Heinrich Rohrer （海因里希·罗雷尔）是瑞士物理学家，1986年诺贝尔物理学奖获得者。因病于5月16日在家中逝世，享年80岁。 Heinrich Rohrer 1981年他与同事成功研制出了扫描隧道显微镜（STM）。1983年，他们利用STM在硅单晶表面第一次直接观察到周期性排列的硅原子阵列。。 扫描隧道显微镜已成为表面物理和材料科学的一个重要工具。现今开发的一些相关的显微技术，包括原子力显微镜和得益于扫描隧道显微镜。
——2012年是达伦获得诺贝尔物理奖100周年，此文纪念这位研发自动化设备的先行者。 今年诺贝尔物理奖公布前，写了篇博文关于 自动控制和诺贝尔物理 奖 ，介绍了1912年瑞典人达伦因为自动化灯塔获得诺贝尔物理奖。博文的评论基本上一面倒地质疑那一届的物理奖，甚至认为这是历史上水平最低的物理奖。的确，从物理学的角度来看，这些评论是有道理的，因为达伦获奖的理由和物理学理论上的创新或实验上的新发现无关。 诺贝尔遗嘱中规定获奖人必须“对人类的福祉作出最大贡献”，物理奖要颁发给“作出了最重要发现或发明的人。” 达伦因其“发明了与 储气器一起使用的，用于灯塔和浮标照明的自动调节器” 而获奖；这里 储气器指乙炔罐， 其获奖原因的英文陈述，见注 1。 他的发明安全、可靠，同时大幅度有效地降低了海上航行的导航成本。他被世人誉为“水手的恩人”（此说法见注 2 文献）。他的获奖符合诺贝尔奖原则和条件。 达伦的灯塔系统－图片来自于The Rotarian，扶轮社员，1938年10月，第47页 本文根据收集到的一些资料，试图解释当时在什么背景下，作为发明家的达伦获得了本该是为物理学家设立的诺贝尔物理学奖。同时也指出关于爱迪生和特斯拉的传言是不正确的。 本文主要参考及内容来自《权谋：诺贝尔科学奖的幕后》一书，该书中文版杨建军译，2005年上海科教出版社出版。需要声明的是该书的相关内容在这里直接被引用，关键地方被详细地指明了出处或加以引号说明 。 科学网博主 曹聪2003年 、 李侠2008年 有文章介绍过此书。这是一本很权威的书，作者弗里德曼（R.M. Friedman）1980年曾被邀请参加诺奖档案的研究工作。 1974年，《诺贝尔基金会章程》加入条款，在颁奖50年后，诺奖档案可以开放供研究。1976年诺奖基金会公布了它五十多年的档案。 在介绍弗里德曼的书之前，我们先来看看匈牙利人豪尔吉陶伊（Istvan Hargittal）的书《通往斯德哥尔摩之路》。该书中文译本，由节艳丽译，2007年上海世纪出版集团出版。 此书第97页称达伦获得诺贝尔物理学奖是 “受到误导的奖项”： 达伦1912年的物理奖是另外一个仁慈的错误。他得到它是“因其发明了灯塔和浮标照明用的瓦斯自动调节器”（注：瓦斯指气体，应是乙炔）。这个奖项的颁发是出于感情的理由。达伦就在皇家科学院会议之前发生了一次意外并且失明了。诺贝尔物理学奖委员会提议的是由荷兰人卡末林－昂内斯（Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes）由于他在低温物理学方面的成就获奖。关上们，科学院的院士开始讨论卡末林－昂内斯获奖的时候，有人提议把它推迟到下一年，而把1912年的物理学奖授予达伦。这就是实际的情况。而那一年，也完全是机遇，恰巧达伦的一位同事为他写了一份正式的提名。 看了以上内容，大体上就知道了瑞典发明家达伦获奖是出于感情的原因，然而事情却不是看上去那么简单。关于“误导的奖项”，中文文献也有类似的说法，见注 4。 为更深入了解达伦为何获奖，首先得了解诺奖是如何运作的。诺贝尔组织由诺贝尔基金会、评奖机构以及由这些评奖机构选出来的小型的诺贝尔奖专业评委员会构成。基金会不参与评奖。诺奖评委会向评奖机构提交最初的推荐名单，而评奖机构则独立负责最后的决定。物理学奖和化学奖的评奖机构是瑞典的皇家科学院。五人的诺奖专业评委会由科学院选定，原则上可以不是皇科院院士（member），甚至不是瑞典人。物理学和化学奖可有下列人提名： 1. 瑞典皇家科学院院士和外籍院士 2. 评委会成员 3. 物理学和化学奖得主 4. 瑞典、丹麦、芬兰、冰岛和挪威的物理和化学领域的终身和助理教授 5. 其它国家指定大学的物理学和化学教授（每年所指定的学校不同） 6. 其它受到个人提名邀请的科学家 以上内容来自《权谋》前言和《之路》第一章。 一、早期重视实验物理学 由于始于1901年的诺奖是由瑞典人颁发的，瑞典的科学界对物理学的态度直接影响或甚至支配物理奖的颁发。从《权谋》书中可见，1951年以前，专业委员会成员都来自瑞典。第一次世界大战结束前（1918年），实验物理学家是诺贝尔奖的宠儿，这和当时物理学家重视精密测量和能有“直接发现”的实验物理学，轻视理论物理学有重大关系，瑞典的物理学家也不例外。这一价值取向长期支配着诺奖的政治倾向，结果就是绝大多数奖都颁发给实验发现。 在1918年之前的物理奖委员会的五个成员中，只是在1910年以后有了一个数学物理学家。在1918年 M. 普朗克获奖之前，从1901年开始的十六次，也只有两次颁发给理论物理学家，1902年 H. 洛伦兹分享以及1906年 J.J. 汤姆逊。1909年， 发明家 G. 马可尼由于对无线电报发展的贡献分享了物理学奖。在偏好实验发现的倾向性下，1912年颁发给发明家达伦似乎也不足为怪、无可厚非。但这件事真正发生，并引起争议却不仅仅是对实验物理学的偏好以及《之路》提及的误导和感情原因。 二、皇科院与委员会的争斗 皇家科学院和物理奖委员会一直存在激烈斗争，1908年前后的代表人物是科学院的院士数学家米勒－塔夫（传说中的诺贝尔情敌，以下简称为米氏）和委员会中的物理化学家，1903年化学奖得主阿伦尼乌斯（ 以下简称为阿氏）。两人的共同点是努力在诺奖评选中“为理论打开门”。但两人历史上结怨甚深，以至于什么事情他们都要对着干。在1908年，由于米勒－塔夫的恶意散布不利于M. 普朗克获奖言论，直接导致阿氏支持的普朗克落选 。以后，米氏一直努力希望法国的庞加莱获得1910年或1911年的物理学奖；而阿氏强烈反对物理学奖颁发给庞，除了为反对而反对外，也可能是因早年的私人恩怨。庞加莱和米勒－塔夫曾一起反对阿伦尼乌斯成为斯德哥尔摩的物理学教授。终于使得众望所归的庞加莱直到1912年去世也没有获奖。为弥补对法国人的亏欠，阿伦尼乌斯提名居里夫人，从而在1911年使其获得化学奖，第二次获得诺贝尔奖（第一次为1903年分享物理学奖）。 三、发给“我们自己的人” 诺贝尔奖是依据瑞典发明家诺贝尔捐赠和遗嘱设立的国际性奖项。自1901年开始，瑞典人理所应当地认为诺贝尔奖就应该颁发给他们。时至今日，包括所有奖项在内，依据维基数据，瑞典人获奖数目排名第五，在美、英、德、法之后。在1912年之前，有四个瑞典人获诺奖，1903年 S. 阿伦尼乌斯的化学奖、1908年和平奖、1909年文学奖以及1911年生理与医学奖，理化学奖26人中瑞典的科学家只有一人。 科学院（即皇科院）和委员会都希望诺贝尔的遗产“理所应当地属于瑞典科学家。在找不到真正有价值的新近物理学发现后，科学院于是将得奖标准降低，以使得‘我们自己人’都能得奖。”在这种意愿下，物理学家们1910年很快推举了实验物理学家瑞典人 K. 昂斯特伦，该人1900－1910年在物理学专业委员会曾担任主席职务，不料委员会开始审议时， 昂斯特伦突然离世。1911年，物理学委员会和科学院准备让同年成为物理学专业委员会委员的瑞典眼科专家古尔斯特兰德获奖，因为他在眼球光学的工作。但卡罗林医学院抢先给了他一个医学奖。 在科学院无视来自国际上对庞加莱和普朗克的大力支持（最大数目的提名49和54见文献 2），一意要让他们自己人获奖的时候，一个合适的、符合他们心愿的瑞典发明家达伦出现了。 四、工程师和专业委员会之争 1912年物理奖的争斗不是发生在皇科院数学家米勒－塔夫和物理化学家阿伦尼乌斯，而是发生在皇科院身为工程师和应用科学家的院士们和专业委员会。“皇科院不顾诺贝尔物理学专业委员会的反对，一意要捧他们自己的人。”瑞典发明家、工程师达伦正是他们自己的人。以下来自《权谋》第四章4.1.2节： 皇科院1912年的反叛就是这样一个例子。皇科院不顾物理学委员会的意见，把奖发给了一个不合适的人。皇科院的院士包括许多工程师和应用科学家，他们许多人长久以来对颁奖的主导哲学心怀不满。他们觉得，诺贝尔的遗嘱使皇科院有义务把奖颁发给在实用问题上工作的人。在1911年12月召开的瑞典发明家的会议上，主席讲了据说是爱迪生做出的评语：如果他得了诺贝尔奖，他将拒绝接受，以这个行动来表示他对以前颁奖方式的抗议。瑞典的发明家和工程师们感到愤慨，他们自己的宠儿候选人谢林和德–拉瓦尔都没有得到化学奖。主席提议对皇科院抗议，他们得到了国际上发明家协会的支持。实际上，他和他的同事们不久就找到了另一种方式表达他们的不满。 五、达伦生逢其时 博文开始时已经提到，瑞典皇家科学院院士可以作为提名人。正是科学院院士“永贝里（Erik Johan Ljungberg），皇家科学院技术组头面成员，在1912年提名瑞典发明家达伦（Gustaf Dalen），因为达伦的自动化灯塔。这是达伦得到的唯一提名。” 首先回顾1908年－1913年物理奖专业委员会提名和获奖情况（来自《权谋》）： 1.1908年，以阿氏为代表的委员会提名普朗克和魏恩（W. Wien）分享物理奖，由于米氏的的误导，科学院颁奖给法国的李普曼（G. Lippmann） 2.1909年， 由于阿氏和米氏的争斗，使得实验物理学家格兰奎斯特（Gustaf Granqvist）渔翁得利，当选为专业委员会委员。正是由于他的影响，让应用物理学得了一个奖。发明家马可尼和实验物理学家布劳恩（F. Braun）由于对无线电报发展的贡献分享了物理学奖。 3. 1910年，阿氏为反对米氏提名庞加莱，使得范德瓦尔斯（J.D. van der Waals）获奖（那一年只被一人提名）。 4.1911年，魏恩得奖，诺奖没给普朗克。魏恩得奖当然很高兴，但他认为这个决定有点怪（指 普朗克没有分享 ）。 5.1912年，委员会提名卡末林－昂内斯，皇科院颁奖给达伦。 6. 1913年，卡末林－昂内斯获得物理奖。 可以看到，获奖是因为有人支持（1909马和布、1910范），没有获奖是因为有人反对（1908普和魏，1910庞），再就是利益的均衡（提名多次，该给了，1911魏、1913卡）。根据据发表在 IEEEcontrol systems magazine 的文章介绍（ 文献 1），1912年有17人被提名，包括两个是以前的物理奖获得者： 1902年 H. 洛伦兹和1906年 J.J. 汤姆逊，四个未来物理奖得主：1913年卡末林－昂内斯，1918年普朗克，1920年 C. 纪尧姆和1921年的爱因斯坦。 达伦之所以获奖就是因为科学院工程师和应用科学家院士们（技术专家）的支持。以下来自《权谋》第四章4.1.2节： 与以前被提名的瑞典发明家不同， 达伦的工作所用的都是已知的科学原理。虽然也需要相当的创造力，需要技术上的眼光，但是没有涉及科学性的技术研究。委员会对此很了解，对这个发明夸奖了一番，然后很快就掠过（ passed over）了这位候选人。 但是在皇科院，工程师们引起了争辩。他们反对委员会所提的卡末林－昂内斯，因为他在氦气液化上的工作。另外，达伦新近在用乙炔时失明；他的亲密同事要表彰他，表彰他所代表的瑞典工程传统。那年除了卡末林－昂内斯、普朗克等人外，还有其他在国际上受到很大支持的人，但对皇科院很多人来说这都不重要。工程师们领导了一个对委员会和物理组的一个反叛。他们动员了大多数的院士，37对28，通过了他们的决议，对本地技术上的创造力表示感谢，也同时向一位受尊重的院士（注：可能指那位提名达伦的院士永贝里）致以敬意。这不是最后一次皇科院忽视了它的诺贝尔委员会和有关的专业组，而展现了皇科院据诺贝尔奖为己有的持续趋势。这个奖对皇科院的意义，可以说是诺贝尔从来没有梦想到过的。 于是，瑞典发明家达伦因为灯塔的自动调节器而获得了1912年的诺贝尔物理学奖。 值得注意的是，根据《权谋》，374页，第8个注释，爱迪生在1912年没有被提名物理学奖，因此如下传闻是不正确的： 诺贝尔奖委员会于1912年评选出爱迪生和特斯拉为诺贝尔物理学奖得主。然而，由于商业竞争等原因，两人是死对头，特斯拉听说自己和爱迪生共同被选定为诺贝尔物理学奖获得者，更是公开表示拒绝共同领奖。最终，1912年的诺贝尔物理学奖颁发给了发明家达伦。 爱迪生在1915年被提名分享物理学奖，还有分享化学奖。 六、达伦的发明与生平 以下内容译自 IEEE 控制系统杂志 Clark 的文章（translated from the article of Clark 文献 1，以下图片来自于此文献），其它文献见注 2－3。 对许多国家来说，特别是瑞典，有着漫长的海岸线和众多岛屿，提供可靠的沿海照明系统一直是一个迫切问题。从1912年以后，若干沿海国家， 由于采用达伦系统，已经显著地提高了海上导航的安全性，同时在导航设备运行和维护上，节省了大量资金。 1869年11月30日，伦达出生于瑞典卡拉堡的斯滕斯托普。他的家庭在那里经营一间农场。在一所农业学校，他接受了早期教育，准备接替他的父亲成为一个农民。在农场工作期间，他的发明天赋已经显露出来。在1892年，他发明了一种装置，用于检测牛奶中的脂肪含量。他将他的发明介绍给古斯塔夫–德–拉瓦尔，一位著名的发明家和实业家（注：他就是上面皇科院工程师和应用科学院士们抱怨没有获得化学奖的其中一位）。拉瓦尔的公司，为高速蒸汽涡轮机制造一种新型的减速齿轮装置，该装置可被用于海上船只。拉瓦尔一生中有超过90项的专利注册，并建立了37家公司。拉瓦尔认识到达伦的发明能力，建议他在哥德堡的查尔姆斯理工大学学习工程。达伦接受了此建议，注册成了该大学的学生。 1896年，达伦毕业，成为一名机械工程师，希望能加入拉瓦尔的蒸汽涡轮机公司。拉瓦尔建议他到著名的瑞士苏黎世联邦理工学院继续学习 。达伦接受了拉瓦尔的意见，用了一年多的时间在苏黎世，在A.B. 斯托多拉教授的指导下学习。斯托多拉教授对高压水涡轮机有深入研究，特别是对速度调节器的动力学。可能，曾在德国留学的拉瓦尔，由于他们在高压涡轮机有相同的研究兴趣，认识斯托多拉教授。 对于自动控制的学生来说， 斯托多拉和他的同事阿道夫·赫维茨教授，在19世纪90年代初期发生的学术关系，是众所周知的。他们的关系类似于詹姆斯·麦克斯韦和爱德华·罗斯20多年前在剑桥之间的关系。麦克斯韦，通过对用于精密电子测量设备的调速器做动态分析，提出了一个数学问题：如何找到多项式系数满足的条件，以使得多项式根的实部为负。麦克斯韦的同学数学家劳斯找到了这些条件，其结果发表在1876年“运动给定状态的稳定性论文”中。 1893年，斯托多拉，通过研究水轮机调速器，发现了和麦克斯韦同样的问题。在不知道罗斯已解决这一问题的情况下，斯托多拉就此问题求教于他的数学家同事赫尔维茨。赫尔维茨在一年内解决了此问题，结果发表在1895的年中。达伦在 赫尔维茨文章发表一年后（1896年）到达苏黎世。很有可能，达伦作为斯托多拉的学生，知悉机械装置的自动控制技术。 在他1897年返回瑞典之后，达伦继续蒸汽涡轮机的开发工作，部分资金由拉瓦尔的汽轮机公司资助，并在该公司做实验。利用涡轮机工作经验，达伦和同事亨里克·冯·塞尔辛（Celsing）创办了自己的公司，以期转化发明为有用的产品。他们工作的重要性在于将乙炔用到照明设备及加热装置上。和石油气燃烧相比，乙炔燃烧产生的火焰要明亮。在电出现之前，乙炔广泛用于街道照明。1902年，达伦将乙炔用于焊接这项技术介绍给瑞典人，虽然直到很晚它才被广泛的使用。 为偏远地区或移动的铁路和汽车安装照明或取暖设备，乙炔和石油气相比有显著的优势。但是，天然的易爆性质防碍了乙炔的这类使用，特别当乙炔被储存在压力容器里运输时。 乙炔照明一个特别有吸引力的应用是沿航线海岸边的灯塔和浮标。达伦和他的合作者，包括那些在瑞典碳化物和乙炔公司的同事（1904年改名为 Svenska Aktiebolaget Gasaccumulator 或 AGA ），把他们注意力转向了这个问题。 1895年左右，人们已经发现在一定的商业规模上，如何从电石（碳化钙）制备乙炔（注：电石跟水反应制取乙炔）。初始的方法试图在灯浮标中存储电石，自动注水后，产生乙炔，这种方法已被证明是不方便的，不可靠的，在寒冷天气里也行不通。在1896年两位法国化学家，克劳德和赫斯发现丙酮能溶解大量乙炔，而且该混合溶液并不爆炸。另外，若溶液被压缩在一多孔材料里，并注入到已加压的可运输容器内时，它可以安全地运输，只要这样的多孔材料有足够的弹性。达伦发现了这样一种多孔材料（mass or substance），他命名它为 AGA（注：Agamassan 或乙炔储气罐 acetylene gas accumulator 缩写）也是雇佣他的企业的首字母缩写。 随后，达伦开发了一个复杂的工艺过程，首先把 AGA 材料加到可运输的钢罐里，然后注入溶解后的乙炔（注：丙酮和乙炔的混合液），并压缩钢罐到一个指定压力。在此压力下，该罐可包含比自身容积大100倍的乙炔，而且这样的乙炔储气罐可以安全地被运输。 在以前，石油气（通常称煤气）被用于海上照明，要求石油气燃烧持续产生约六秒钟的闪烁，以产生导航信号编码。如果和阀系统一起使用的话，一升的石油气能提供50次闪烁。达伦开发出一个可靠的系统，即一升乙炔能够提供几千次短暂但明亮的闪烁。较短的闪烁允许 导航信号有 一个较大的码字母集（coding aplhabet 注：从而能够传递更多信息）。 为了进一步节约灯塔中的乙炔燃料，达伦又发明了一个特殊的阀门，称为太阳能阀门，或Solventil。日出时阀门就自动把频闪乙炔灯灭掉，日落时阀门又自动将频闪乙炔灯点燃。该阀由四个金属棍（片）组成的系统驱动，其中三个被高度抛光，第四个是涂成黑色，前三个包围第四个，所有四个被封闭在一玻璃管中。当阳光变化时，利用黑色的金属棍和明亮的金属棍对阳光感应的差胀变化来打开和关闭燃气阀（见 http://www.aga.com/history）。 在1911年，AGA公司为巴拿马运河提供了一个灯塔系统。到1912年，越来越多的瑞典沿海和世界其它地方，已经安装了达伦的照明系统。达伦的系统可以对灯光进行自动操作，而且在一年或一年以上的时间里，不需要检查。 达伦系统之前，一个瑞典灯标船成本费用为了20万瑞典克朗，每年的维护费用为2万5千瑞典克朗。一个自动操作的信号浮标成本费用为9千瑞典克朗，每年的维护成本只有60克郎。安装在斯德哥尔摩 Blockhusudden 灯塔，在1912年安装了达伦照明系统，一直工作到1980年，已经消耗180万升乙炔，在68年里，发射了4亿次闪烁。 1912年9月，达伦担任AGA的总裁，继续他的处理乙炔实验。在一个特别危险的试验中，一个正在加热的气体收集器（乙炔罐）发生爆炸。在这起意外中达伦严重受伤，永久失明。这起事故的2个月后，1912年诺贝尔物理奖授予给达伦。 达伦最终从他的伤病中恢复过来，尽管有失明的障碍，他仍然活跃在AGA公司，继续开发新产品。随后，他获得了更多的荣誉，先后成为工程科学院和皇家科学院的院士。他积极地参与当地的政治，多年在 Lidingö 的市议会任职，也在国家理事会和委员会任职。作为AGA总裁，他一直是一个积极的领导者，直到他在1937年12月去世。 达伦因其“发明了与 储气器一起使用的，用于灯塔和浮标照明的自动调节器”使他无愧于“航海者的恩人”这样的赞誉。 七、总结 瑞典发明家、工程师达伦之所以获得诺贝尔物理奖得益于那时的历史背景，但更主要在于他的命运和为人类作出的贡献。《权谋》书中结语部分（344页）提到：获奖人必须“ 对人类的福祉作出最大贡献” 。“ 在诺奖的开头几年，提名人不知道怎样解读 ‘为人类造福’，另一些人用它来指技术或应用成果，委员会偶尔也会接受这种观点，例如他们颁奖给马可尼和布劳恩时。不满的瑞典的技术化学师和工程师们经常引用这句话来赞扬技术和工业上的成就 。他们深知诺贝尔奖赋予人们威望方面的重要性。他们的抗争导致颁奖给达伦、博施和贝吉乌斯（注：1931年化学奖），迫使物理学委员会给理查森评奖（注：1928年物理学奖），并使委员会经常关注勒夏特列（注： HenriLouis LeChatelier 法国 化学家和工程师 ） 。” 达伦获奖的原因就是因为有来自科学院工程师和应用科学家院士们（技术专家）的支持。皇科院（工程师）院士们对“为人类造福”的解读不同于专业委员会的委员们，前者认为“为人类造福”意味着直接或已经使人类受益，“技术或应用成果”，“即能满足知识的追求，又能服务社会的科学成就”，而专业委员会的委员们强调的是“有利于科学进步”，“终将使全人类受益”（二者的观点见第五、七部分标为暗红色的内容）。 和20世纪初相比，从事应用科学的工程师和发明家们已经不需要获得诺贝尔奖来证明他们“对人类的福祉作出最大贡献”，以及他们是“作出了最重要发现或发明的人”。在工程界已经有许多和诺贝尔奖相比肩的奖项，比如 IEEE Control Systems Award，尽管奖金数目还不能和诺奖相提并论。 注 1：关于达伦获奖原因，有百年历史的 AGA公司的说法 ：the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences awarded him the Nobel Prize in Physics for his “inventions of self-operating regulators, which in combination with gas accumulators can be used to light lighthouses and light buoys." 而诺贝尔委员会的 获奖原因 是：“ for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys"。其英文没有AGA的通俗易懂。 注 2： The Rotarian，扶轮社员（知道扶轮是读陈省身传记时知道他读的中学叫扶轮中学，不知道二者有何关系），1938年10月， 第47页 ， Encyclopedia of World Biography 、 Nobel Prize Winners in Physics , 2008，第78页，作者：Arun Agarwa 都有“航海者的恩人”“the benefactor of sailors”的说法。 百度百科 也有 “工程界中最难得的伟大人物”、“航海者的恩人”，见那里的参考文献。对于第一种说法，博文作者没有查到英文文献，授奖词中达伦身份是“chief engineer"。 注 3：关于达伦的工作，一个较为详细的介绍见 百度百科 ，也见博主刘亚俊的博文： 1912年的诺贝尔物理学奖 ， 科学导报的博文： 从居里夫人的获奖过程看诺贝尔物理奖 ，也提到达伦获奖情况。达伦获奖原因，见当年的 诺贝尔授奖词 。 注 4：中文期刊《物理》2002年第10期 ， 百年诺贝尔物理学奖探析 ，作者：仲伟纲,丰建淑。其中 3.3 节选错项目，提到达伦的获奖，给出的评论：“但雷达和 喷气马达这两项不知要重大多少倍的发明却没有得 到青睐，达伦的德国同行们就讥讽地说：开罐头的起子也有资格获得诺贝尔奖?”很遗憾作者没有给出详细的文献来源。博文作者猜测可能来自于达伦也发明了 AGA Cooker。此外似乎雷达的发明在1912年以后，等等。 文献 1： Clark, R.N. " Nils Gustaf Dalén (1869-1937) : Inventor, experimenter, engineer, and nobel laureate."IEEE control systems magazine(2003). v. 23 (4), pp.68–70. 文献 2： E. Crawford, The Beginnings of the Nobel Institution ; The Science Prizes, 1901-1915. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984, page 90.
据纽约消息，3位美国出生的科学家Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt以及Adam Riess荣获2011年诺贝尔物理学奖，是因为他们发现发现宇宙是在加速膨胀速度,这种惊人的启示表明宇宙未来可能走向更冷,更暗淡,几乎无光的时代。 1998年,Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt以及Adam Riess就提出了推翻宇宙大爆炸之后，膨胀的速度会延缓137亿年的传统的观念。他们发现提出一个问题:究竟是什么在推动整个宇宙呢?科学家们已经为其贴上“暗能量”的标记,但没有人知道它到底是什么。诺贝尔委员会认为：这个谜或许就是当今物理学领域最伟大的（It's "an enigma, perhaps the greatest in physics today," the Nobel committee said.)。 Perlmutter现年52岁,在美国劳伦斯·伯克利国家实验室和加州大学伯克利分校供职,将获得2011年诺贝尔奖金150万美元中的一半；另一半由Brian Schmidt和Adam Riess分享。 Brian Schmidt现年44岁，供职于澳大利亚Weston Creek的澳洲国立大学（Australian National University ）；Adam Riess现年41岁，是美国约翰斯·霍普金斯大学（Johns Hopkins University）和巴尔的摩空间望远镜科学研究所（Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore）的一名天文学教授。 更多详细信息请浏览相关网站： www. nobelprize .org/ nobel _ prizes /physics/ laureate s/ 2011 /press.html http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/04/saul-perlmutter-ucberkele_n_993852.html
汤森路透08年引文桂冠得主获今年诺贝尔物理学奖 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2010/10/238475.shtm http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enq=KS+Novoselov+btnG=Searchas_sdt=2000as_ylo=as_vis=0 Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films from arxiv.org KS Novoselov , AK Geim, SV Morozov, D Jiang, Y - Science, 2004 - sciencemag.org Page 1. DOI: 10.1126/science.1102896 , 666 (2004); 306 Science et al. KS Novoselov , Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films ... Thin Carbon Films KS Novoselov ,1 AK Geim,1* SV Morozov,2 D. Jiang,1 Y. Zhang,1 SV Dubonos,2 IV Grigorieva,1 AA Firsov2 ... Cited by 3101 - Related articles - All 22 versions Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene from arxiv.org KS Novoselov , AK Geim, SV Morozov, D Jiang, MIKIV - Nature, 2005 - nature.com Quantum electrodynamics (resulting from the merger of quantum mechanics and relativity theory) has provided a clear understanding of phenomena ranging from particle physics to cosmology and from astrophysics to quantum chemistry 1, 2, 3 . The ideas underlying quantum ... Cited by 2154 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 40 versions The rise of graphene from arxiv.org AK Geim, KS Novoselov - Nature materials, 2007 - nature.com Graphene is a rapidly rising star on the horizon of materials science and condensed-matter physics. This strictly two-dimensional material exhibits exceptionally high crystal and electronic quality, and, despite its short history, has already revealed a cornucopia of new physics ... Cited by 2095 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 45 versions Two-dimensional atomic crystals from pnas.org KS Novoselov , D Jiang, F Schedin, TJ - Proceedings of the , 2005 - National Acad Sciences Dimensionality is one of the most defining material parameters; the same chemical compound can exhibit dramatically different properties depending on whether it is arranged in a 0D, 1D, 2D, or 3D crystal structure. Although quasi-0D , quasi-1D from claptop.com , S Piscanec, D Jiang, KS Novoselov , S Roth, AK - Physical Review Letters, 2006 - APS Graphene is the two-dimensional building block for carbon allotropes of every other dimensionality. We show that its electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers. The D peak second order changes in shape, width, ... Cited by 649 - Related articles - All 15 versions Detection of individual gas molecules adsorbed on graphene from arxiv.org , EW Hill, P Blake, MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov - Nature Materials, 2007 - nature.com The ultimate aim of any detection method is to achieve such a level of sensitivity that individual quanta of a measured entity can be resolved. In the case of chemical sensors, the quantum is one atom or molecule. Such resolution has so far been beyond the reach of any detection ... Cited by 523 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 19 versions The electronic properties of graphene from csic.es Neto, F Guinea, NMR Peres, KS Novoselov , - Reviews of Modern , 2009 - digital.csic.es ... NMR Peres Center of Physics and Department of Physics, Universidade do Minho, P-4710-057, Braga, Portugal KS Novoselov and AK Geim Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom (Published 14 January 2009) ... Cited by 607 - Related articles - View as HTML - All 35 versions The structure of suspended graphene sheets from arxiv.org , AK Geim, MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov , TJ Booth, S - Nature, 2007 - nature.com The recent discovery of graphene has sparked much interest, thus far focused on the peculiar electronic structure of this material, in which charge carriers mimic massless relativistic particles 1, 2, 3 . However, the physical structure of graphenea single layer of carbon atoms ... Cited by 488 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 22 versions Room-temperature quantum Hall effect in graphene from arxiv.org KS Novoselov , Z Jiang, Y Zhang, SV Morozov, HL - Science, 2007 - sciencemag.org The quantum Hall effect (QHE), one example of a quantum phenomenon that occurs on a truly macroscopic scale, has attracted intense interest since its discovery in 1980 and has helped elucidate many important aspects of quantum physics. It has also led to the establishment ... Cited by 392 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 23 versions Chiral tunnelling and the Klein paradox in graphene from arxiv.org MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov , AK Geim - Nature Physics, 2006 - nature.com The so-called Klein paradoxunimpeded penetration of relativistic particles through high and wide potential barriersis one of the most exotic and counterintuitive consequences of quantum electrodynamics. The phenomenon is discussed in many contexts in particle, nuclear and ... Cited by 423 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 23 versions Unconventional quantum Hall effect and Berry's phase of 2 in bilayer graphene from arxiv.org KS Novoselov , E McCann, SV Morozov, VI Fal'ko, MI - Nature Physics, 2006 - nature.com There are two known distinct types of the integer quantum Hall effect. One is the conventional quantum Hall effect, characteristic of two-dimensional semiconductor systems 1, 2 , and the other is its relativistic counterpart observed in graphene, where charge carriers mimic Dirac ... Cited by 359 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 19 versions Microfabricated adhesive mimicking gecko foot-hair from unipr.it AK Geim, SVDIV Grigorieva, KS Novoselov , AA - Nature Materials, 2003 - nature.com The amazing climbing ability of geckos has attracted the interest of philosophers and scientists alike for centuries 1, 2, 3 . However, only in the past few years 2, 3 has progress been made in understanding the mechanism behind this ability, which relies on submicrometre ... Cited by 335 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Giant intrinsic carrier mobilities in graphene and its bilayer from arxiv.org SV Morozov, KS Novoselov , MI Katsnelson, F - Physical review letters, 2008 - APS We have studied temperature dependences of electron transport in graphene and its bilayer and found extremely low electron-phonon scattering rates that set the fundamental limit on possible charge carrier mobilities at room temperature. Our measurements show that mobilities ... Cited by 243 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Control of graphene's properties by reversible hydrogenation: evidence for graphane from arxiv.org Boukhvalov, MI Katsnelson, AK Geim, KS Novoselov - Science, 2009 - sciencemag.org Although graphite is known as one of the most chemically inert materials, we have found that graphene, a single atomic plane of graphite, can react with atomic hydrogen, which transforms this highly conductive zero-overlap semimetal into an insulator. Transmission electron ... Cited by 240 - Related articles - All 24 versions Making graphene visible from arxiv.org , EW Hill, AHC Neto, KS Novoselov , D Jiang, R - Applied Physics , 2007 - link.aip.org Microfabrication of graphene devices used in many experimental studies currently relies on the fact that graphene crystallites can be visualized using optical microscopy if prepared on top of Si wafers with a certain thickness of . The authors study graphene's visibility and show ... Cited by 200 - Related articles - All 14 versions The electronic properties of graphene Castro Neto, F Guinea, NMR Peres, KS Novoselov - Reviews of Modern , 2009 - APS This article reviews the basic theoretical aspects of graphene, a one-atom-thick allotrope of carbon, with unusual two-dimensional Dirac-like electronic excitations. The Dirac electrons can be controlled by application of external electric and magnetic fields, or by altering sample ... Cited by 264 - Related articles - All 3 versions Fine structure constant defines visual transparency of graphene from manchester.ac.uk , P Blake, AN Grigorenko, KS Novoselov , TJ Booth, T - Science, 2008 - sciencemag.org There are few phenomena in condensed matter physics that are defined only by the fundamental constants and do not depend on material parameters. Examples are the resistivity quantum, h/e2 (h is Planck's constant and e the electron charge), that appears in a variety of ... Cited by 228 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 11 versions Strong suppression of weak localization in graphene from arxiv.org SV Morozov, KS Novoselov , MI Katsnelson, F - Physical review letters, 2006 - APS Low-field magnetoresistance is ubiquitous in low-dimensional metallic systems with high resistivity and well understood as arising due to quantum interference on self-intersecting diffusive trajectories. We have found that in graphene this weak-localization magnetoresistance is ... Cited by 211 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 18 versions Biased bilayer graphene: Semiconductor with a gap tunable by the electric field effect from arxiv.org EV Castro, KS Novoselov , SV Morozov, NMR Peres, - Physical review letters, 2007 - APS We demonstrate that the electronic gap of a graphene bilayer can be controlled externally by applying a gate bias. From the magnetotransport data (Shubnikovde Haas measurements of the cyclotron mass), and using a tight-binding model, we extract the value of the gap as a ... Cited by 187 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Chaotic Dirac billiard in graphene quantum dots from arxiv.org , MI Katsnelson, R Yang, EW Hill, KS Novoselov , AK - Science, 2008 - sciencemag.org The exceptional electronic properties of graphene, with its charge carriers mimicking relativistic quantum particles and its formidable potential in various applications, have ensured a rapid growth of interest in this new material. We report on electron transport in quantum dot devices ... Cited by 186 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 17 versions Breakdown of the adiabatic BornOppenheimer approximation in graphene from sinocarbon-cas.com M Lazzeri, C Casiraghi, KS Novoselov , AK Geim, AC - Nature materials, 2007 - nature.com The adiabatic BornOppenheimer approximation (ABO) has been the standard ansatz to describe the interaction between electrons and nuclei since the early days of quantum mechanics 1, 2 . ABO assumes that the lighter electrons adjust adiabatically to the motion of the heavier ... Cited by 162 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 16 versions Monitoring dopants by Raman scattering in an electrochemically top-gated graphene transistor , SK Saha, UV Waghmare, KS Novoselov , HR - Nature , 2008 - nature.com The recent discovery of graphene 1, 2, 3 has led to many advances in two-dimensional physics and devices 4, 5 . The graphene devices fabricated so far have relied on SiO 2 back gating 1, 2, 3 . Electrochemical top gating is widely used for polymer transistors 6, 7 , and has ... Cited by 150 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 9 versions Graphene-based liquid crystal device from arxiv.org , HF Gleeson, EW Hill, AK Geim, KS Novoselov - Nano letters, 2008 - ACS Publications Graphene is only one atom thick, optically transparent, chemically inert, and an excellent conductor. These properties seem to make this material an excellent candidate for applications in various photonic devices that require conducting but transparent thin films. In this letter, ... Cited by 142 - Related articles - All 14 versions Molecular doping of graphene from arxiv.org TO Wehling, KS Novoselov , SV Morozov, EE Vdovin, - Nano Lett, 2008 - ACS Publications Graphene is considered as one of the most promising materials for post silicon electronics, as it combines high electron mobility with atomic thickness . The ... Cited by 107 - Related articles - All 16 versions Raman fingerprint of charged impurities in graphene from arxiv.org C Casiraghi, S Pisana, KS Novoselov , AK Geim, - Applied Physics , 2007 - link.aip.org Raman spectroscopy is a fast and nondestructive method for the characterization of carbons. Their Raman spectra show common features in the region: the and peaks, which lie at around 1560 and , respectively. The peak corresponds to the phonon at the Brillouin zone center. ... Cited by 77 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 14 versions On the roughness of single-and bi-layer graphene membranes from arxiv.org Meyer, AK Geim, MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov , - Solid State , 2007 - Elsevier The recent discovery of graphene in a quasi-free state and has sparked considerable interest in the science and applications of this new material with its remarkable electronic properties. Graphene monolayers on semiconductor substrates can be patterned and contacted by ... Cited by 68 - Related articles - All 15 versions Graphene: new bridge between condensed matter physics and quantum electrodynamics from arxiv.org MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov - Solid State Communications, 2007 - Elsevier Graphene is the first example of truly two-dimensional crystalsit is just one layer of carbon atoms. It turns out to be a gapless semiconductor with unique electronic properties resulting from the fact that charge carriers in graphene demonstrate charge-conjugation symmetry ... Cited by 65 - Related articles - All 14 versions Macroscopic graphene membranes and their extraordinary stiffness from arxiv.org Hill, U Bangert, A Bleloch, M Gass, KS Novoselov , - Nano letters, 2008 - ACS Publications The properties of suspended graphene are currently attracting enormous interest, but the small size of available samples and the difficulties in making them severely restrict the number of experimental techniques that can be used to study the optical, mechanical, electronic, thermal, and ... Cited by 62 - Related articles - All 14 versions Uniaxial strain in graphene by Raman spectroscopy: G peak splitting, Grneisen parameters, and sample orientation from cam.ac.uk , C Galiotis, N Marzari, KS Novoselov , AK Geim, AC - Physical Review B, 2009 - APS KS Novoselov , AK Geim, SV Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, SV Dubonos, IV Grigorieva, and AA Firsov, Science 306, 666 (2004) . ... KS Novoselov , AK Geim, SV Morozov, D. Jiang, MI Katsnelson, IV Grigorieva, SV Dubonos, and AA Firsov, Nature (London) 438, ... Cited by 62 - Related articles - All 16 versions Dissipative quantum Hall effect in graphene near the Dirac point from arxiv.org DA Abanin, KS Novoselov , U Zeitler, PA Lee, AK - Physical review letters, 2007 - APS We report on the unusual nature of the =0 state in the integer quantum Hall effect (QHE) in graphene and show that electron transport in this regime is dominated by counterpropagating edge states. Such states, intrinsic to massless Dirac quasiparticles, manifest themselves in a ... Cited by 57 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Rayleigh imaging of graphene and graphene layers from arxiv.org , H Qian, H Harutyunyan, T Gokus, KS Novoselov , AC - Nano Lett, 2007 - ACS Publications We investigate graphene and graphene layers on different substrates by monochromatic and white-light confocal Rayleigh scattering microscopy. The image contrast depends sensitively on the dielectric properties of the sample as well as the substrate geometry and can be ... Cited by 57 - Related articles - All 13 versions Non-quantized penetration of magnetic field in the vortex state of superconductors from arxiv.org AK Geim, SVDIV Grigorieva, KS Novoselov , FM - Nature, 2000 - nature.com As first pointed out by Bardeen and Ginzburg in the early sixties 1, 2 , the amount of magnetic flux carried by vortices in superconducting materials depends on their distance from the sample edge, and can be smaller than one flux quantum, 0 = h/2e (where h is Planck's constant ... Cited by 59 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 16 versions Raman spectroscopy of graphene edges from academia.edu , C Georgi, A Fasoli, KS Novoselov , DM Basko, AC - Nano letters, 2009 - ACS Publications Graphene edges are of particular interest since their orientation determines the electronic properties. Here we present a detailed Raman investigation of graphene flakes with edges oriented at different crystallographic directions. We also develop a real space theory for Raman ... Cited by 48 - Related articles - All 12 versions Cyclotron resonance study of the electron and hole velocity in graphene monolayers from arxiv.org RS Deacon, KC Chuang, RJ Nicholas, KS Novoselov , - Physical Review B, 2007 - APS We report studies of cyclotron resonance in monolayer graphene. Cyclotron resonance is detected using the photoconductive response of the sample for several different Landau level occupancies. The experiments measure an electron velocity at the K (Dirac) point of c K * ... Cited by 34 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 12 versions Two-dimensional electron and hole gases at the surface of graphite from arxiv.org SV Morozov, KS Novoselov , F Schedin, D Jiang, AA - Physical Review B, 2005 - APS We report two-dimensional (2D) electron and hole gases induced at the surface of graphite by the electric field effect. The 2D gases reside within a few near-surface atomic layers and exhibit mobilities up to 15 000 and 60 000 cm 2 ∕V s at room and liquid-helium temperatures, ... Cited by 33 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 13 versions Effect of a High- Environment on Charge Carrier Mobility in Graphene from arxiv.org Yang, TM Mohiuddin, MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov , - Physical review letters, 2009 - APS It is widely assumed that the dominant source of scattering in graphene is charged impurities in a substrate. We have tested this conjecture by studying graphene placed on various substrates and in high- media. Unexpectedly, we have found no significant changes in carrier ... Cited by 28 - Related articles - All 12 versions Subatomic movements of a domain wall in the Peierls potential from arxiv.org KS Novoselov , AK Geim, SV Dubonos, EWHIV - Nature, 2003 - nature.com The discrete nature of crystal lattices plays a role in virtually every material property. But it is only when the size of entities hosted by a crystal becomes comparable to the lattice periodas occurs for dislocations 1, 2, 3 , vortices in superconductors 4, 5, 6 and domain walls 7, 8, 9 that ... Cited by 28 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Plasmon spectroscopy of free-standing graphene films from uniroma2.it Jones, M Gass, AL Bleloch, KS Novoselov , A Geim, PR - Physical Review B, 2008 - APS Plasmon spectroscopy of the thinnest possible membrane, a single layer of carbon atoms: graphene, has been carried out in conjunction with ab initio calculations of the low loss function. We observe and + -surface plasmon modes in free-standing single sheets ... Cited by 26 - Related articles - All 6 versions Infrared spectroscopy of electronic bands in bilayer graphene from arxiv.org , D Van der Marel, P Lerch, P Blake, KS Novoselov , AK - Physical Review B, 2009 - APS We present infrared spectra (0.11 eV) of electrostatically gated bilayer graphene as a function of doping and compare it with tight-binding calculations. All major spectral features corresponding to the expected interband transitions are identified in the spectra: a strong peak due to ... Cited by 20 - Related articles - All 12 versions Nanolithography and manipulation of graphene using an atomic force microscope from arxiv.org , U Zeitler, S Neubeck, F Freitag, KS Novoselov , - Solid State , 2008 - Elsevier Carbon is one of the most intensively studied materials in solid state physics. Starting with research activities on graphite six decades ago research on carbon continued to be attractive by the discovery of new carbon allotropes such as Buckminster fullerenes , carbon nanotubes ... Cited by 20 - Related articles - All 14 versions
汤森路透08年引文桂冠得主获今年诺贝尔物理学奖 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2010/10/238475.shtm http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enq=AK+GeimbtnG=Searchas_sdt=2000as_ylo=as_vis=0 Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films from arxiv.org KS Novoselov, AK Geim , SV Morozov, D Jiang, Y - Science, 2004 - sciencemag.org ... This work was supported by NASA and the Research Corporation. 28 July 2004; accepted 16 September 2004 Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films KS Novoselov,1 AK Geim ,1* SV Morozov,2 D. Jiang,1 Y. Zhang,1 SV Dubonos,2 IV Grigorieva,1 AA Firsov2 ... Cited by 3101 - Related articles - All 22 versions Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene from arxiv.org KS Novoselov, AK Geim , SV Morozov, D Jiang, MIKIV - Nature, 2005 - nature.com Quantum electrodynamics (resulting from the merger of quantum mechanics and relativity theory) has provided a clear understanding of phenomena ranging from particle physics to cosmology and from astrophysics to quantum chemistry 1, 2, 3 . The ideas underlying quantum ... Cited by 2154 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 40 versions The rise of graphene from arxiv.org AK Geim , KS Novoselov - Nature materials, 2007 - nature.com Graphene is a rapidly rising star on the horizon of materials science and condensed-matter physics. This strictly two-dimensional material exhibits exceptionally high crystal and electronic quality, and, despite its short history, has already revealed a cornucopia of new physics ... Cited by 2095 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 45 versions Two-dimensional atomic crystals from pnas.org VV Khotkevich, SV Morozov, AK Geim - Proceedings of the , 2005 - National Acad Sciences Dimensionality is one of the most defining material parameters; the same chemical compound can exhibit dramatically different properties depending on whether it is arranged in a 0D, 1D, 2D, or 3D crystal structure. Although quasi-0D , quasi-1D from claptop.com Piscanec, D Jiang, KS Novoselov, S Roth, AK Geim - Physical Review Letters, 2006 - APS Graphene is the two-dimensional building block for carbon allotropes of every other dimensionality. We show that its electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers. The D peak second order changes in shape, width, ... Cited by 649 - Related articles - All 15 versions The electronic properties of graphene from csic.es , NMR Peres, KS Novoselov, AK Geim - Reviews of Modern , 2009 - digital.csic.es ... NMR Peres Center of Physics and Department of Physics, Universidade do Minho, P-4710-057, Braga, Portugal KS Novoselov and AK Geim Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom (Published 14 January 2009) ... Cited by 607 - Related articles - View as HTML - All 35 versions Detection of individual gas molecules adsorbed on graphene from arxiv.org F Schedin, AK Geim , SV Morozov, EW Hill, P Blake, - Nature Materials, 2007 - nature.com The ultimate aim of any detection method is to achieve such a level of sensitivity that individual quanta of a measured entity can be resolved. In the case of chemical sensors, the quantum is one atom or molecule. Such resolution has so far been beyond the reach of any detection ... Cited by 523 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 19 versions The structure of suspended graphene sheets from arxiv.org JC Meyer, AK Geim , MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov, TJ - Nature, 2007 - nature.com The recent discovery of graphene has sparked much interest, thus far focused on the peculiar electronic structure of this material, in which charge carriers mimic massless relativistic particles 1, 2, 3 . However, the physical structure of graphenea single layer of carbon atoms ... Cited by 488 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 22 versions Room-temperature quantum Hall effect in graphene from arxiv.org , U Zeitler, JC Maan, GS Boebinger, P Kim, AK Geim - Science, 2007 - sciencemag.org The quantum Hall effect (QHE), one example of a quantum phenomenon that occurs on a truly macroscopic scale, has attracted intense interest since its discovery in 1980 and has helped elucidate many important aspects of quantum physics. It has also led to the establishment ... Cited by 392 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 23 versions Chiral tunnelling and the Klein paradox in graphene from arxiv.org MI Katsnelson, KS Novoselov, AK Geim - Nature Physics, 2006 - nature.com The so-called Klein paradoxunimpeded penetration of relativistic particles through high and wide potential barriersis one of the most exotic and counterintuitive consequences of quantum electrodynamics. The phenomenon is discussed in many contexts in particle, nuclear and ... Cited by 423 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 23 versions Microfabricated adhesive mimicking gecko foot-hair from unipr.it AK Geim , SVDIV Grigorieva, KS Novoselov, AA - Nature Materials, 2003 - nature.com The amazing climbing ability of geckos has attracted the interest of philosophers and scientists alike for centuries 1, 2, 3 . However, only in the past few years 2, 3 has progress been made in understanding the mechanism behind this ability, which relies on submicrometre ... Cited by 335 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Unconventional quantum Hall effect and Berry's phase of 2 in bilayer graphene from arxiv.org Katsnelson, U Zeitler, D Jiang, F Schedin, AK Geim - Nature Physics, 2006 - nature.com There are two known distinct types of the integer quantum Hall effect. One is the conventional quantum Hall effect, characteristic of two-dimensional semiconductor systems 1, 2 , and the other is its relativistic counterpart observed in graphene, where charge carriers mimic Dirac ... Cited by 359 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 19 versions Graphene: status and prospects from arxiv.org AK Geim - Science, 2009 - sciencemag.org Graphene is a wonder material with many superlatives to its name. It is the thinnest known material in the universe and the strongest ever measured. Its charge carriers exhibit giant intrinsic mobility, have zero effective mass, and can travel for micrometers without scattering at ... Cited by 319 - Related articles - All 18 versions Fine structure constant defines visual transparency of graphene from manchester.ac.uk Novoselov, TJ Booth, T Stauber, NMR Peres, AK Geim - Science, 2008 - sciencemag.org There are few phenomena in condensed matter physics that are defined only by the fundamental constants and do not depend on material parameters. Examples are the resistivity quantum, h/e2 (h is Planck's constant and e the electron charge), that appears in a variety of ... Cited by 228 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 11 versions Giant intrinsic carrier mobilities in graphene and its bilayer from arxiv.org , F Schedin, DC Elias, JA Jaszczak, AK Geim - Physical review letters, 2008 - APS We have studied temperature dependences of electron transport in graphene and its bilayer and found extremely low electron-phonon scattering rates that set the fundamental limit on possible charge carrier mobilities at room temperature. Our measurements show that mobilities ... Cited by 243 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Nanofabricated media with negative permeability at visible frequencies from arxiv.org AN Grigorenko, AK Geim , HF Gleeson, Y Zhang, AA - Nature, 2005 - nature.com A great deal of attention has recently been focused on a new class of smart materialsso-called left-handed mediathat exhibit highly unusual electromagnetic properties and promise new device applications 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 . Left-handed materials require negative permeability , ... Cited by 260 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 24 versions The electronic properties of graphene , F Guinea, NMR Peres, KS Novoselov, AK Geim - Reviews of Modern , 2009 - APS This article reviews the basic theoretical aspects of graphene, a one-atom-thick allotrope of carbon, with unusual two-dimensional Dirac-like electronic excitations. The Dirac electrons can be controlled by application of external electric and magnetic fields, or by altering sample ... Cited by 264 - Related articles - All 3 versions Making graphene visible from arxiv.org Novoselov, D Jiang, R Yang, TJ Booth, AK Geim - Applied Physics , 2007 - link.aip.org Microfabrication of graphene devices used in many experimental studies currently relies on the fact that graphene crystallites can be visualized using optical microscopy if prepared on top of Si wafers with a certain thickness of . The authors study graphene's visibility and show ... Cited by 200 - Related articles - All 14 versions Control of graphene's properties by reversible hydrogenation: evidence for graphane from arxiv.org , AC Ferrari, DW Boukhvalov, MI Katsnelson, AK Geim , - Science, 2009 - sciencemag.org Although graphite is known as one of the most chemically inert materials, we have found that graphene, a single atomic plane of graphite, can react with atomic hydrogen, which transforms this highly conductive zero-overlap semimetal into an insulator. Transmission electron ... Cited by 240 - Related articles - All 24 versions Strong suppression of weak localization in graphene from arxiv.org , F Schedin, LA Ponomarenko, D Jiang, AK Geim - Physical review letters, 2006 - APS Low-field magnetoresistance is ubiquitous in low-dimensional metallic systems with high resistivity and well understood as arising due to quantum interference on self-intersecting diffusive trajectories. We have found that in graphene this weak-localization magnetoresistance is ... Cited by 211 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 18 versions Chaotic Dirac billiard in graphene quantum dots from arxiv.org Katsnelson, R Yang, EW Hill, KS Novoselov, AK Geim - Science, 2008 - sciencemag.org The exceptional electronic properties of graphene, with its charge carriers mimicking relativistic quantum particles and its formidable potential in various applications, have ensured a rapid growth of interest in this new material. We report on electron transport in quantum dot devices ... Cited by 186 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 17 versions Biased bilayer graphene: Semiconductor with a gap tunable by the electric field effect from arxiv.org , JMBL Dos Santos, J Nilsson, F Guinea, AK Geim , - Physical review letters, 2007 - APS We demonstrate that the electronic gap of a graphene bilayer can be controlled externally by applying a gate bias. From the magnetotransport data (Shubnikovde Haas measurements of the cyclotron mass), and using a tight-binding model, we extract the value of the gap as a ... Cited by 187 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Of flying frogs and levitrons from princeton.edu MV Berry, AK Geim - European Journal of Physics, 1997 - iopscience.iop.org ... Of flying frogs and levitrons MV Berry and AK Geim ... In diamagnetic levitation, recently achieved by AK Geim with JC Maan, H Carmona and P Main (Rodgers 1997), small objects (live frogs and grasshoppers, waterdrops, flowers, hazelnuts ... ) float in the large ... Cited by 148 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 47 versions Monitoring dopants by Raman scattering in an electrochemically top-gated graphene transistor , HR Krishnamurthy, AK Geim , AC Ferrari, AK - Nature , 2008 - nature.com The recent discovery of graphene 1, 2, 3 has led to many advances in two-dimensional physics and devices 4, 5 . The graphene devices fabricated so far have relied on SiO 2 back gating 1, 2, 3 . Electrochemical top gating is widely used for polymer transistors 6, 7 , and has ... Cited by 150 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 9 versions Phase transitions in individual sub-micrometre superconductors from manchester.ac.uk Grigorieva, SV Dubonos, JGS Lok, JC - Astron. , 1996 - condmat.physics.manchester.ac.uk Both are consistent with the observed CIRB. The high-redshift, dust-enshrouded, star formation in model C results in a high level of the predicted background at wavelengths l 400 m. Although none of the currently available optical data reflect the large differences between these ... Cited by 189 - Related articles - View as HTML - BL Direct - All 12 versions Breakdown of the adiabatic BornOppenheimer approximation in graphene from sinocarbon-cas.com , C Casiraghi, KS Novoselov, AK Geim , AC Ferrari, F - Nature materials, 2007 - nature.com The adiabatic BornOppenheimer approximation (ABO) has been the standard ansatz to describe the interaction between electrons and nuclei since the early days of quantum mechanics 1, 2 . ABO assumes that the lighter electrons adjust adiabatically to the motion of the heavier ... Cited by 162 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 16 versions Graphene-based liquid crystal device from arxiv.org , SV Morozov, HF Gleeson, EW Hill, AK Geim , KS - Nano letters, 2008 - ACS Publications Graphene is only one atom thick, optically transparent, chemically inert, and an excellent conductor. These properties seem to make this material an excellent candidate for applications in various photonic devices that require conducting but transparent thin films. In this letter, ... Cited by 142 - Related articles - All 14 versions Paramagnetic Meissner effect in small superconductors AK Geim , SV Dubonos, JGS Lok, M Henini, JC Maan - Nature, 1998 - nature.com ... Paramagnetic Meissner effect in small superconductors. AK Geim 1 , SV Dubonos 2 , JGS Lok 1 , M. Henini 3 JC Maan 1. ... Correspondence to: AK Geim 1 Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to AKG (Email: geim @sci.kun.nl). Top of page Abstract. ... Cited by 114 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 9 versions Ballistic hall micromagnetometry AK Geim , SV Dubonos, JGS Lok, IV Grigorieva, - Applied Physics , 1997 - link.aip.org Hall and magnetoresistive probes have been employed for studying magnetic properties of various materials for several decades. Most recently, advances in microtechnology have allowed fabrication of such sensors of micron size and they were successfully applied for time- and space- ... Cited by 125 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 7 versions Two-dimensional electrons in a lateral magnetic superlattice from bath.ac.uk HA Carmona, A Nogaret, AK Geim , PC Main, TJ Foster, - Surface Science, 1996 - Elsevier ELSEVIER Surface Science 361/362 (1996) 328-332 surfaco soionce Two-dimensional electrons in a lateral magnetic superlattice HA Carmona *, A. Nogaret ,, AK Geim a, PC Main a'*, TJ Foster ~, M. Henini ~, SP Beaumont b, H. McLelland b, MG Blamjre c Department of Physics, ... Cited by 120 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 9 versions Magnetization of mesoscopic superconducting disks from arxiv.org PS Deo, VA Schweigert, FM Peeters, AK Geim - Physical Review Letters, 1997 - APS Solutions of Ginzburg-Landau equations coupled with three-dimensional Maxwell equations reveal an intriguing magnetic response of small superconducting particles, qualitatively different from the two-dimensional approximation but in agreement with recent experiments. ... Cited by 104 - Related articles - All 8 versions Molecular doping of graphene from arxiv.org , SV Morozov, EE Vdovin, MI Katsnelson, AK Geim , AI - Nano Lett, 2008 - ACS Publications Graphene is considered as one of the most promising materials for post silicon electronics, as it combines high electron mobility with atomic thickness . The ... Cited by 107 - Related articles - All 16 versions Raman fingerprint of charged impurities in graphene from arxiv.org C Casiraghi, S Pisana, KS Novoselov, AK Geim , - Applied Physics , 2007 - link.aip.org Raman spectroscopy is a fast and nondestructive method for the characterization of carbons. Their Raman spectra show common features in the region: the and peaks, which lie at around 1560 and , respectively. The peak corresponds to the phonon at the Brillouin zone center. ... Cited by 77 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 14 versions Graphene: Exploring carbon flatland AK Geim , AH MacDonald - Physics Today, 2007 - link.aip.org 1884 novella Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions, the narrator (a square, of course) leads the reader through some of the special features of two dimensions. As the geometric characters in the story come to learn, dimension mattersa ... Cited by 94 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 5 versions Graphene spin valve devices from manchester.ac.uk EW Hill, AK Geim , K Novoselov, F - IEEE Transactions on, 2006 - ieeexplore.ieee.org Graphene-a single atomic layer of graphiteis a recently found two-dimensional (2-D) form of carbon, which exhibits high crystal quality and ballistic electron transport at room temperature. Soft magnetic NiFe electrodes have been used to inject polarized spins into ... Cited by 88 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 7 versions Electron scattering on microscopic corrugations in graphene from royalsocietypublishing.org MI Katsnelson, AK Geim - Philosophical , 2008 - rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org We discuss various scattering mechanisms for Dirac fermions in single-layer graphene. It is shown that scattering on a short-range potential (eg due to neutral impurities) is mostly irrelevant for electronic quality of graphene, which is likely to be controlled by charged impurities and ... Cited by 79 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 17 versions Fermi-edge singularity in resonant tunneling AK Geim , PC Main, N La Scala Jr, L Eaves, TJ Foster, - Physical review letters, 1994 - APS We have observed a Fermi-edge singularity in the tunneling current between a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) and a zero-dimensional localized state. A sharp peak in the tunnel current is observed when the energy of the localized state matches the Fermi energy of the ... Cited by 75 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 4 versions Diamagnetic levitation: Flying frogs and floating magnets (invited) MD Simon, AK Geim - Journal of Applied Physics, 2000 - link.aip.org Contrary to our intuition, apparently nonmagnetic substances can be levitated in a magnetic field and can stabilize free levitation of a permanent magnet. Most substances are weakly diamagnetic and the tiny forces associated with this property make the two types of levitation possible. ... Cited by 69 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 5 versions On the roughness of single-and bi-layer graphene membranes from arxiv.org JC Meyer, AK Geim , MI Katsnelson, KS - Solid State , 2007 - Elsevier The recent discovery of graphene in a quasi-free state and has sparked considerable interest in the science and applications of this new material with its remarkable electronic properties. Graphene monolayers on semiconductor substrates can be patterned and contacted by ... Cited by 68 - Related articles - All 15 versions Macroscopic graphene membranes and their extraordinary stiffness from arxiv.org , M Gass, KS Novoselov, MI Katsnelson, AK Geim - Nano letters, 2008 - ACS Publications The properties of suspended graphene are currently attracting enormous interest, but the small size of available samples and the difficulties in making them severely restrict the number of experimental techniques that can be used to study the optical, mechanical, electronic, thermal, and ... Cited by 62 - Related articles - All 14 versions Non-quantized penetration of magnetic field in the vortex state of superconductors from arxiv.org AK Geim , SVDIV Grigorieva, KS Novoselov, FM - Nature, 2000 - nature.com As first pointed out by Bardeen and Ginzburg in the early sixties 1, 2 , the amount of magnetic flux carried by vortices in superconducting materials depends on their distance from the sample edge, and can be smaller than one flux quantum, 0 = h/2e (where h is Planck's constant ... Cited by 59 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 16 versions Uniaxial strain in graphene by Raman spectroscopy: G peak splitting, Grneisen parameters, and sample orientation from cam.ac.uk Basko, C Galiotis, N Marzari, KS Novoselov, AK Geim , - Physical Review B, 2009 - APS KS Novoselov, AK Geim , SV Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, SV Dubonos, IV Grigorieva, and AA Firsov, Science 306, 666 (2004) . ... KS Novoselov, AK Geim , SV Morozov, D. Jiang, MI Katsnelson, IV Grigorieva, SV Dubonos, and AA Firsov, Nature (London) 438, ... Cited by 62 - Related articles - All 16 versions Magnet levitation at your fingertips AK Geim , MD Simon, MI Boamfa, LO Heflinger - Nature, 1999 - nature.com The stable levitation of magnets is forbidden by Earnshaw's theorem, which states that no stationary object made of magnets in a fixed configuration can be held in stable equilibrium by any combination of static magnetic or gravitational forces 1, 2, 3 . Earnshaw's theorem can be viewed as a ... Cited by 54 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 5 versions Dissipative quantum Hall effect in graphene near the Dirac point from arxiv.org Abanin, KS Novoselov, U Zeitler, PA Lee, AK Geim , - Physical review letters, 2007 - APS We report on the unusual nature of the =0 state in the integer quantum Hall effect (QHE) in graphene and show that electron transport in this regime is dominated by counterpropagating edge states. Such states, intrinsic to massless Dirac quasiparticles, manifest themselves in a ... Cited by 57 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 15 versions Fine structure in magnetization of individual fluxoid states from arxiv.org AK Geim , SV Dubonos, JJ Palacios, IV Grigorieva, M - Physical Review Letters, 2000 - APS Each time a vortex enters or exits a small superconductor, a different fluxoid state develops which can be characterized by its vorticity, ie, the number of fluxoids inside. We have studied magnetization response of such individual states and found clear signatures of first and second order ... Cited by 47 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 11 versions Diamagnetically stabilized magnet levitation MD Simon, LO Heflinger, AK Geim - American Journal of Physics, 2001 - link.aip.org Stable levitation of one magnet by another with no energy input is usually prohibited by Earnshaw's theorem. However, the introduction of diamagnetic material at special locations can stabilize such levitation. A magnet can even be stably suspended between (diamagnetic) ... Cited by 50 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 2 versions Asymmetric scattering and diffraction of two-dimensional electrons at quantized tubes of magnetic flux AK Geim , SJ Bending, IV Grigorieva - Physical review letters, 1992 - APS The Hall conductivity of a high-mobility two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) has been investigated in a distribution of quantized magnetic flux tubes (vortices) formed at a type-II superconducting ''gate'' layer. A pronounced suppression of the Hall effect was observed for long-Fermi ... Cited by 44 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 4 versions Memory effects in individual submicrometer ferromagnets JGS Lok, AK Geim , JC Maan, SV Dubonos, LT Kuhn, - Physical Review B, 1998 - APS We have used ballistic Hall micromagnetometry to study the magnetization of individual submicrometer nickel disks (80 nm high, 0.11.0 m diameter). At low temperatures, hysteresis loops of the disks no longer show inversion symmetry in a magnetic field, as if the time reversal symmetry ... Cited by 38 - Related articles - BL Direct - All 3 versions Optical conductivity of graphene in the visible region of the spectrum from arxiv.org T Stauber, NMR Peres, AK Geim - Physical Review B, 2008 - APS We compute the optical conductivity of graphene beyond the usual Dirac-cone approximation, giving results that are valid in the visible region of the conductivity spectrum. The effect of next-nearest-neighbor hopping is also discussed. Using the full expression for ... Cited by 37 - Related articles - All 10 versions Free-standing graphene at atomic resolution from manchester.ac.uk , AL Bleloch, P Wang, RR Nair, AK Geim - Nature , 2008 - nature.com Research interest in graphene, a two-dimensional crystal consisting of a single atomic plane of carbon atoms, has been driven by its extraordinary properties, including charge carriers that mimic ultra-relativistic elementary particles. Moreover, graphene exhibits ballistic electron ... Cited by 40 - Related articles - All 9 versions
标签: 诺贝尔物理学奖
