What is needed if you want to be a great engineer? Firstly, technical skills; Secondly, learn new skills quickly; Thirdly, Share their skils with others; Lastly, fast product development. How can we become a great engineer? Firstly, technicl communication skills; Secondly, planning skills; Thirdly, Networking; and most of all, keep the whole picture! This sentence has two meanings.On one hand, you not only master your subject skills, but also realise the other subjects, track the latest news in your unknown fields. As a result, you can predict the lastest area in 5 years even in 10 years. On the other, it means that "Before you do something,you need to have an abstract about what you do." I want to explain this sentence using two proverb. One,"Plan are useless, but planning must be done!" The US. president--Dwight David Eisenhower Two, "If you don't explain it simply, you don't usderstand it well enough."--Albert Einstein
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UCREL publishes a series of fully-refereed Technical Papers, under the general editorship of Andrew Wilson and Tony McEnery . These papers fall into two categories: (1) articles dealing with corpora and computational linguistics and (2) corpus manuals. Electronic versions of some of the volumes are available here for free download as PDF format. Simply click on the appropriate PDF icon. Prices refer to hardcopy by post. You can download the free Acrobat Reader from Adobe. Current List of Titles: Database Design for Corpus Storage: The ET10-63 Data Model. Tony McEnery and Beatrice Daille. 1993. 2.50 Corpora and Translation: Uses and Future Prospects. Tony McEnery and Andrew Wilson. 1993. 2.50 Towards an Integration of Content Analysis and Discourse Analysis: The Automatic Linkage of Key Relations in Text. Andrew Wilson. 1993. 2.50 Special Issue. Corpora in Language Education and Research: A Selection of Papers from Talc94 . Edited by Andrew Wilson and Tony McEnery. 10.00 Combined Approach for Terminology Extraction: Lexical Statistics and Linguistic Filtering. Béatrice Daille. 1995. 3.50 'Only Connect'. Critical Discourse Analysis and Corpus Linguistics . Gerlinde Hardt-Mautner. 1995. 2.50 The Evaluation of Multiple Post-Editors: Inter-Rater Consistency in Correcting Automatically Tagged Data. John Paul Baker. 1995. 2.50 Special Issue. Approaches to Discourse Anaphora: Proceedings of the Discourse Anaphora and Resolution Colloquium (DAARC96), edited by Simon Botley, Julia Glass, Tony McEnery and Andrew Wilson. 40.00 . Special Issue. Proceedings of Teaching and Language Corpora 1996. ( TALC96 ) eds. Simon Botley, Julia Glass, Tony McEnery and Andrew Wilson. 280 pages. 1996. ISBN 186220 013 1. 40.00 A Study of Text Typology: Multi-Feature and Multi-Dimensional Analyses. Kaoru Takahashi . 1997. 60 pages. ISBN 1 86220 035 1, 4.50 Special Issue. New Approaches to Discourse Anaphora: Proceedings of the Second Colloquium on Discourse Anaphora and Anaphor Resolution (DAARC2), edited by Simon Botley and Tony McEnery. 1998. 40.00 . Special Issue. Proceedings of the Discourse Anaphora and Reference Resolution Conference (DAARC2000), edited by Paul Baker, Andrew Hardie, Tony McEnery and Anna Siewierska. 2000. 40.00 . Special issue. Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics 2001 conference, edited by Paul Rayson, Andrew Wilson, Tony McEnery, Andrew Hardie and Shereen Khoja . ISBN 1 86220 107 2. 2001. 40.00 . This is also available as a CDRom (containing PDF versions of the hardcopy) for 6.00 . Special issue. Proceedings of the Workshop on Corpus-Based and Processing Approaches to Figurative Language. Held in conjunction with Corpus Linguistics 2001 edited by John Barnden, Mark Lee and Katja Markert ISBN 1 86220 108 0. 2001. 10.00 The prosody of Please-requests: a corpus based approach. Anne Wichmann 2002. 24 pages. 3.50 Special issue. Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics 2003 conference, edited by Dawn Archer, Paul Rayson, Andrew Wilson and Tony McEnery . ISBN 1 86220 131 5. 2003. 45.00 . This is also available as a CDRom (containing PDF versions of the hardcopy) for 10.00 . Special issue. Proceedings of the The Workshop on Shallow Processing of Large Corpora (SProLaC 2003) held in conjunction with the Corpus Linguistics 2003 conference, edited by Kiril Simov and Petya Osenova . ISBN 1-86220-134-X 2003. 5.00 . This volume is also available electronically via the organiser's website . The cover and contents page are also included there. Special issue. Proceedings of the Interdisciplinary Workshop on Corpus-Based Approaches to Figurative Language held in conjunction with the Corpus Linguistics 2003 conference, edited by John Barnden, Sheila Glasbey, Mark Lee, Katja Markert and Alan Wallington . ISBN 1-86220-147-1 2003. 5.00 . Printed and bound copies of these Technical Papers can be obtained, at the prices listed (plus postage), from: Technical Papers c/o Paul Rayson Director of UCREL Computing Department Infolab21, South Drive, Lancaster University LANCASTER, LA1 4WA United Kingdom Email: paul at comp.lancs.ac.uk Tel: +44 1524 510357 Fax: +44 1524 510492 Cheques in UK currency should be made payable to "Lancaster University". Some volumes are not out-of-print. We will aim to provide electronic versions instead, if this is suitable. Please contact the same address given above for up-to-date details of titles and availability, or e-mail, in this regard only, to one of the general editors: Andrew Wilson or Tony McEnery . or WATCH THIS SPACE! Abstracts Gerlinde Hardt-Mautner. 'Only Connect'. Critical Discourse Analysis and Corpus Linguistics. 1995.The methodology traditionally used in critical discourse analysis (CDA) is mainly qualitative and hence unwieldy to apply to larger corpora. Standard forms of quantification, on the other hand, involve elaborate classification and coding procedures that destroy the coherence of the original discourse. On the basis of examples from a research project dealing with newspaper language, this paper assesses the potential of concordancing as a research tool for CDA. It is argued that computer-aided analysis enables researchers to blend together qualitative and quantitative views of the data, and to look at a more representative corpus than they can when working manually. John Paul Baker. The Evaluation of Multiple Post-Editors: Inter-Rater Consistency in Correcting Automatically Tagged Data. 1995.The experiment investigated the hypothesis that using human post-editors to check automatically tagged corpora would introduce inconsistencies in the data. Nine experienced post-editors were given sentences of written and spoken data, which had previously been tagged by CLAWS, and asked to remove errors from the output. Once ambivalent words had been removed from the data, mean rater accuracy was found to be higher than the accuracy of CLAWS output (98.7% to 95.3%), while overall consistency between post-editors was 98%. As a result of the experiment, ambivalent cases were resolved through the incorporation of new guidelines. It was also found that if subjects made a slip, it would be highly likely to involve substituting or leaving a noun tag in the place of the correct tag. Kaoru Takahashi. A Study of Text Typology: Multi-Feature and Multi-Dimensional Analyses. 1997.This paper is concerned with text typology. The LOB Corpus, which is a million-word collection of British English texts, is addressed for the study of characterizing text types and identifying linguistic characteristics in each text type. By means of multivariate analysis, the variation of the occurrence of the assigned linguistic features among genre categories yields the classification and systematization of genre categories, and also makes it explicit to specify the characteristics of linguistic features among classified groups. The criteria of the classification are exclusively based on the dimensions which are statistically revealed by the multivariate analysis, and afterwards the groupings are interpreted linguistically. As a result of the analysis, two main dimensions, i.e., ``narrative versus non-narrative concern" and ``specification of content versus generalization of content" enable the classification of three groups among genre categories in the LOB Corpus. As the second stage of this paper, focussing on the tag sequences in the LOB Corpus, the research on text types shifts to the syntactic level. This is carried out by a similar statistical methodology, whereby the syntactic distinction between contrastive linguistic groups, i.e., fiction and exposition is made explicit. Lastly, I touch upon discourse analysis. The linguistic features concerning semantics, e.g., proper nouns, common nouns etc., enable more sophisticated classification of text types macroscopically. This paper concludes with a future plan of research concerning a multi-feature and multi-dimensional approach.
与敖平继续讨论统计物理问题【3】 欢迎网友一起参加讨论。 Dear Prof. Bi and Fang: In response to the inquiry for our construction of potential function in generic situations, here I list our key technical work here, which I didn't in my prevous message. The pdf of 2) is attached here, which deals with a situation most people in nonequilibrium thought not possible: Existence and construction of potential function in limit cycle dynamics. The potential function has all the properties in physics. As far as I know, this was also regarded impossible by Prigogine school (I would be happy to be corrected). 1) On the Existence of Potential Landscape in the Evolution of Complex Systems, P. Ao, C. Kwon, and H. Qian, Complexity 12 (2007) 19-27. http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/q-bio/pdf/0703/0703044v1.pdf 2) Limit Cycle and Conserved Dynamics, X.-M. Zhu, L. Yin, P. Ao, Int. J. Mod. Phy. B20 (2006) 817I h-827. http://ejournals.wspc.com.sg/journals/ijmpb/20/2007/S0217979206033607.html 3) Structure of Stochastic Dynamics near Fixed Points, C. Kwon, P. Ao, and D.J. Thouless, Proc. Nat’l Acad. Sci. (USA) 102 (2005) 13029-13033. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/37/13029.full.pdf+html 4) Potential in Stochastic Differential Equations: Novel Construction, P. Ao, J. Phys. A37 L25-L30 (2004). http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0305-4470/37/3/L01/ Again, my intension here is not to argue which approach would be better. Rather, I wish to stimulate the research in China to seize a unique opportunity to make lasting contribution. My feeling is that, this is also the gaol in your 2010 paper on network science and statistical mechanics. Look forward to hearing your feedback. Best, Ao, Ping ----- 原始邮件 ----- 发件人: "ping ao" az5842@yahoo.com 收件人: "qiao bi" biqiao@gmail.com 抄送: "fang jinqing" fangjinqing@gmail.com , aoping@sjtu.edu.cn 发送时间: 星期二, 2012年 3 月 13日 下午 1:33:32 主题: Re: hi, ao ping Dear Prof. Bi: Thanks for your interesting questions. See my response in the context below. Ao, Ping From: qiao bi biqiao@gmail.com To: ping ao az5842@yahoo.com Sent: Tuesday, March 13, 2012 11:13 AM Subject: Re: hi, ao ping Hi， Prof. A. Ping， (1) I think the potential function is not only the Hamiltonian in the non-equilibrium situation, question is what is its rigorous math. and phys. meaning? Yes, it is rigorous math, with all the usual physics meaning. In fact, the latter is its big merit of our approach, comparing with those previous proposals. Could you give more clear description to it in the non-equilibrium situation? A good place to get a start on our approach is the paper sent you early: Emerging of Stochastic Dynamical Equalities and Steady State Thermodynamics from Darwinian Dynamics, P. Ao, Communications in Theoretical Physics 49 (2008) 1073-1090. http://ctp.itp.ac.cn/qikan/Epaper/zhaiyao.asp?bsid=2817 Let me know if you have any questions on it. (2) You said there is a candidate tentatively named Darwinian dynamics for non-equilibrium statistical physics , many thanks for your message and works although in this stage I am not sure about this, but I am interested to study. How about it is related to the negative entropy? As you may observe from above paper, the connection to the negative entropy ( not a good term in my opinion) should be simple, because both energy and usual entropy are naturally in our framework. Which kinds of parameters can generally determine the potential function in a non-equilibrium statistical system? There is NO need for additional parameters. There are lots of confusions in literature on non-equilibrium statistical system, which we can discuss more later. In our framework, potential function (or Hamilonian, depending on context) is a necessary concept to describe such systems. (3) About chaotic map related to the complex spectral decomposition of koopman operator which is not Hamiltonian operator, if there is no the concept of extension Hilbert space, the Feymann approaches could be very difficult, this may be a reason there seems be no one has done these before. So, I am not sure Feymann approach could do it except using some extension tech. of Hilbert space, if that sort of extension happens, that would be exact what I said meaning of "did correct calculation then get the same result", which implying "extension". Path integral can be, and have been extended, to discrete situations. It would be an interesting project for students to construct the potential function or Hamilotnian out of dynamical processes described by koopman operator. (4) But of course I don't think it is completely the same as subdynamics, but they may be the same in some crossing field. If you have great passion to study the both differences during recent time, that is welcome, but I would point out, I don't think the power of the Feymann approaches can be beyond any kind of (famous) projected operators approach such as Ziwanzig projected method, but the subdynamics is for beyond. Therefore for me here there is no big apple even if I can find some differences. I am sorry I said this, which seems too proud, and hope you could not misunderstand I am against you to do this or any no respect to the Feymann approaches, because I only want to point the fact that has been tried and done by the Brussels school in past 30 years. Several hundreds papers have been published, which should be evidences to allow you see the both differences if you have enough time. As far as I know, subdynamics has not yielded new physics predictions yet. Most work is on mathematics side. I can be wrong on this, due to my limited knowledge. Will be happy to be corrected. On the other hand, there are quite a few new predictions from Fyenman type description of subsystems. No, I am not keen to find the difference, either. One reason is that, when coming down to real physics problems, subdynamics usually involves approximations at very early stages. In conclusion, named Darwinian dynamics is more meaningful, I hope having further understanding and discussion with you, a nd hope subdynamics or some new progresses can in principle be tested experimentally from the Darwinian dynamics or evolutions . There are now new experiments to test some of our predictions. For example, as mentioned to you in previous messages, we predict that a new type stochastic integration is needed. A recent experiment does show that the usual Ito and Stratonovich types are not valid. Instead, a special case of prediction is valid. Best Wishes, Biqiao On Fri, Mar 9, 2012 at 10:39 PM, ping ao az5842@yahoo.com wrote: Dear Prof. Bi: Thanks for the good questions. (1). Potential function in our work is indeed, or play the samilar role as, the Hamiltonian in physics, whether or not in equilibirum or not. Because we need broader dynamical description, what we have shown is that, even in biological, social and other situations, "Hamiltonian" exists. Such existence guarantees that statistical mechanics type decription can be used in those fields, as, of course, people have been doing successfully so far, though they have not understood the keys yet. (2) I do not know your definition, hence I cannot say anthing. On the other hand, the potential function in our work is both dynamical and statonary quantity, exactly the same situation in usual physical systems. (3) I agree that Feynman type description has its advantages but I am no interested in defending such approach. I think it is most interest to see whether or not there are any differences in physics: For a given situation, whether or not two approaches would give different predictions. Or, they would be completely equivalent. From a physicist's pespective, I am not sure of the last point. For technical mathematical problems, such as you posted, can the Feymann approach solve complex spectral problems for chaotic maps? while I do not know anyone has done that, I believe the answer is yes, Feynman approach can do that. The reason for such assertation is actually simple: Feynman's path integral is a general mathematical framework. Again, I am more interested in situations which can in principle be tested experimentally. Ao, Ping From: qiao bi biqiao@gmail.com To: ping ao az5842@yahoo.com Sent: Saturday, March 10, 2012 5:21 AM Subject: Re: hi, ao ping Hi, Prof. A. Ping, (1) (1) The potential function is quite interested in the Darwinian dynamics, since it can consist of a formula for the canonical ensemble. I understand this formula is correct even for non-equilibrium states in the Darwinian dynamics. Could you give more clear description to the potential function? I believe it is just Hamiltonian in the equilibrium situation, but what is exact meaning in the non-equilibrium situation? (2) (2) I firstly guess: the potential function = the potential of information density, which may be related to my recently work (J. Phys. A in submission). But I hope this statement will be explained after I truly understand the potential function. (3) (3) Feymann types of approaches have advantages, especially to the quantum field system, but I believe that if we did correct calculations the subdynamics and the Feymann methods will give the same results. However, I said the correct calculation is not that kind easier, since it needs researchers to have enough skills to handle both sides. Many cases, because implied not correct calculation, we did the wrong result. Furthermore, subdynamics has introduced many new concepts, such as the extension Hilbert or Liouville space, the complex spectral decomposition, the similarity non-unitary transformation, and the differential kinetic equation to the projected density operator and so on, these new concepts have appeared in the subdynamics both in classical and quantum situations to lead it as a candidate to unify equilibrium and non-equilibrium statistics, while in the Feymann formalism my level cannot see this possibility. For example, can the Feymann approach solve complex spectral problems for chaotic maps? Subdynamics is useful to any linear operators not only Hamiltonian or Liouvillian. So in this period, for saving time, I suggest to first consider the Darwinian dynamics, because it may be more meaningful. I think you more know this. Best Wishes, Biqiao On Wed, Mar 7, 2012 at 10:55 PM, ping ao az5842@yahoo.com wrote: Dear Prof. Bi, Qiao: Let me know if you have not received the 6 paper which you are interested in. (2) The rigorous approach of Lebowitz and Feynman is completely based on (accepted) quantum mechanis. Indeed, it generates, in general, a differential and integral equation for sub-system dynamics. It would be interesting to know the samilarity and difference from the differential equation in your subdynamics. In particular, it would be great interest to see whether or not there are differences in physics predictions in some situations. If there would be no difference in physics, differential equations are indeed usually easier to handle than differential-integral equations. (3) Two Leggett's representative work in this direction are, if it may be helpful: A. O. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett, Ann. Phys. (N.Y) v.149, 374 (1983); A.J. Leggett, et al. Rev. Mod. Phys. v.59, 1 (1987) Unfortunately, I am not accessible to their pdf files right now. (4) My 1999 PRB paper with Zhu is on the correct treatment of vortex dynamics, sent you in previous message ( iii) paper ) . Nonlinear phenomena have emerging entities, such as topological defects (vortices, magenetic monopoles, fractional charges, etc) and solitons. In my experience, straightforward extension of Green's function from linear limit can be dangerous and can easily lead to incorrect results. Will be happy to discuss with you what I know. (5) Darvinian dynamics may be viable candidate for the foundation of nonequilibrium processes. It naturally contains the idea of (canonical) ensemble. In my view, the micro-canonical ensemble has nothing to do with stastical mechanics. It is pleasure to find an active group of scientists in China working on such fundamental and pratically very useful problems. Best, Ao, Ping
Writing Technical Reviews In many professions, people give back to their community by doing volunteer work. In technical fields such as computer science, we volunteer our time by reviewing papers that are written by other researchers in our field. I recommend that you approach your reviews in this spirit of volunteerism. Sure, your reviews make you a gatekeeper in helping decide which papers are ready for publication. Just as important, however, is to provide feedback to the authors so that they may improve their work. Try to write your review in a way that the authors can benefit from your review. I like reading a paper and then thinking about it over the course of several days before I write my review. "Living" with a paper for a few days gives you time to make thoughtful decisions about it. This is the best way to come up with helpful suggestions for improving the paper. To do this, you need to carve out some time in your day to think about the paper that you are reviewing. The tone of your review is important. A harshly written review will be disregarded by the authors, regardless of whether your criticisms are true. If you take care, it is always possible to word your review diplomatically while staying true to your thoughts about the paper. Put yourself in the mindset of writing to someone you wish to help, such as a respected colleague who wants your opinion on a concept or a project. Here are some specific issues to keep in mind as you write your reviews: Short reviews are unhelpful to the authors and to other reviewers. If you have agreed to review a paper, you should take enough time to write a thoughtful and detailed review. Be specific when you suggest that the writing needs to be improved. If there is a particular section that is unclear, point it out and give suggestions for how it can be clarified. Don't give away your identity by asking the authors to cite several of your own papers. If you don't think the paper is right for the SIGGRAPH Technical Papers program, suggest other publication possibilities (journals, conferences, workshops) that would be a better match for the paper. Avoid referring to the authors by using the phrase "you" or "the authors." These phrases should be replaced by "the paper." Directly talking about the authors can be perceived as being confrontational, even though you do not mean it this way. Be generous about giving the authors new ideas for how they can improve their work. Your suggestions may be very specific (for example, "this numerical solver would be better for your application") or may be more general in nature. You might suggest a new dataset that could be tried, or a new application area that might benefit from their tool. You may tell them how their idea can be generalized beyond what they have already considered. A thoughtful review not only benefits the authors, but may well benefit you, too. Remember that your reviews are read by other reviewers, including several who know your identity. Being a helpful reviewer will generate good will toward you in the research community. Greg Turk, March 2008
(Ten Commandments for technical writers. Science. 121.567)In 1955 at the Conference on Scientific Editorial Problems,Elmer W.Shaw outlined ten commandments for technical writers,based on the views expressed by the various speakers on the subject(15 April,1955 Science).Authors of scientific papers would do well to keep them constantly in mind:1 Thou shalt remember thy readers all the days of thy life; for without readers thy words are as naught2 Thou shalt not forsake the time-honoured virtue of simplicity.3 Thou shalt not abuse the third person passive.4 Thou shalt not dangle thy participles;neither shalt thou misplace thy modifiers.5 Thou shalt not commit monotony.6 Thou shalt not cloud thy message with a miasma of technical jargon.7 Thou shalt not hide the fruits ot thy research beneath excess verbiage,neither shalt thou obscure thy conclusions with vague generalities.8 Thou shalt not resent helpful advice from thy editors,reviewers,and critics.9 Thou shalt consider also the views of the layman,for his is an insight often unknown to technocrats.10 Thou shalt write and rewrite without tiring,for such is the key to improvement.A revised edition of the above would have to include 'thou shalt not wantonly curtail words or phrases'as the indiscriminate use of abbreviations should be avoided.在1955年召开的"科学编辑问题会议"上Shaw E W根据各位发言人对科技论文撰写的不同看法综合概括为十条戒律,并发表在当年4月15日科学(Science)杂志上,所有科技论文作者经常牢记这十戒必有裨益。 1 你须终此一生与读者为念,若无读者,你之论文亦无意义;2 你不应抛弃简雅之优点3 你不可滥用第三人称被动式;4 你切不可卖弄汝之分词;也不可错置修饰词;5 你之论文最忌单调枯躁乏味;6 你不可使用艰深晦涩之专业术语使文章迷茫难解; 7 你不可使用累牍之赘语糟粕掩盖研究之精华,勿令模糊概念使结论难为人解;8 你勿忌恨编者、评论者和批评者有益之见;9 你须慎思门外汉之见解,缘其常具专家所无之识;10 你须不厌其烦,一写再写,此乃论文改进提高之关键也。 除此十条外,还应加上一条,"你不可任意缩减单词或短语",亦应避免滥用缩略语。 摘译自:Cuschieri.A.and Baker.P.R .(1977) Introduction to Research in Medical Sciences. Churchill Livingstone Edinburgh London and New York.
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王 应 宽 2009-10-29 UTC-6 CST UMN, St Paul 博主按： 本人最近在明尼苏达大学图书馆借阅了一些关于科技论文写作的书籍。觉得有些内容好，对写作很有帮助，于是在阅读时做了一些读书笔记。准备陆续将自认为有用的内容与大家分享。本文所摘录的使你的写作更易读懂的十种方法，将从选词构句的微观操作层面，指导作者如何进行有效的科技论文写作，如何修改完善文字写作和语言表达。转贴于此，希望对改进作者的英文写作有所裨益。 内容出处： Birgitta Malmfors, Phil Garnsworthy, Michael Grossman. Writing and Presenting Scientific Papers. First edition. Norttingham University Press, Norttingham, UK, First published in 2000. P133. 使科技写作更易读懂的十种方法 Ten Ways to Make Your Writing Easier to Read 1 Choice of words Use words that are accurate-that mean what you want to say; words that are appropriate-that fit with well with other words in the paper; and words that are familiar-that are easy to read and understand. Use specific, concrete words; they are easier to understand and to remember. When you have something simple to say, say it simply. Use the word that conveys your meaning most accurately, but when deciding between two such words, choose the shorter, more common word. There are exceptions to that rule, however. Use a long word if it is the only word that expresses your meaning accurately, if it is more familiar than a short word, if its connotations are more appropriate, or if scientists in your discipline prefer it. For example: Instead of Use Ameliorate improve Approximately about Commence begin Enumerate list Finalize finish, complete Prioritize rank Utilize use Viable option choice Your choice of words is important! 2 Avoid jargon Use technical words and expressions (jargon) only when the terms are essential and familiar to the reader. Otherwise, avoid the use of jargon because it is difficult to understand. Instead, use a simpler plain language equivalent, even when the equivalent expression is longer. 3 Use active verbs and avoid passive verbs A verb is active when the subject does the action. A verb is passive when the subject is acted upon. To identify a passive verb in a sentence, look for a form of the verb to be followed with by. For example, This method was recommended by them is passive, whereas They recommended this method is active. A sentence that uses an active verb is shorter and clearer; more interesting and less boring; more direct because it emphasizes the subject; more forceful; takes less time to read and is easier to understand; and sounds less pompous and bureaucratic. Passive verbs are desirable to provide coherence within a paragraph , i.e. to provide transitions between sentences by repeating a word. For example, These problems ended with the discovery of penicillin. Penicillin now could be used by A sentence is easier to read if old information comes at the beginning of a sentence. Start one sentence with the idea that ended the previous sentence, even if it means using a passive verb. It is desirable also to use the passive verb in the following situations: to emphasize the receiver of the action , e.g. Waston and Crick were awarded the Nobel Prize; to avoid assigning blame , e.g. It is known that there are errors associated with field data; or omit an unknown or irrelevant agent, e.g. The petri dish was warmed slightly. 4 Use strong verbs-not nouns Put the weight of the sentence in the verb. Strong verbs make sentence more forceful and easier to read. Instead of writing, We performed an analysis of the data, it is more forceful to write, We analyzed the data. Nouns ending in ment, -ion, and -al often hide the verb. For example: Instead of Use Make an adjustment adjust Perform an analysis analyze Provide assistance assist Reach a conclusion conclude Take into considerationconsider Make a decision decide Perform an investigation investigate Give a description of describe 5 Tighten your writing If the same idea can be expressed in fewer words, then the writing is wordy. Wordy writing bores the reader and makes it difficult for the reader to understand what you mean. Good writing is tight, and tight writing allows you to convey more information. Tight writing is important, especially when you have to write an abstract with strict limits on the numbers of words or characters allowed. To tighten your writing, follow these strategies: Eliminate redundant words whose meaning is already clear. E.g. a period of three months, during the course of the experiment, during the year 2008; maximum possible; past experience; plan in advance; refer back; the colour blue; true facts; repeat again. Eliminate the words that say nothing E.g. it is interesting to note that; quite; really; rather; the (especially with plurals); very (if it substitutes for damn!) Use infinitives (the to form of the verb; e.g. to run) and gerunds (the ing form of a verb; e.g. running) to make a sentence smoother and shorter. Combine sentences to eliminate unnecessary words and to focus attention on key points Put the main idea of your sentence into the subject and verb to reduce the number of words Think about what you mean to say, write it in different ways, and choose the tightest one. Phrases beginning with of, which, or that often can be shortened. Instead of writing, The estimates of the parameters were, it is shorter to write, Parameter estimates were Sentences beginning with There are or It is can often be tightened. Instead of writing, There are three reasons for these results, it is tighter (and stronger) to write, Three reasons for these results are. Substitute a single word for a wordy phrase. For example: Instead of using Use At the present time now Due to the fact that because (Not since) It may be that perhaps In the event that if In the near future soon Prior to the start of before On a regular basis regularly A second point is secondly More often than not usually Would seem to suggest suggests One of the problems one problem In spite of the fact that although, despite, or nevertheless On two separate occasionstwice Were found to be in agreement agree Take into considerationconsider Carry out experiments experiment It is obvious that obviously 6 Sentence length and sentence structure Keep sentences short and simple. Simple sentences have one main idea. Compound sentences have two main ideas that are closely related, and they are joined with conjunctions such as and, but , or or . Complex sentences have one main idea and one subordinate idea related logically, e.g. If, then. Always edit sentences for tightness, but use long sentences to link ideas; to avoid a series of short, choppy sentences; or to reduce repetition. When using long sentences, keep the subject and verbs close together by putting modifying material at the end of the sentence. Instead of starting a sentence with a reference to some previous research, for example, start with the main finding of the research and place the reference at the end of the sentence. Strive to put the most important idea early in the sentence. 7 Use parallel structure Use the same grammatical form or consistent pattern for ideas that have the same logical function. Parallel structure makes writing smoother, more forceful, and easier to understand, especially when used for a list of or series of ideas. Be sure that each item in the list begins or ends with the proper word form. Parallel structure is especially useful when writing results and the discussion. Once you decide on the form of the structure to present the result for one variable, say, use the same pattern to present results for other variables; simply copy, paste, and revise the text. Having mastered the result for one variable, the reader can see the pattern and can understand results easily for other variables. 8 Use transactions to link ideas Transition words and phrases (e.g. and, during, or for example) signal connections between ideas. Transitions tell the reader if the text sentence continues the previous idea or starts a new one. They tell the reader whether the idea that comes next is more or less important than the previous one. Transitions are used also to introduce an example, to compare or contrast ideas, to summarize or end. The following are examples of Transition words and phrases: To show addition or continuation of the same idea: And, in addition, also, likewise, first, second, third, similarly To introduce the last or most important item: Finally, moreover, furthermore To introduce an example: For example (e.g.), for instance, to illustrate, namely, indeed, specifically To contrast: In contrast, on the other hand, or, whereas To show that the contrast is more important than the previous idea: But, nevertheless, however, on the contrary To show the cause and effect: As a result, for this reason, because, therefore, consequently To show time: After, next, as, then, before, until, during, when, in the future, while, since To summarize: In conclusion, to summarize, to sum up, to conclude, in one word, in short 9 Write coherently Coherence refers to the logical sequence of sentences within a paragraph. Just as you should begin a sentence with the subject, which states the main idea of that sentence, you should begin a paragraph with a topic sentence, which states the main idea of that paragraph and provides structure to the paper. A good topic sentence forecasts the reader the content of the paragraph and holds the paragraph together. A paragraph that lacks a topic sentence lacks unity. If a paragraph contains more than one main idea, consider linking ideas with a transition sentence. Otherwise, consider splitting the paragraph into more than one. To improve coherence within a paragraph, discuss only one idea, or one topic, at a time. Use the same organizational pattern for successive sentences. Use parallel structure for the main subjects and main verbs. Tell the reader what to expect, e.g. There are two problems with this method: the first is, and the second is; then go on to elaborate on the problems. 10 Make your logic clear Write what you really mean to say and write it logically! If you have difficulty putting an idea onto paper, say What I really mean to say is, and write the words you mean to say. Once the words are on paper, you can revise them. Above all, make sure what you write is coherent and makes clear, logical and scientific sense!
来源: ftp://ftp.deas.harvard.edu/techreports/tr.html Title, author, and abstract information for technical reports from the Harvard Computer Science program from 1987 to date are indexed below. Many, especially since 1994, include pointers to the on-line papers themselves. In addition, Harvard technical reports are indexed through the Unified Computer Science Technical Report Index , which also includes keyword searching capability. To obtain copies of technical reports not available directly through this WWW service, contact Gordon McKay Library ( library@seas.harvard.edu ). Last update: April 23, 2009 11:08:04 am. 1987 reports 1988 reports 1989 reports 1990 reports 1991 reports 1992 reports 1993 reports 1994 reports 1995 reports 1996 reports 1997 reports 1998 reports 1999 reports 2000 reports 2001 reports 2002 reports 2003 reports 2004 reports 2005 reports 2006 reports 2007 reports 2008 reports 2009 reports
标签: Technical
