851, when the US Congress refused to support the American section at the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, Peabody advanced ?3000 to improve the exhibit and uphold the reputation of the United States. During the run on the banks of 1857, Peabody had to ask the Bank of England for a loan of ?800,000: although rivals tried to force the bank out of business, it managed to emerge with its credit intact. Following this crisis, Peabody began to retire from active business, and in 1864 retired fully (taking with him much of his capital, amounting to over $10,000,000, or ?2,000,000). Peabody, Morgan Co. was then renamed J. S. Morgan Co. The former UK merchant bank Morgan Grenfell (now part of Deutsche Bank), international universal bank JPMorgan Chase and investment bank Morgan Stanley can all trace their roots to Peabody's bank. Philanthropy Peabody Estates provide cheap housing in Central London even today. This sign is on the side of an estate in Westminster. Peabody is the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy, having established the practice later followed by Johns Hopkins, Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller and Bill Gates. In the United States, his philanthropy largely took the form of educational initiatives. In Britain, it took the form of providing housing for the poor. In America, Peabody founded and supported numerous institutions in New England and elsewhere. At the close of the American Civil War, he established the Peabody Education Fund to "encourage the intellectual, moral, and industrial education of the destitute children of the Southern States." His grandest beneficence, however, was to Baltimore; the city in which he achieved his earliest success. The first block of Peabody dwellings in Commercial Street, Spitalfields, London. A wood-engraving published in the Illustrated London News in 1863, shortly before the building opened. In April 1862, Peabody established the Peabody Donation Fund, which continues to this day as the Peabody Trust, to provide housing of a decent quality for the "artisans and labouring poor of London". The trust's first dwellings, designed by H. A. Darbishire in a Jacobethan style, were opened in Commercial Street, Spitalfields in February 1864. Peabody's philanthropy was recognised and on 10 July 1862 he was made a Freeman of the City of London, the motion being proposed by Charles Reed in recognition of his financial contribution to London's poor. He became the first of only two Americans (the other being Dwight D. Eisenhower) to have received the award. A statue of him was unveiled by the Prince of Wales in 1869 next to the Royal Exchange, London, on the site of the former church of St Benet Fink (demolished 1842-6). George Peabody is known to have provided benefactions of well over $8 million, most of them in his own lifetime. Among the list are included: 1852 The Peabody Institute (now the Peabody Institute Library), Peabody, Mass: $217,000 1856 The Peabody Institute, Danvers, Mass (now the Peabody Institute Library of Danvers): $100,000 1857 The Peabody Institute (now the Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore: $1,400,000 1862 The Peabody Donation Fund, London: $2,500,000 1866 The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University: $150,000 1866 The Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University: $150,000 1867 The Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass: $140,000 1867 The Peabody Institute, Georgetown, District of Columbia: $15,000 (today the Peabody Room, Georgetown Branch, DC Public Library). 1867 Peabody Education Fund: $2,000,000 1875 George Peabody College for Teachers, now the Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. The funding came from the Peabody Education Fund 1866 The Georgetown Peabody Library, the public library of Georgetown, Massachusetts 1866 The Thetford Public Library, the public library of Thetford, Vermont: $5,000 1901 The Peabody Memorial Library, Sam Houston State University, Texas Recognition and commemoration In 1862, Peabody was made a Freeman of the City of London. On March 16, 1867, he was awarded the United States Congressional Gold Medal. Also in 1867, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Laws by Harvard University, and an Honorary Doctorate in Civil Law by Oxford University. The town of South Danvers, Massachusetts, changed its name in 1868 to The City of Peabody, Massachusetts, in honor of its favorite son. Statue by Royal Exchange (London) A statue sculpted by William Wetmore Story stands next to the Royal Exchange in the City of London, unveiled in 1869 shortly before Peabody's death. A replica, erected in 1890, stands next to the Peabody Institute, in Mount Vernon Park, part of the Mount Vernon neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland. In 1900, Peabody was one of the first 29 honorees to be elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans, located on what was then the campus of New York University (and is now that of Bronx Community College), at University Heights, New York. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: George Peabody References 1. ^ Klepper, Michael; Gunther, Michael (1996), The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates — A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present, Secaucus, New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group, p. xii, ISBN 9780806518008, OCLC 33818143 2. ^ This is the standard pronunciation in the United States, and presumably how Peabody himself pronounced his name. In Britain, however, the name of George Peabody himself, and of the Peabody Trust, is invariably pronounced as spelt, Pea-body (/?pi?'b?di/). 3. ^ Parker 1995, pp. 164-5, 203, 214. 4. ^ Parker 1995, pp. 29-33. 5. ^ "Funeral of George Peabody at Westminster Abbey". The New York Times. 1869-11-13. p. 3. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9804E0D7123BE63BBC4B52DFB7678382679FDE. "As soon as the ceremony within the church was over the procession formed again, and advanced to a spot near the western entrance, where a temporary grave had been prepared... Here the body was deposited, and will remain until it is transported to America." 6. ^ Parker, Franklin (July 1966). "The Funeral of George Peabody". Peabody Journal of Education (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Taylor Francis Group)) 44 (1): 21 – 36. doi:10.1080/01619566609537382. JSTOR 1491421. 7. ^ Chernow: The House of Morgan 8. ^ Bernstein, Peter (2007). All the Money in the World. Random House. p. 280. ISBN 0307266125. "Even before the Carnegies and Rockefellers became philanthropic legends, there was George Peabody, considered to be the father of modern philanthropy." 9. ^ Davies, Gill (2006). One Thousand Buildings of London. Black Dog Publishing. p. 179. ISBN 1579125875. "George Peabody (1795-1869) — banker, dry goods merchant, and father of modern philanthropy..." 10. ^ "Peabody Hall Stands as Symbol of University's History". University of Arkansas. December 2009. http://coehp.uark.edu/colleague/7657.php. Retrieved 2010-03-12. "George Peabody is considered by some to be the father of modern philanthropy." 11. ^ "George Peabody Library History". Johns Hopkins University. http://www.peabodyevents.library.jhu.edu/history.html. Retrieved 2010-03-12. "After the Civil War he funded the Peabody Education Fund which established public education in the South." 12. ^ "London People: George Peabody". http://www.london-footprints.co.uk/peopeabody.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-12. "By 1867 Peabody had received honours from America and Britain, including being made a Freeman of the City of London, the first American to receive this honour." 13. ^ Peabodylibrary.org 14. ^ Danverslibrary.org 15. ^ Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives - Congressional Gold Medal Recipients 16. ^ Parker 1995, p. 203. Further reading * Burk, Kathleen (1989). Morgan Grenfell 1838-1988: the biography of a merchant bank. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198283067. * Burk, Kathleen (2004). "Peabody, George (1795 – 1869)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21664. Retrieved 24 Sept 2011. (Subscription required.) * Hanaford, Phebe Ann (1870). The Life of George Peabody: Containing a Record of Those Princely Acts of Benevolence Which Entitle Him to the Esteem and Gratitude of All Friends of Education and the Destitute, Both in America, the Land of His Birth, and in England, the Place of His Death. B.B. Russell. * Parker, Franklin (1995). George Peabody: A Biography (2nd ed.). Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0826512569. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peabody
Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History 掠影 ( 一 ) 黄安年文 黄安年的博客 /2011 年12 月8 日 ( 美东时间 ) 发布 2010 年 12 月 23 日 , 家人带领两个外孙参观了位于耶鲁大学的 170 Whitney Avenue, New Haven, CT 的 Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, 这个博物馆引发孩子的极大兴趣。 照片（一） 26 张 , （二） 26 张 , （三） 16 张 , 是即时拍摄的。 *********************************** Yale Peabody Museum Mission The mission of the Peabody Museum is to serve Yale University by advancing our understanding of earth ’ s history through geological, biological, and anthropological research, and by communicating the results of this research to the widest possible audience through publication, exhibition, and educational programs. Fundamental to this mission is stewardship of the Museum ’ s rich collections, which provide a remarkable record of the history of the earth, its life, and its cultures. Conservation, augmentation and use of these collections become increasingly urgent as modern threats to the diversity of life and culture continue to intensify. A short history of the Yale Peabody Museum Yale University ’ s earliest museum collection, begun in the 18th century, was a miscellaneous assortment of “ natural and artificial curiosities ” from around the world typical of college collections of the time. Systematic collecting of specimens for teaching and research began in 1802 with the appointment of Benjamin Sillimanas Professor of Chemistry and Natural History. The outstanding mineral collection Silliman built for Yale, which he used in his pioneering teaching of geology and mineralogy, became an important source of public entertainment and one of the principal attractions for visitors to New Haven. Silliman ’ s activities helped to establish Yale as a major center of scientific education in the first half of the 19th century. Among the undergraduates attracted to the University by its scientific reputation was Othniel Charles Marsh. Marsh ’ s education and his postgraduate studies abroad were funded by his uncle, the wealthy international financier George Peabody.When toward the end of his life Peabody began to distribute his vast fortune to, among others, institutions concerned with education, Marsh persuaded his uncle to include Yale in his philanthropies. In 1866 the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University was founded with a gift of $150,000 for the construction of a museum building and the care and increase of the museum and its collections. O.C. Marsh was appointed Professor of Paleontology at Yale in 1866, the first such professorship in the United States, and only the second in the world. In addition to serving as director of the Peabody Museum, Marsh, with George Jarvis Brush (Mineralogy) and Addison Emery Verrill(Zoology), was also one of the Peabody Museum ’ s first three curators. Using his inheritance from his uncle, who died in 1869, Marsh proceeded to amass large collections vertebrate skeletons, vertebrate and invertebrate fossils, fossil footprints, and archaeological and ethnological artifacts. The first Peabody Museum building opened to the public in 1876, but its capacity was soon strained by the huge dinosaur bones that Marsh ’ s collectors were sending in to the rapidly growing collections. In 1917 it was demolished to make way for a major dormitory complex, the Harkness Quadrangle. Construction of a new building was delayed by World War I, and the collections were in nearly inaccessible storage for seven years, until the current Peabody Museum building became ready for occupancy in 1924. Dedicated in December 1925, the new building ’ s two-story Great Hall was specifically designed to accommodate some of O.C. Marsh ’ s dinosaurs, such the mounting of the giant “ Brontosaurus ” (Apatosaurus), completed in 1931 after six years of labor. In 1947 Rudolph F. Zallinger finished the fresco secco painting that is probably the Yale Peabody Museum ’ s best known feature, the 110-foot mural The Age of Reptiles on the south wall of the Great Hall. The new building, like the old one, quickly filled with growing collections and the people studying them. Bingham Laboratory, completed in 1959, and the Kline Geology Laboratory (1963), each connected to the Museum and helped to relieve the need for storage, work, and classroom space. Museum collections and staff are also housed in parts of three additional buildings, and a field station a few miles away on Long Island Sound provides varied research opportunities. In recognition of the importance of conserving the collections and of enabling scientists and scholars to study them properly, the University constructed the new Class of 1954 Environmental Science Center to house approximately half of the Museum ’ s collections and to provide space for collections-based teaching and research. Current efforts are addressing the conservation, education and research needs of the collections that make up the remaining portion of the Yale Peabody Museum ’ s more than 11 million specimens and objects requiring upgraded storage, lab and classroom facilities. Until 1922, the directorship was unofficially assumed by the Curator of Geology. The title was first used officially in 1922. 1866 – 1899 Othniel Charles Marsh 1899 – 1904 Charles Emerson Beecher 1904 – 1922 Charles Schuchert 1922 – 1938 Richard Swann Lull (Acting, 1936 – 38) 1938 – 1942 Albert Eide Parr 1942 – 1959 Carl Owen Dunbar 1959 – 1964 Sidney Dillon Ripley II 1964 David Challinor (Acting) 1964 – 1970 Alfred Walter Crompton 1970 – 1976 Charles Gald Sibley 1976 – 1979 Keith Stewart Thomson (Acting, 1976-77) 1979 – 1982 Karl Mensch Waage (Acting, 1979-80) 1982 – 1987 Leo Joseph Hickey 1987 – 1990 Willard Daniel Hartman (Acting, 1987-90; Director, 1990 July – December) 1991 – 1994 Alison Fettes Richard 1994 Edward Allen Adelberg (Acting) 1995 – 2002 Richard Lewis Burger 2003 – 2008 Michael John Donoghue 2008 Jay John Ague (Acting, July to December) 2009- Present Derek Ernest Gilmor Briggs http://peabody.yale.edu/about-us/mission-history ****************** George Peabody From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the London-based banker and philanthropist. For the southern USA capitalist, see George Foster Peabody. George Peabody Born February 18, 1795(1795-02-18) Peabody , Massachusetts, U.S. Died November 4, 1869(1869-11-04) (aged 74) London , England Resting place Harmony Grove Cemetery, Salem, Massachusetts Occupation Financier, Banker, Entrepreneur Net worth USD $16 million at the time of his death (approximately 1/556th of US GNP) Religion Unitarian Spouse none Children none Parents Thomas Peabody and Judith Dodge George Peabody (/?pi?b?di/ PEE-b?-dee; February 18, 1795 – November 4, 1869) was an American-British entrepreneur and philanthropist who founded the Peabody Trust in Britain and the Peabody Institute in Baltimore, and was responsible for many other charitable initiatives. Peabody was born in what was then South Danvers (now Peabody), Massachusetts. His family had Puritan antecedents in the state, but was poor, and as one of eight children George suffered some deprivations during his upbringing: these factors influenced his later philanthropic tendencies. His birthplace at 205 Washington Street in Peabody is now the George Peabody House Museum, a museum dedicated to preserving his life and legacy. One of his longtime business associates and friends was renowned banker and art patron William Wilson Corcoran. In 1816, he moved to Baltimore, where he would live for the next 20 years. Peabody first visited the UK in 1827 for business reasons, and over the next decade made four more trans-Atlantic trips, establishing a branch office in Liverpool, and later the banking firm of George Peabody Co. in London. In 1837 he took up permanent residence in London, remaining there for the rest of his life. In February 1867, on one of several return visits to the United States, and at the height of his financial success, Peabody's name was suggested by Francis Preston Blair as a possible Secretary of the Treasury in the cabinet of President Andrew Johnson. At about the same time, his name was also mentioned in newspapers as a future presidential candidate. Peabody described the presidential suggestion as a "kind and complimentary reference", but considered that he was too old for either office. Although he was briefly engaged in 1838 (and later allegedly had a mistress, who bore him a daughter, in Brighton), Peabody never married. He died in London on November 4, 1869, aged 74, at the house of his friend Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson. At the request of the Dean of Westminster and with the approval of the Queen, Peabody was given a temporary burial in Westminster Abbey. Peabody 's funeral in Westminster Abbey. His will provided that he be buried in the town of his birth, Danvers, Massachusetts, and Prime Minister Gladstone arranged for Peabody's remains to be returned to America on HMS Monarch, the newest and largest ship in Her Majesty's Navy. He was laid to rest in Harmony Grove Cemetery, in Salem, Massachusetts, on February 8, 1870. Peabody's death and the pair of funerals were international news, with hundreds of people participating in the ceremonies and thousands attending. Business While serving as a volunteer in the War of 1812, Peabody met Elisha Riggs, who, in 1814, provided financial backing for what became the wholesale dry goods firm of Riggs, Peabody Co., specializing in importing dry goods from Britain. Branches were opened in New York and Philadelphia in 1822. Riggs retired in 1829, and the firm became Peabody, Riggs Co., with Peabody as senior partner. Peabody first visited the UK in 1827 to purchase wares, and to negotiate the sale of American cotton in Lancashire. He subsequently opened a branch office in Liverpool, and British business began to play an increasingly important role in his affairs. He appears to have had some help in establishing himself from William and James Brown, the sons of another successful Baltimore businessman, the Irishman Alexander Brown, who managed their father's Liverpool office, opened in 1810. In 1835, Peabody established the banking firm of George Peabody Co. in London. It was founded to meet the increasing demand for securities issued by the American railroads, and – although Peabody continued to deal in dry goods and other commodities – he increasingly focused his attentions on merchant banking. The bank rose to become the premier American house in London. In 1854, Peabody took Junius Spencer Morgan (father of J. P. Morgan) into partnership to form Peabody, Morgan Co., and the two financiers worked together until Peabody ’ s retirement in 1864. Peabody frequently entertained and provided letters of introduction for American businessmen visiting London, and became known for the Anglo-American dinners he hosted in honor of American diplomats and other worthies, and in celebration of the Fourth of July. In 1851, when the US Congress refused to support the American section at the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, Peabody advanced ?3000 to improve the exhibit and uphold the reputation of the United States. During the run on the banks of 1857, Peabody had to ask the Bank of England for a loan of ?800,000: although rivals tried to force the bank out of business, it managed to emerge with its credit intact. Following this crisis, Peabody began to retire from active business, and in 1864 retired fully (taking with him much of his capital, amounting to over $10,000,000, or ?2,000,000). Peabody, Morgan Co. was then renamed J. S. Morgan Co. The former UK merchant bank Morgan Grenfell (now part of Deutsche Bank), international universal bank JPMorgan Chase and investment bank Morgan Stanley can all trace their roots to Peabody's bank. Philanthropy Peabody Estates provide cheap housing in Central London even today. This sign is on the side of an estate in Westminster. Peabody is the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy, having established the practice later followed by Johns Hopkins, Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller and Bill Gates. In the United States, his philanthropy largely took the form of educational initiatives. In Britain, it took the form of providing housing for the poor. In America, Peabody founded and supported numerous institutions in New England and elsewhere. At the close of the American Civil War, he established the Peabody Education Fund to "encourage the intellectual, moral, and industrial education of the destitute children of the Southern States." His grandest beneficence, however, was to Baltimore; the city in which he achieved his earliest success. The first block of Peabody dwellings in Commercial Street, Spitalfields, London. A wood-engraving published in the Illustrated London News in 1863, shortly before the building opened. In April 1862, Peabody established the Peabody Donation Fund, which continues to this day as the Peabody Trust, to provide housing of a decent quality for the "artisans and labouring poor of London". The trust's first dwellings, designed by H. A. Darbishire in a Jacobethan style, were opened in Commercial Street, Spitalfields in February 1864. Peabody's philanthropy was recognised and on 10 July 1862 he was made a Freeman of the City of London, the motion being proposed by Charles Reed in recognition of his financial contribution to London's poor. He became the first of only two Americans (the other being Dwight D. Eisenhower) to have received the award. A statue of him was unveiled by the Prince of Wales in 1869 next to the Royal Exchange, London, on the site of the former church of St Benet Fink (demolished 1842-6). George Peabody is known to have provided benefactions of well over $8 million, most of them in his own lifetime. Among the list are included: 1852 The Peabody Institute (now the Peabody Institute Library), Peabody, Mass: $217,000 1856 The Peabody Institute, Danvers, Mass (now the Peabody Institute Library of Danvers): $100,000 1857 The Peabody Institute (now the Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore: $1,400,000 1862 The Peabody Donation Fund, London: $2,500,000 1866 The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University: $150,000 1866 The Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University: $150,000 1867 The Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass: $140,000 1867 The Peabody Institute, Georgetown, District of Columbia: $15,000 (today the Peabody Room, Georgetown Branch, DC Public Library). 1867 Peabody Education Fund: $2,000,000 1875 George Peabody College for Teachers, now the Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. The funding came from the Peabody Education Fund 1866 The Georgetown Peabody Library, the public library of Georgetown, Massachusetts 1866 The Thetford Public Library, the public library of Thetford, Vermont: $5,000 1901 The Peabody Memorial Library, Sam Houston State University, Texas Recognition and commemoration In 1862, Peabody was made a Freeman of the City of London. On March 16, 1867, he was awarded the United States Congressional Gold Medal. Also in 1867, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Laws by Harvard University, and an Honorary Doctorate in Civil Law by Oxford University. The town of South Danvers, Massachusetts, changed its name in 1868 to The City of Peabody, Massachusetts, in honor of its favorite son. Statue by Royal Exchange (London) A statue sculpted by William Wetmore Story stands next to the Royal Exchange in the City of London, unveiled in 1869 shortly before Peabody's death. A replica, erected in 1890, stands next to the Peabody Institute, in Mount Vernon Park, part of the Mount Vernon neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland. In 1900, Peabody was one of the first 29 honorees to be elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans, located on what was then the campus of New York University (and is now that of Bronx Community College), at University Heights, New York. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: George Peabody References 1. ^ Klepper, Michael; Gunther, Michael (1996), The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates — A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present, Secaucus, New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group, p. xii, ISBN 9780806518008, OCLC 33818143 2. ^ This is the standard pronunciation in the United States, and presumably how Peabody himself pronounced his name. In Britain, however, the name of George Peabody himself, and of the Peabody Trust, is invariably pronounced as spelt, Pea-body (/?pi?'b?di/). 3. ^ Parker 1995, pp. 164-5, 203, 214. 4. ^ Parker 1995, pp. 29-33. 5. ^ "Funeral of George Peabody at Westminster Abbey". The New York Times. 1869-11-13. p. 3. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9804E0D7123BE63BBC4B52DFB7678382679FDE. "As soon as the ceremony within the church was over the procession formed again, and advanced to a spot near the western entrance, where a temporary grave had been prepared... Here the body was deposited, and will remain until it is transported to America." 6. ^ Parker, Franklin (July 1966). "The Funeral of George Peabody". Peabody Journal of Education (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Taylor Francis Group)) 44 (1): 21 – 36. doi:10.1080/01619566609537382. JSTOR 1491421. 7. ^ Chernow: The House of Morgan 8. ^ Bernstein, Peter (2007). All the Money in the World. Random House. p. 280. ISBN 0307266125. "Even before the Carnegies and Rockefellers became philanthropic legends, there was George Peabody, considered to be the father of modern philanthropy." 9. ^ Davies, Gill (2006). One Thousand Buildings of London. Black Dog Publishing. p. 179. ISBN 1579125875. "George Peabody (1795-1869) — banker, dry goods merchant, and father of modern philanthropy..." 10. ^ "Peabody Hall Stands as Symbol of University's History". University of Arkansas. December 2009. http://coehp.uark.edu/colleague/7657.php. Retrieved 2010-03-12. "George Peabody is considered by some to be the father of modern philanthropy." 11. ^ "George Peabody Library History". Johns Hopkins University. http://www.peabodyevents.library.jhu.edu/history.html. Retrieved 2010-03-12. "After the Civil War he funded the Peabody Education Fund which established public education in the South." 12. ^ "London People: George Peabody". http://www.london-footprints.co.uk/peopeabody.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-12. "By 1867 Peabody had received honours from America and Britain, including being made a Freeman of the City of London, the first American to receive this honour." 13. ^ Peabodylibrary.org 14. ^ Danverslibrary.org 15. ^ Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives - Congressional Gold Medal Recipients 16. ^ Parker 1995, p. 203. Further reading * Burk, Kathleen (1989). Morgan Grenfell 1838-1988: the biography of a merchant bank. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198283067. * Burk, Kathleen (2004). "Peabody, George (1795 – 1869)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21664. Retrieved 24 Sept 2011. (Subscription required.) * Hanaford, Phebe Ann (1870). The Life of George Peabody: Containing a Record of Those Princely Acts of Benevolence Which Entitle Him to the Esteem and Gratitude of All Friends of Education and the Destitute, Both in America, the Land of His Birth, and in England, the Place of His Death. B.B. Russell. * Parker, Franklin (1995). George Peabody: A Biography (2nd ed.). Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0826512569. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Peabody
Aristotle had a lifelong interest in the study of nature. He investigated a variety of different topics, ranging from general issues like motion, causation, place and time, to systematic explorations and explanations of natural phenomena across different kinds of natural entities. These different inquiries are integrated into the framework of a single overarching enterprise describing the domain of natural entities. Aristotle provides the general theoretical framework for this enterpise in his Physics , a treatise which divides into two main parts, the first an inquiry into nature (books 1-4) and the second a treatment of motion (books 5-8). In this work, Aristotle sets out the conceptual apparatus for his analysis, provides definitions of his fundamental concepts, and argues for specific theses about motion, causation, place and time, and establishes in bk. 8 the existence of the unmoved mover of the universe, a supra-physical entity, without which the physical domain could not remain in existence. He takes up problems of special interest to physics (such as the problem of generation and perishing) in a series of further physical treatises, some of which are devoted to particular physical domains: the De generatione et corruptione (On Generation and Perishing) , the De caelo (On the Heavens) , and the Meteorology , which lead up to the treatises on biology and psychology. The science of physics, Aristotle stresses, contains almost all there is to know about the world. Were there no separate forms—entities such as the unmoved mover at the pinnacle of the cosmos—which are without matter and are not part of the physical world, physics would be what Aristotle calls first philosophy ( Metaphysics 6.1, 1026a27-31). As there are such separate entities, physics is dependent on these, and is only a second philosophy ( Metaphysics 7.11, 1037a14f). Nevertheless, the interaction between these two “philosophies” is not completely exhausted by the causal influence exerted on the world by the supra-physical entities—the prime movers as it turns out. Aristotle's metaphysics and physics use a common conceptual framework, and they often address similar issues. The prime and distinctive task of first philosophy is an inquiry into first entities; these, however, are not perceptible entities, and as a result they have to be investigated through a metaphysical investigation of physical entities. Hence the overlap between the two disciplines, which often verges on inseparability. 1. Natures 1.1 The four causes 2. Motion 3. The principle of causational synonymy 4. Priority among motions 5. Movers and unmoved movers Glossary of Aristotelian terms Bibliography Other Internet Resources Related Entries 1. Natures Nature, according to Aristotle, is an inner principle of change and being at rest ( Physics 2.1, 192b20-23). This means that when an entity moves or is at rest according to its nature reference to its nature may serve as an explanation of the event. We have to describe how—to what extent, through what other processes, and due to what agency—the preconditions for the process of change or being at rest are present, but once we have provided an account of these preconditions, we have given a complete account of the process. The nature of the entity is in and of itself sufficient to induce and to explain the process once the relevant circumstances do not preempt it. Natures as inner principles of change and rest are contrasted with active powers or potentialities ( dunameis ), which are external principles of change and being at rest ( Metaphysics 9.8, 1049b5-10), operative on the corresponding internal passive capacities or potentialities ( dunameis again, Metaphysics 9.1, 1046a11-13). When a change, or a state of rest, is not natural, both the active and the passive potentiality need to be specified. Natures, then, in a way do double duty: once a nature is operative, neither a further active, nor a further passive capacity needs to be invoked. Even so, as will be clear from Aristotle's discussion, this general thesis will require a host of qualifications. Because natures—beside the active and passive potentialities—are ultimate grounds in causal explanations, Aristotle sets out how they are integrated with the doctrine of causation. The four causes An explanation for a state of affairs must specify some fact or object (in general, some abstract or concrete entity) which is responsible for it. The entity responsible is, Aristotle submits, a cause ( aitia or aition , words used interchangeably by Aristotle). Different explanations of a single state of affairs are possible, and indeed usually necessary, because there are different ways of being reponsible for distinct facets of the same state of affairs. The varieties of responsibilities are grouped by Aristotle under four headings, the so-called four causes. The first two of these are matter and form, what an entity is made up from according to Aristotle's hylomorphic analysis. Understandably, both of them can be responsible for the features and the behaviour of the entity they make up. Hylomorphic analysis, together with the separation of the material and formal causes as distinct types, implies that if something is explicable in terms of matter or form, explanations in terms of form will be different in kind from those given in terms of matter. As a rule there is a collaboration between these causes: matter provides the potentialities which are actualised by the form. But this collaboration is not such that the two types of explanations overlap. Rather, these causally relevant entities give rise to a hierarchic structure of explanation. In order for a form to be realised, one needs to have suitable matter. This suitable matter brings with it the features required by a given hylomorphic composite. These features, then, are on the one hand the contribution of the matter, and as such the matter is the (material) cause of these features of the composite entity, whereas on the other hand they are indispensable presuppositions for the realisation of the form, and to that extent their presence is prompted by the form. Such dependency relations between matter and form are labelled by Aristotle as cases of hypothetical necessity. Aristotle sometimes illustrates his point by appealing to the matter required for the construction of a house. If there is a house to be built, one needs building bricks, slabs, mortar, etc. Each part provides material with properties within a definite range of the sort required for a house to come into being. A house cannot, for example, be made out of liquid water. This sort of matter provides potentialities not suited to the form of house. Explanations often specify entities beyond the role played by the matter and the form of the entity itself. These cases are grouped by Aristotle as efficient or moving causes on the one hand and as final causes on the other. Efficient causes operate in a straightforward manner by initiating processes and bringing about their effects, whereas final causes account for processes and entities by being what these processes and entities are for, what they objectively intend to attain. The fact that the role of efficient causes is not identical to that of the matter and the form of the entity whose features they are to explain does not require that every instance of efficient causation must issue from outside the entity moved. On the contrary, an efficient cause can also be internal. In cases in which the efficient cause is internal, it will be, in its specific function, one of the parts, or even the formal aspect, of the entity caused to move. Natures, understandably, can feature in any of these four causal functions. However, when the matter of an entity functions as its nature—i.e., when its natural motion and rest are explained in terms of the matter it is made of—this matter must possess some causally relevant features, bestowed upon it by its own formal aspect. This role of matter can be contrasted to the causal role of the three further types of causes—of form, of efficient cause, and of final cause respectively. This is so, because, as Aristotle adds, form and final cause often coincide. Moreover, when a nature is specified as a first efficient cause, cause and effect are the same in form (or in species), though this is not to say that one and the same entity causes itself and is caused through its own causal efficacy ( Physics 2.7, 198a24-27, cf. Metaphysics 8.4, 1044a32-b1). As internal principles of moving and rest, natures stand in an exclusive relationship to the efficient or moving causes of the motions and rests they bring about: in some cases when Aristotle is not specifying the first moving cause, he can assert the identity of nature and moving cause. Accordingly, the soul of living beings will be identified as the substance (i.e., form) and the moving cause of the organism whose soul it is. But the identification, even in this restricted sense, will need some further important qualifications, to which we will return in Section 5 below, on movers and unmoved movers. 2. Motion Because motion or change ( kinêsis ) is mentioned in the definition of nature, any discussion of nature will need to rely upon the explanation of motion. One might—erroneously—think that this is an easy task, because Aristotle's categories (as listed in the Categories and also elsewhere) do contain two related types of entities, action and passion. Aristotle's discussion of motion in the Physics , however, starts out in a somewhat different manner. When he submits that there is no motion besides the categories ( Physics 3.1, at 200b32-201a3), he does not assign motions to the categories of action and passion. After mentioning that the entities in the categories come in oppositions, Aristotle submits a few lines later (at 201a8-9) that there are as many kinds of motion and change as there are kinds of being. This means that motions are grouped here with the entities of the category where they effect change. Nevetheless, when making this claim, Aristotle speaks about four kinds of motion and change only—those in substance, in quality, in quantity and in place—whereas the number of the kinds of being should have remained ten. Indeed, the Physics will later submit its own list of categories. That list is slightly reduced—it has seven or eight elements, depending on whether we include or exclude time. The reduced list also concludes with the claim that there are three kinds of motion, plus the additional kind of substantial change. That is to say, even where Aristotle enumerates a fairly complete list of categories, he will not have motions in every one of these categories, and he is not content to include motions in the categories of action and passion. But this is a context where Aristotle stresses another issue: he is not interested in assigning a separate ontological niche for motions—regardless of whether that might or might not have been a feasible task within the categorization of entities. Here Aristotle is more intent on characterizing the ontological links which motions have to entities falling into different categories, and to find a general matrix of undergoing and effecting change. This happens in several steps. First Aristotle claims that changes of relations are not changes in their own right; rather they are accidental, as they occur also in entities in which no change occurs at all, if the entity which they stand in relation to undergoes some change. After these considerations the crucial two categories of action and passion are eliminated: As there are no motions of motions, we can set aside action and passion (items (7) and (8) in the Categories ). This leaves us with the shorter list of relevant categories, (1) substance, (2) quality, (3) quantity, and (4) place. Within the four domains where genuine change can occur, change always requires the existence of a potentiality which can be actualised. But change is neither identical to this potentiality, nor to the lack of a property, nor, without further qualifications, to the actuality which is acquired when the potentiality is actualised ( Physics 3.2, 201b33-35). It is a special kind of actuality, the actuality of the potential in so far as it is potential ( Physics 3.2, 201a27-29). Aristotle's formulation strongly suggests that the potentiality actualised in the process of change is not a separate and independent potentiality for motion, alongside the entity's potentiality for harbouring the end-state of the process: the process, say, house-building, and the end result, the house, are different actualisations of the same potentiality of a set of materials that is buildable into a house. Not only would Aristotle's definition be uninformative and circular otherwise, amounting to the tautologous claim that change is the actualisation of the capacity for change, the further qualification in the definition, that change is the actuality of the potential in so far as it is potential, would be completely idle. This further restriction is meant to select among the different types of the realisations of the same potentialities. As Aristotle stresses these are the incomplete actualities belonging to these potentialities, because what is actualised in a process of realisation is an incomplete potentiality only ( Physics 3.2, 201b32-33). Accordingly, potentialities of change are readmitted into the ontology. They, nevertheless, do not feature as potentialities in their own right, but as the incomplete variants of the fundamental potentiality for an end result. It is furthermore important to note that potentiality in this discussion throughout excludes actuality. In a formulation closely matching the formulation of the principle of non-contradiction, Aristotle asserts that “some things are the same both in potentiality and in actuality, but not at the same time or not in the same respect, as e.g. warm in actuality and cold in potentiality” ( Physics 3.1, 201a19-22). Hence the ability of Aristotle's definition to pick out the paradoxical entity, which is the actuality of a potentiality that can no longer be present once it has been replaced by the corresponding property in actuality. 3. The principle of causational synonymy The definition of motion suggests that such processes can be characterised in terms of a property or state of an entity, acquired as a result at the end of the process, which can be labelled the form within this process, and an initial lack of this form. Furthermore, Aristotle claims, there is a third component, which is not changed in the process, the substrate or subject of the motion ( Physics 1.7). In term of this threefold division it is the duty of the entity effecting change to confer the requisite form on the object changed, as Physics 3.2, 202a9-11 puts it. But there are further important requirements for such a change to occur. First of all, these motions or changes occur at the interaction of two potentialities. One, the passive potentiality, is in the object undergoing change, while the other, the active potentiality, is in the entity initiating change. The two potentialities need to match each other: when there is a potentiality for being heated in the object undergoing change, the process needs to be initiated by another object possessing an active potentiality for effecting heat. This is true to the extent that Aristotle can claim that the definition of passive potentiality is dependent on that of the active potentiality ( Metaphysics 9.1, 1046a11-13). These two potentialities need to work in tandem, and consequently Aristotle can claim that there is only a single process going on, which is located in the entity moved. Thus, for example, when a process of instruction is going on, it is identical to a process of knowledge acquisition, which happens in the mind of the learner. Hence although action and passion retain their categorical difference, because their accounts are different, what they subsist in, the motion, will be the same ( Physics 3.3, 202b19-22). Aristotle already by the introduction of a matching pair of active and passive potentialities for each causal interaction comes very close to admitting a separate potentiality for each and every change, something uncomfortably close to the vis dormitiva , ridiculed by Molière, according to which a sleeping pill allegedly induces sleep just in virtue of its power to induce sleep. Aristotle, however, subscribes to an even stronger principle, that causes in effecting change transmit the form they possess to the entity they effect change in, so that they have to be synonymous with the effects they bring into existence. In Aristotle's favourite example, only a human in actuality produces a human from what is a human in potentiality. If this is so, a sleeping pill need not only possess an active potentiality for inducing sleep: it needs also to be slumbering itself. The principle—which we could term the principle of causational synonymy—comes from Plato (see e.g. Phaedo 100B-101D), but Aristotle has his own reasons for endorsing it. His science attests to the presence and operation of causally active forms at each level of analysis of the physical world. Hence, as we shall see, Aristotle's forms are the causally significant components of the substance effecting a change. Accordingly, when it comes to specifying the moving cause of an artefact, Aristotle will refer to the art of the craftsman as the fundamental component operative in the change. In cases where a living being is generated, it is the parental form which is transmitted to the newly emerging living being. But it is not only processes of generation that conform to this requirement. Instances of qualitative change are often mentioned alongside substantial generation, and as a crucially important instance of qualitative alteration—or of qualitative quasi-alteration, depending on how we interpret Aristotle's theory of perception (on this debate see the supplementary note on Controversies Surrounding Aristotle's Theory of Perception )—Aristotle presupposes that the principle of causational synonymy characterises also the causal link connecting the object of sensation and the sense organ. It is, nevertheless, important to note that Aristotle restricts the principle of causal synonymy in different and subtle ways. Most significantly, an important domain of cases where a property of an object is actualised is exempted from the requirements of this principle. The actualisation of a property can be the continuation of a previous causal process to the extent that Aristotle claims it is a second actuality , following upon a previously acquired first actuality . In these cases the emergence of the second actuality does not necessarily require an additional external efficient cause. The operation of this first actuality, through which it reinforces and completes itself, can be the mere extension of the operation of the original efficient cause (this will be Aristotle's claim about the natural locomotion of the elements, see Section 5 below), or the entity which has acquired this first actuality can be already causally responsible for its own activities, including the ones which bring it to a level of higher actuality (Aristotle's examples for this case are the soul of the embryo or of the newborn cub, which commands and effects the nourishing and the activities of the animal; or the actual application of a piece of knowledge one has acquired beforehand). It is important to note that these claims are far from trivial: they rest on further claims that the very definitions of these first actualities (what it is to be an element, an animal, or knowledge, respectively) inseparably include references to these activities. Second, the principle is couched in terms which do not include locomotions: it is substantial, qualitative or quantitative form which is claimed to be transmitted through the efficacy of the cause in Physics 3.2, 202a9-12. One of the reasons for this is that locomotion, as Aristotle submits, affects the least the substance, the ousia of the object undergoing motion ( Physics 8.7, 261a20f). Unlike the other types of change, locomotion does not change the being of the moved object at all. To some extent that should mean that the predication of place should remain extrinsic to the being of the entity that is at a particular location. Hence the fundamental presupposition of causation, that it is intrinsic characterisations of entities which are conferred on the object moved cannot be in full force in cases of locomotion. Accordingly, Aristotle will have a more intricate account for natural and forced locomotions. Third, the principle of causational synonymy is restricted to substances at the end of Metaphysics 7.9, and in the first half of the same chapter the non-standard presence of some causally relevant forms may also be envisaged. Aristotle's example there is the heat in motion, which produces heat in the body when the doctor rubs the patient in the appropriate manner. This heat in the motion can be the presence of an active potentiality in the motion which is able to elicit heat in the body, without heat being predicable of motion itself. But even if such non-inherential subsistence of properties is not envisaged in this passage—the alternative being that the heat in motion is the heat in the skin of the patient, caused by the rub, which then enters into the inner recesses of the body, becoming heat in the body—some similar sort of presence is required in two large classes of cases: natural generations and artificial productions. Aristotle claims that in a chain of efficient causes, where the first element of the series acts through the intermediary of the other items, it is the first member in the causal chain, rather than the intermediaries, which is the moving cause ( Physics 8.5, 257a10-12). Then, both in cases of natural generation and artificial production, it is only this first efficient cause which has to satisfy the requirement of synonymous causation. Aristotle's prime example, that human generates human, is also such a case. Here, the causal efficacy of the paternal human form is transmitted through the generative potentialities of the semen of the father. The semen, however, although it acts as an efficient cause in the process of the formation of the embryo, is not a human; it does not possess the form it transmits in the same way as the male parent. Aristotle's discussion makes it clear that this is not an isolated instance of an exception from the general principle. He compares the case to the activity of a craftsman, where the form of the product of the artistic production is in the soul of the craftsman, and then through the motions of the instruments this form can get imposed on the material manufactured into an artefact. The instruments and their motions are efficient causes of the process, but they do not contain the form in the same way as the soul of the craftsman ( On the generation of animals 730b14-23 and 740b25-29, for further discussion see the entry on Aristotle: Biology ). All these restrictions notwithstanding, Aristotle can claim that the principle of causational synonymy remains universally valid. This is so, because all the three restrictions above specify cases where Aristotle can claim that a preceding, more prominent cause has already satisfied the requirement: in the case of second actualities the first actuality was called into existence by a synonymous cause in the first place; locomotions, qualitative and quantitative changes, even if not caused by a synonymous entity, can be part of a larger pattern of causation, in which a substance is caused by a substance of the same kind; and causal chains producing substances can be claimed to start out invariably from synonymous substances. Given his commitment to causal synonymy, Aristotle needs to invoke considerations through which a chain of efficient causes of some entity can be meaningfully compared in terms of causal efficacy. These considerations will on each occasion describe synonymous causes not only as temporally prior, but also as having priority in terms of causal efficacy over the intermediate causes, which are responsible only for the transmission of the forms of the original locus of causal efficacy. This allows, then, that in the two major paradigms of such causation—in natural generation and in artificial production—the forms—the nature of the natural entity, and the art of the craftsman exercising his art respectively—are the causally operative entities initiating change. This has wide ranging consequences for the status of forms in several respects. First, the causal relevance of these forms shows that not any arrangement or configuration can qualify as a full-fledged form. While it is true that privations are also forms in some sense ( Physics 2.1, 193b19-20), this is not the sense in which the causally operative forms, describable in evaluative terms, can be called forms. Moreover, the causal relevance of forms allows Aristotle to switch (e.g. in De generatione et corruptione 1.7) without notice between the craftsman and the craft itself as the appropriate specification of the efficient cause in these cases. We should note that in the latter cases, Aristotle specifies causes which are unmoved. They do not effect motion by being in motion themselves, in so far as they are the causally effective forms within the causal framework; hence they are not under any reactive influence during this process either. 4. Priority among motions Even though the foregoing might have suggested that generation of substances is fundamental for all the other kinds of changes, in fact locomotion will have a privileged status. All other changes depend on locomotions, because any two entities involved in change, with their active and passive potentialities respectively, need to come into contact in order for the interaction to occur. Contact, however, as a rule needs to be established by locomotion: either the entity to be moved, or the mover, or both, need to proceed so that they meet ( Physics 8.7, 260a26-b7). Moreover locomotion is the form of change which can occur in isolation of generation, perishing and the other forms of change ( Physics 8.7, 260b26-29). Other changes are indepedent kinds of change insofar as they can occur in an entity which does not perform any other change. Nevertheless all these forms of change include or presuppose that some other entity engages in locomotion. Aristotle argues at the opening of Physics bk. 8 that motion and change in the universe can have no beginning, because the occurrence of change presupposes a previous process of change. With this argument Aristotle can establish an eternal chain of motions and refute those who hold that there could have been a previous stationary state of the universe. Such an eternal chain, Aristotle argues, needs to rely on a cause which guarantees its persistence: if each of the constitutive processes in the causally connected web were of finite duration, for every one of them it can be the case that it is not present in the world, indeed, at some later time it will not be present any longer. But then the whole causally connected series of events, Aristotle submits, would also be contingent. Hence Aristotle postulates that the processes of the universe depend on an eternal motion (or on several eternal motions), the eternal revolution of the heavenly spheres, which in turn is dependent on one or several unmoved movers ( Physics 8.6, 258b26-259a9). The priority of the eternal celestial revolutions, furthermore, guarantees the causal finitude of the universe. This is so, even though there are infinite causal chains: behind every single individual of an animal species there is an infinite series of male ancestors, each causally responsible for the subsequent members in the series, because Aristotelian species are eternal and male parents are the efficient causes of their offspring. Left to its own devices, the finite universe on its own would swiftly reach a dissolution, a state of complete separation of the elemental masses into their concentrically arranged natural places. In view of the fact that such a complete segregation of the elemental masses is avoided through the constant excitation caused by the celestial motions, producing heat in the sublunary domain, especially around the regions of the Sun, Aristotle will be entitled to assert that the cause of the human being is in the first instance his or her father, but is at the same time the Sun as it moves along its annual ecliptic path. Between celestial revolutions and the individual natural processes there is always a finite causal chain, as these natural processes could not possibly have continued without the celestial motions. The infinite causal chains passing through male parents cannot subsist on their own without this constant external support, and this dependence can always be analysed in terms of finite causal chains. 5. Movers and unmoved movers The definition of motion as the actuality of a potentiality of the entity undergoing motion in so far as it is potential requires that in each case the passive potentiality for the change is present in the changing object. The presence of the potentiality can, nevertheless, be in accordance with the nature of the object—in which case the change is natural ( phusei ) or according to nature ( kata phusin ), or can happen in the face of a contrary disposition on the part of the nature of the entity—in which case the change is forced ( biai ) or contrary to nature ( para phusin ). A major presupposition on Aristotle's part is that this division is exhaustive: there are no changes to which the nature of the entity would be indifferent or neutral. The major consideration behind such a presupposition is that natures regulate the behaviour of the entities to which they belong in a comprehensive manner, and not merely partially. Any influence the entity is exposed to interacts with the nature in a substantive manner. The entity does not possess potentialities for change which would not be directly related to the tendencies emerging from its nature. Note, however, that even if we endorsed the exhaustiveness of the dichotomy of natural and forced motions, and accepted the thesis that simple bodies possess a unique natural motion ( De caelo 1.2, 269a8-9), we would not need thereby to accept Aristotle's further major claim, that natural and forced motions come in pairs of contraries, with the result that if a motion is contrary to the nature of an entity, the contrary motion will be its natural motion ( De caelo 1.2, 269a9-18). Where there is room for some more complex relationships among the endpoints of changes than a simple opposition along an axis of a single dimension—and this is eminently so between locomotions along rectilinear and circular paths respectively—there can be several forced translations in contrast to the single natural motion, as Aristotle also admits in some passages of the De caelo (see 1.2, 269a18-b2 and 269b10-12; for a more complex description of the relationships between circular motion and rectilinear ones in opposite directions see 270b32-271a5). Aristotle's classification of motions into those contrary to nature and those according to nature applies not only to the motions of the moved objects, but transfers also to the movers effecting motions. A mover can effect a motion which is contrary to its own nature. Aristotle's example of such an unnatural mover is the lever, an object heavy by nature, with which loads can be lifted ( Physics 8.4, 255a20-23). Although such movers can effect motions in the contrary direction to the motion at the head of the causal chain (levers are operated by the downward push of something heavy at the other end), the crucial consideration for Aristotle in this case is that the original, initiating cause of the causal chain should effect the motion according to its nature. Taken together, these considerations imply that we have a complete account of the physical domain once we have a thorough description of what is natural to the entites in that domain, together with a specification of all the circumstances in which they operate. Bk. 8 of the Physics argues for the additional thesis that for each motion, whether natural or contrary to nature, there needs to exist a mover. In cases of forced motion, movers are present in a perspicuous way. This need not be so, however, in cases of natural motion. Apart from the cases where the nature of the entity is at the same time a moving and efficient cause—i.e., apart from living beings, whose nature, the soul, is both formal and efficient cause—the mover may be inconspicuous. This is eminently so in the remaining large class of natural motions, the natural motions of the elements. The nature of these elements, their inner principle of motion and rest is not the moving cause of the motions of the elements, Aristotle claims. If it were, then it would be up to the elementary masses to determine when they should perform their motions, but plainly it is not. Moreover, the principle of causational synonymy rules out that any homogenous mass, without an internal demarcation into components which move and are moved, could move itself ( Physics 8.4, 255a5-18). This is so because, on the assumption that one part of a homogenenous body could move another part, the active component of change would be, in every aspect, indistinguishable from the part in which change is effected, and this in turn would mean that change would occur even though there would be no transmission of a causally relevant property from the active part to the passive. This implies that even though we may answer the question as to why the elements move to their natural places—the light bodies up and the heavy ones down—by an appeal to their respective natures as causes (“that it is simply their nature to move somewhere, and this is what it is to be light and to be heavy” Physics 8.4, 255b13-17), we do not thereby specify their moving causes. Their thrust being in a single direction, the elements cannot circumvent even rather simple obstacles they may encounter on their way (a sealed container can retain air under water, the roof stays put pressing down on the walls of a building etc.). Hence, whoever removes an obstacle to an element's motion is causally responsible for the ensuing elemental motions. But even such a causally responsible agent will not qualify as the moving cause, without yet further qualifications. For the identification of the moving cause of these locomotions Aristotle invokes his distinction of two potentialities. Some heavy material can be potentially light, as it can be transformed into a light material in a process of generation, whereas the emerging light material is still potential in a sense until it has acquired its full-fledged status, which involves its having arrived at that region of the cosmos which is its natural place. This analysis, then, describes the natural locomotion of the elements as a possibly postponed, completing stage within a single overarching process, and hence in these cases Aristotle can identify the cause of the second stage of the process with the efficient cause of the first stage, the entity which generated the element in the first place ( Physics 8.4, 256a1). Once it is established that there is a mover for each change, the finite causal chains can be followed up to the primary instance of motion, the celestial revolutions, the Sun's motion along the ecliptic course responsible for many sublunar changes, the rotating seasons being foremost among them. Whether the cosmos has unmoved or moved movers, moreover, whether the universe is causally closed or needs some continuous external causal influence for its preservation, depends ultimately, then, on the status of the celestial motions. Revolutions in the celestial realm are the natural motions of the special element making up the celestial spheres. This, however, does not entail that they have no need of an external unmoved mover: the motions of the sublunary elements also occur under the influence of a moving cause. Nevertheless, the celestial bodies cannot be moved by an external mover of the same sort as the sublunary elements. These celestial bodies are eternal and ungenerated. Consequently, Aristotle cannot appeal to the entity which produced them as responsible for their locomotions. As they do not encounter any hindrance during their revolutions, there is no room for an accidental mover which would remove any obstacles in their way. Nevertheless, as celestial revolutions are motions, albeit eternal ones, they include some component of potentiality, which is actualised in the motion, and hence this potential component is in need of an actuality as a mover. This requirement implies that whatever can be the mover of these eternal motions needs to be in actuality without any restrictions ( Metaphysics 12.6). Moreover, such an entity has to possess an infinite power which it communicates to the moved celestial sphere. Hence, this entity cannot be divisible and cannot have extension ( Physics 8.10). All this testifies to the exceptional status of the first movement, and behind it, of the first mover in the universe. The mover of these spheres possesses nothing but actuality, but this actuality is not what is transmitted in the process of causation. As we have seen in Section 3 above, this would not be exceptional as such: locomotion need not be caused on the transmission model of causation. But locomotions caused without immediate transmission were understood to be be embedded in larger patterns of causation which observed the principle of causational synonymy, and it is exactly such a larger pattern of causation which is missing in the case of celestial motions. Instead, what we hear in Metaphysics 12.6 is that the first mover moves as an object of love and striving, which comes perilously close to abandoning the claims of Physics bk. 8 to the effect that there is an unmoved mover serving as the efficient cause of the motions of the cosmos. Such doubts, however, should be dismissed. Aristotle is describing here in the terminology of his physics a supra-physical entity without which the universe could not function or persist. Small wonder if its mode of operation needs to subsume several different dimensions of physical causation. Glossary of Aristotelian terms action: poiein actuality: energeia or entelecheia art, craft: technê capacity: dunamis cause: aitia or aition change: kinêsis or metabolê to effect change or motion: kinein to undergo change or motion: kineisthai qualitative change: alloiôsis quantitative changes—growth: auxêsis; shrinking: phthisis locomotion: phora to come to be: gignesthai coming to be: genesis force: bia forced: biai form: eidos or morphê in so far as: hêi genus, kind: genos goal: telos kind, species: eidos matter: hulê magnitude: megethos motion: kinêsis nature: phusis natural: phusikos, phusei according to nature: kata phusin contrary to nature: para phusin passion: paschein to perish: phtheirein perishing: phthora place: pou (as one of the categories, literally: where) or topos potentiality: dunamis power: dunamis quality: poion quantity: poson substance: ousia time: pote (as one of the categories, literally: when) or chronos Bibliography Primary Sources Aristotle, De generatione et corruptione , translated with notes by C. J. F. Williams, Oxford: Clarendon Press (Clarendon Aristotle Series), 1982. Aristotle, On coming-to-be and passing-away ( De generatione and corruptione ), revised Greek text with introduction and commentary by Harold H. Joachim, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926. Aristotle, Du ciel , ( De Caelo = On the Heavens), Greek text and French translation by Paul Moraux, Paris: Les Belles lettres (Collection Budé), 1965. Aristotle, Physics , Books I-II, translated with introduction and notes by William Charlton, Oxford: Clarendon Press (Clarendon Aristotle Series), 1970 (2nd. ed. 1992). Aristotle, Physics , Books III-IV, translated with notes by Edward Hussey, Oxford: Clarendon Press (Clarendon Aristotle Series), 1983. Aristotle, Physics , Book VIII, translated with commentary by Daniel W. Graham, Oxford: Clarendon Press (Clarendon Aristotle Series), 1999. Aristotle, Physics , revised Greek text with introduction and commentary by William David Ross, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936. Secondary Sources Ackrill, J. L. “Change and Aristotle's theological argument,” Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy Supplement (1991) 57-66 Annas, Julia. “Aristotle on inefficient causes,” Philosophical Quarterly , 32 (1982): 311-26. Bodnár, István M. “Movers and elemental motions in Aristotle,” Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 15 (1997): 81-117. Cherniss, Harold F. Aristotle's criticism of Plato and the Academy , Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1944. Code, Alan. “Soul as efficient cause in Aristotle's embryology,” Philosophical Topics , 15 (1987): 51-59. de Haas, Frans and Mansfeld, Jaap (eds.). Aristotle: On Generation and Corruption, Book I: Symposium Aristotelicum , Oxford: Clarendon, 2004. Falcon, Andrea. Aristotle and the science of nature: Unity without uniformity , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Frede, Michael and Charles, David (eds.). Aristotle's Metaphysics Lambda: Symposium Aristotelicum , Oxford: Clarendon, 2000. Freeland, Cynthia A. “Aristotle on bodies, matter, and potentiality,” in Allan Gotthelf and James Lennox (eds.), Philosophical issues in Aristotle's biology , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 392-407. Furley, David. “Self-movers,” in G.E.R. Lloyd and G.E.L. Owen (eds.), Aristotle on mind and the senses , (Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium Aristotelicum), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, pp. 165-79. Gill, Mary Louise. “Aristotle's theory of causal action in Physics III. 3,” Phronesis , 25 (1980): 129-47. Judson, Lindsay. “Heavenly motion and the unmoved mover,” in Mary Louise Gill and James G. Lennox (eds.), Self-motion: From Aristotle to Newton , Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994, pp. 155-171. Judson, Lindsay (ed.). Aristotle's Physics: A collection of essays , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. Kosman, L. Aryeh. “Aristotle's definition of motion,” Phronesis , 14 (1969): 40-62. 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Time, creation, and the continuum: Theories in Antiquity and the early Middle Age , London: Duckworth or Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983. Turnbull, Robert G. “Aristotle's debt to the ‘natural philosophy’ of the Phaedo ,” Philosophical Quarterly , 8 (1958): 131-43. Wardy, R. The chain of change: A study of Aristotle's Physics VII , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Waterlow, Sarah. Nature, change, and and agency in Aristotle's Physics, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. Wildberg, Christian. John Philoponus’ criticism of Aristotle's theory of aether , (Peripatoi 16), Berlin: De Gruyter 1988. 原文见 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/
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Classical Paper List on Machine Learning and Natural Language Processing from Zhiyuan Liu Hidden Markov Models Rabiner, L. A Tutorial on Hidden Markov Models and Selected Applications in Speech Recognition. (Proceedings of the IEEE 1989) Freitag and McCallum, 2000, Information Extraction with HMM Structures Learned by Stochastic Optimization, (AAAI'00) Maximum Entropy Adwait R. A Maximum Entropy Model for POS tagging, (1994) A. Berger, S. Della Pietra, and V. Della Pietra. A maximum entropy approach to natural language processing. (CL'1996) A. Ratnaparkhi. Maximum Entropy Models for Natural Language Ambiguity Resolution. PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1998. Hai Leong Chieu, 2002. A Maximum Entropy Approach to Information Extraction from Semi-Structured and Free Text, (AAAI'02) MEMM McCallum et al., 2000, Maximum Entropy Markov Models for Information Extraction and Segmentation, (ICML'00) Punyakanok and Roth, 2001, The Use of Classifiers in Sequential Inference. (NIPS'01) Perceptron McCallum, 2002 Discriminative Training Methods for Hidden Markov Models: Theory and Experiments with Perceptron Algorithms (EMNLP'02) Y. Li, K. Bontcheva, and H. Cunningham. Using Uneven-Margins SVM and Perceptron for Information Extraction. (CoNLL'05) SVM Z. Zhang. Weakly-Supervised Relation Classification for Information Extraction (CIKM'04) H. Han et al. Automatic Document Metadata Extraction using Support Vector Machines (JCDL'03) Aidan Finn and Nicholas Kushmerick. Multi-level Boundary Classification for Information Extraction (ECML'2004) Yves Grandvalet, Johnny Marià , A Probabilistic Interpretation of SVMs with an Application to Unbalanced Classification. (NIPS' 05) CRFs J. Lafferty et al. Conditional Random Fields: Probabilistic Models for Segmenting and Labeling Sequence Data. (ICML'01) Hanna Wallach. Efficient Training of Conditional Random Fields. MS Thesis 2002 Taskar, B., Abbeel, P., and Koller, D. Discriminative probabilistic models for relational data. (UAI'02) Fei Sha and Fernando Pereira. Shallow Parsing with Conditional Random Fields. (HLT/NAACL 2003) B. Taskar, C. Guestrin, and D. Koller. Max-margin markov networks. (NIPS'2003) S. Sarawagi and W. W. Cohen. Semi-Markov Conditional Random Fields for Information Extraction (NIPS'04) Brian Roark et al. Discriminative Language Modeling with Conditional Random Fields and the Perceptron Algorithm (ACL'2004) H. M. Wallach. Conditional Random Fields: An Introduction (2004) Kristjansson, T.; Culotta, A.; Viola, P.; and McCallum, A. Interactive Information Extraction with Constrained Conditional Random Fields. (AAAI'2004) Sunita Sarawagi and William W. Cohen. Semi-Markov Conditional Random Fields for Information Extraction. (NIPS'2004) John Lafferty, Xiaojin Zhu, and Yan Liu. Kernel Conditional Random Fields: Representation and Clique Selection. (ICML'2004) Topic Models Thomas Hofmann. Probabilistic Latent Semantic Indexing. (SIGIR'1999). David Blei, et al. Latent Dirichlet allocation. (JMLR'2003). Thomas L. Griffiths, Mark Steyvers. Finding Scientific Topics. (PNAS'2004). POS Tagging J. Kupiec. Robust part-of-speech tagging using a hidden Markov model. (Computer Speech and Language'1992) Hinrich Schutze and Yoram Singer. Part-of-Speech Tagging using a Variable Memory Markov Model. (ACL'1994) Adwait Ratnaparkhi. A maximum entropy model for part-of-speech tagging. (EMNLP'1996) Noun Phrase Extraction E. Xun, C. Huang, and M. Zhou. A Unified Statistical Model for the Identification of English baseNP. (ACL'00) Named Entity Recognition Andrew McCallum and Wei Li. Early Results for Named Entity Recognition with Conditional Random Fields, Feature Induction and Web-enhanced Lexicons. (CoNLL'2003). Moshe Fresko et al. A Hybrid Approach to NER by MEMM and Manual Rules, (CIKM'2005). Chinese Word Segmentation Fuchun Peng et al. Chinese Segmentation and New Word Detection using Conditional Random Fields, COLING 2004. Document Data Extraction Andrew McCallum, Dayne Freitag, and Fernando Pereira. Maximum entropy Markov models for information extraction and segmentation. (ICML'2000). David Pinto, Andrew McCallum, etc. Table Extraction Using Conditional Random Fields. SIGIR 2003. Fuchun Peng and Andrew McCallum. Accurate Information Extraction from Research Papers using Conditional Random Fields. (HLT-NAACL'2004) V. Carvalho, W. Cohen. Learning to Extract Signature and Reply Lines from Email. In Proc. of Conference on Email and Spam (CEAS'04) 2004. Jie Tang, Hang Li, Yunbo Cao, and Zhaohui Tang, Email Data Cleaning, SIGKDD'05 P. Viola, and M. Narasimhan. Learning to Extract Information from Semi-structured Text using a Discriminative Context Free Grammar. (SIGIR'05) Yunhua Hu, Hang Li, Yunbo Cao, Dmitriy Meyerzon, Li Teng, and Qinghua Zheng, Automatic Extraction of Titles from General Documents using Machine Learning, Information Processing and Management, 2006 Web Data Extraction Ariadna Quattoni, Michael Collins, and Trevor Darrell. Conditional Random Fields for Object Recognition. (NIPS'2004) Yunhua Hu, Guomao Xin, Ruihua Song, Guoping Hu, Shuming Shi, Yunbo Cao, and Hang Li, Title Extraction from Bodies of HTML Documents and Its Application to Web Page Retrieval, (SIGIR'05) Jun Zhu et al. Mutual Enhancement of Record Detection and Attribute Labeling in Web Data Extraction. (SIGKDD 2006) Event Extraction Kiyotaka Uchimoto, Qing Ma, Masaki Murata, Hiromi Ozaku, and Hitoshi Isahara. Named Entity Extraction Based on A Maximum Entropy Model and Transformation Rules. (ACL'2000) GuoDong Zhou and Jian Su. Named Entity Recognition using an HMM-based Chunk Tagger (ACL'2002) Hai Leong Chieu and Hwee Tou Ng. Named Entity Recognition: A Maximum Entropy Approach Using Global Information. (COLING'2002) Wei Li and Andrew McCallum. Rapid development of Hindi named entity recognition using conditional random fields and feature induction. ACM Trans. Asian Lang. Inf. Process. 2003 Question Answering Rohini K. Srihari and Wei Li. Information Extraction Supported Question Answering. (TREC'1999) Eric Nyberg et al. The JAVELIN Question-Answering System at TREC 2003: A Multi-Strategh Approach with Dynamic Planning. (TREC'2003) Natural Language Parsing Leonid Peshkin and Avi Pfeffer. Bayesian Information Extraction Network. (IJCAI'2003) Joon-Ho Lim et al. Semantic Role Labeling using Maximum Entropy Model. (CoNLL'2004) Trevor Cohn et al. Semantic Role Labeling with Tree Conditional Random Fields. (CoNLL'2005) Kristina toutanova, Aria Haghighi, and Christopher D. Manning. Joint Learning Improves Semantic Role Labeling. (ACL'2005) Shallow parsing Ferran Pla, Antonio Molina, and Natividad Prieto. Improving text chunking by means of lexical-contextual information in statistical language models. (CoNLL'2000) GuoDong Zhou, Jian Su, and TongGuan Tey. Hybrid text chunking. (CoNLL'2000) Fei Sha and Fernando Pereira. Shallow Parsing with Conditional Random Fields. (HLT-NAACL'2003) Acknowledgement Dr. Hang Li , for original paper list.
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In searching the seed laws in different countries by google, instead, I got one small article in one net about the Law of the Seed . It tells about the natural law of the seeds, and the life philosophy. I copied it here to share with you. From : http://bbs.in2english.com.cn/showtopic-10761.aspx The lesson of the law of the seed is “You reap your harvest after you do the work” You dig the soil and water the seed (effort), wait a while (patience) and then you pick your beans. Effort + patience = Results This principle is often lost on people. They say: “If I plant beans today, what will I get back tomorrow?” And the answer is : “Wet bean seeds”. The law of the seed says: “You plant today, and you harvest … LATER!” Plant beans now; pick beans in four months. When everybody grew their own food, people probably understood this concept better. But this is the age of instant noodles. Lao Huang says: “If I had a decent job, then I would really work hard. But all I do is wash dishes, so to heck with it.” Wrong, Lao Huang ! If you become the best dish washer in town, someone will notice you, or someone will promote you, or you’ll feel so good about yourself that you’ll one day go and do something you really want to do. Effort first, harvest second.It’s a principle. You can’t reverse the process. The wonderful thing about nature is that it gives us back much more than what we put out. When you plant a pumpkin seed, you don't just get back one seed! Otherwise, why bother? Nature is very generous. Plant a few seeds and you may end up with truckload of pumpkins. Again, this principle works with everything we do, but first we need to get out in the fields and dig!
吴伟南，欧剑峰，黄静玲. 2009. 中国动物志无脊椎动物第四十七卷蛛形纲蜱螨亚纲植绥螨科. 北京：科学出版社. 1-511. Wu W, Ou J, Huang J. 2009. Fauna Sinica, Invertebrata Vol.47, Arachnida, Acari, Phytoseiidae. Beijing: Science Press. 1-511. 前言 Preface 总论 General 一、研究简史 Brief research history 二、形态结构 Morphology and structure 三、地理分布 Geographical distribution 四、生物学特性与生活习性 Biological characteristics and living habits 五、经济意义与利用情况 Economic importance and utilization 六、饲养和贮藏 Rearing and storaging 七、标本采集、制作和保存 Specimen collection, making and preservation 各论 Special 植绥螨科 Phytoseiidae 一、钝绥螨亚科 Amblyseiinae 1. 钝绥螨属 Amblyseius 2. 真绥螨属 Euseius 3. 伊绥螨属 Iphiseius 4. 印小绥螨属 Indoseiulus 5. 冲绥螨属 Okiseius 6. 植盾螨属 Phytoscutus 7. 小植绥螨属 Phytoseiulus 8. 粗绥螨属 Asperoseius 9. 拟植绥螨属 Paraphytoseius 二、植绥螨亚科 Phytoseiinae 10. 植绥螨属 Phytoseius 三、盲走螨亚科 Typhlodrominae 11. 钱绥螨属 Chanteius 12. 副绥伦螨属 Paraseiulus 13. 库螨属 Kuzinellus 14. 盲走螨属 Typhlodromus 15. 静走螨属 Galendromus 参考文献 References 英文摘要 Abstract in English 中名索引 Index of Chinese names 学名索引 Index of Scientific names 附录 Appedices 中国已记录的植绥螨因其它原因未收入本志描述者 Other recorded phytoseiid species in China which not included in this monograph 《中国动物志》已出版书目 Serial faunal monographs already published 图版 Figure plates
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