从 Enigma 到“鳄鱼追斑马” 按:本文分为两个部分.这两个部分有没有关系或者有什么样的关系,我不知道...... I. Enigma 我终于抢在彻底下线前去电影院看完了《模仿游戏》( The Imitation Game, 放心没有“剧透” )。 大概几周以前,我偶然在影院门口看到了这部电影的海报。由于海报上信息较少(或者我没有察觉到),我完全没有想到 Benedict Cumberbatch 与 Alan Mathison Turing 有任何联系(说实话,一点也不像!)。我唯一注意到的信息是海报左下方一个极限公式的书写“瑕疵”。多亏这个“瑕疵”,我估计这可能是部有关数学家的电影,便回去上网搜了搜,这才知道传主正是 Turing。 上周我抽空到“西财”附近的一家影院准备看这部片子,却被告知上映两天就在该影院下线了。无奈就这样捱到了今天。 最早知道 Turing, 源自 小时候读一本大概叫《中外科学家故事》的书,其中一篇大约名为《一枚数学的珍贝》(那本书各个篇目的名字都很有特点,至今都还记得,比如牛顿那篇叫“沃尔索普村燃起的科学之火”,可惜书的确切名字和出版社实在记不清了)就是讲 Turing 破译 Enigma 的故事。前些年又在《科幻世界》上读到一篇长铗写的科幻短篇《 ACE 小姐的心事》,主体情节的“底本”也不外乎这段故事。 我对计算机这门学科的历史并不了解。仅就我掌握的资料,这部改编自B iography of Alan Turing( Alan Turing: The Enigma ) 的电影对涉及的计算机科学概念做了较大程度的“简化”,对相关史实尤其人物关系也做了不少“调整”,甚至包括 Turing 的性格和人际关系(为什么一定要塑造成 monster 呢?)。但是我们毕竟没必要在《三国演义》里找“曹操”。我注意到,当电影进行到后半段时,放映厅变得很安静——我想一部电影达到这样的效果,已经足够了。 在某种程度上,一个多月前美国联邦最高法院的那一项裁定使得这部电影变得十分应景,其中关于人性或者人与人关系的反思,在传播价值上已经远远盖过了其中的数学或计算机科学元素。但对我来说, Turing 仍然是最初留下的印象——那个破译了不可能破译的 Enigma 的 数学家。 II. 鳄鱼追斑马 让我下定决心去看看 Turing 的原因是今天早上看到一则新闻《苏格兰“高考”数学难哭考生,分数线被降至34分》( http://life.gmw.cn/2015-08/07/content_16574089.htm ) 以前就看过 A-Level 的高中物理题,我辈只能 smilence。 这次看了看据说是拉低了10.7万考生的及格分数线(从去年45到今年33.8,60分可拿A——“60分万岁”乎?)的数学题——1.4万考生心目中的“不可能完成的迷题”—— Enigma??? 联系到近来“九九乘法表”(我以前真的天真地以为全世界小朋友都会)、“广播体操”之类的定向出口,“英国人数学不好”的说法甚嚣尘上..... The Great Britain, The Great Britain! Where came Maxwell and Newton, Where went Dirac and Hamilton ...... Few heroes or lots of strangers, That is an Enigma! Alan Mathison Turing 1912~1954
Chinese Turing Tests?? Challenging my Chinese dependency parser with puns. The real thing is, structural ambiguity is detectable, but not easily decodable. As for puns, forget it! Do you remember the last time you yourself, as an intelligent being designed by almighty God, were puzzled by jokes of puns? RE: 立委,测试你分析工具的图灵试题来了 大学里有两种人不谈恋爱:一种是谁都看不上,另一种是谁都 看不上。 parse 后一看,居然 合一 (unify)了:真地歇菜了?? 作者: 立委 日期: 10/11/2012 17:55:00 但是,(镜子曰,世界上怕就怕但是二字),请注意同样的string “是谁都看不上” 是怎样分析的:分析出两种意义 【意义1】是这么断句的:【是谁】 【都看不上】:【谁】 是【是】的逻辑宾语(Undergoer) 【意义2】则是:【是】 【谁都看不上】:【谁】 是【看不上】的逻辑主语(Actor) 哈哈,不傻吧,my baby 当然,同样的string,在目前是无法指望机器输出不同结果的。 实用的 parsing 技术从来没有超出语句级别的 context 来解码句法结构。 据说,类似的中文“图灵试题”还有: 大学里有两种人最容易被甩:一种人不知道什么【叫做】爱,一种人不知道什么叫【做爱】。 这些人都是原先喜欢一个人,后来喜欢一个人。 老友说,最后一句的精彩之处不在分词,在重音位置。机器只能歇菜 当然这些都是戏谑性的 puns,连人都会被绕晕,根本不用做 real life 系统的人分心。实际语言现象中,有的是 low hanging food, 很多 tractable 的问题好多系统都未及涉及呢,教机器识别 puns 这样劳而无功的勾当,根本排不上号。 【维基: 图灵测试 】 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_test 《立委科普:机器可以揭开双关语神秘的面纱》 【置顶:立委科学网博客NLP博文一览(定期更新版)】
图1 邹晓辉归纳的“六代编程语言”基本特征 图2邹晓辉进一步简化的“形式化双重路径” 最近在总结自己发现并强调的“(自然语言)形式化双重途径”的探索、研究和思考的过程中,不由自主地 想到 回顾图灵奖(Turing Award)获得者们在理论计算机、人工智能、编程语言几个方面的贡献,结果发现自己的猜测或估计真的没错,大部分图灵奖(Turing Award)获得者们的贡献真就是与 编程语言 及其开发平台、操作系统和数据库等软件及其 理论思考 联系在一起的。 附录: 回顾图灵奖(Turing Award)获得者们的贡献,可以发现:...... Year Recipients Citation 1966 Alan J. Perlis For his influence in the area of advanced programming techniques and compiler construction 1967 Maurice V. Wilkes Professor Wilkes is best known as the builder and designer of the EDSAC , the first computer with an internally stored program . Built in 1949, the EDSAC used a mercury delay line memory . He is also known as the author, with Wheeler and Gill, of a volume on " Preparation of Programs for Electronic Digital Computers " in 1951, in which program libraries were effectively introduced 1968 Richard Hamming For his work on numerical methods , automatic coding systems , and error-detecting and error-correcting codes 1969 Marvin Minsky artificial intelligence 1970 James H. Wilkinson For his research in numerical analysis to facilitate the use of the high-speed digital computer , having received special recognition for his work in computations in linear algebra and "backward" error analysis 1971 John McCarthy McCarthy's lecture "The Present State of Research on Artificial Intelligence " is a topic that covers the area in which he has achieved considerable recognition for his work 1972 Edsger W. Dijkstra Edsger Dijkstra was a principal contributor in the late 1950s to the development of the ALGOL , a high level programming language which has become a model of clarity and mathematical rigor. He is one of the principal proponents of the science and art of programming languages in general, and has greatly contributed to our understanding of their structure, representation, and implementation. His fifteen years of publications extend from theoretical articles on graph theory to basic manuals, expository texts, and philosophical contemplations in the field of programming languages 1973 Charles W. Bachman For his outstanding contributions to database technology 1974 Donald E. Knuth For his major contributions to the analysis of algorithms and the design of programming languages , and in particular for his contributions to " The Art of Computer Programming " through his well-known books in a continuous series by this title 1975 Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with J. C. Shaw at the RAND Corporation , and subsequentially with numerous faculty and student colleagues at Carnegie Mellon University , they have made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing 1976 Michael O. Rabin and Dana S. Scott For their joint paper "Finite Automata and Their Decision Problem," which introduced the idea of nondeterministic machines , which has proved to be an enormously valuable concept. Their (Scott Rabin) classic paper has been a continuous source of inspiration for subsequent work in this field 1977 John Backus For profound, influential, and lasting contributions to the design of practical high-level programming systems , notably through his work on FORTRAN , and for seminal publication of formal procedures for the specification of programming languages 1978 Robert W. Floyd For having a clear influence on methodologies for the creation of efficient and reliable software , and for helping to found the following important subfields of computer science : the theory of parsing , the semantics of programming languages , automatic program verification , automatic program synthesis , and analysis of algorithms 1979 Kenneth E. Iverson For his pioneering effort in programming languages and mathematical notation resulting in what the computing field now knows as APL , for his contributions to the implementation of interactive systems , to educational uses of APL, and to programming language theory and practice 1980 C. Antony R. Hoare For his fundamental contributions to the definition and design of programming languages 1981 Edgar F. Codd For his fundamental and continuing contributions to the theory and practice of database management systems , esp. relational databases 1982 Stephen A. Cook For his advancement of our understanding of the complexity of computation in a significant and profound way 1983 Ken Thompson and Dennis M. Ritchie For their development of generic operating systems theory and specifically for the implementation of the UNIX operating system 1984 Niklaus Wirth For developing a sequence of innovative computer languages , EULER , ALGOL-W , MODULA and PASCAL 1985 Richard M. Karp For his continuing contributions to the theory of algorithms including the development of efficient algorithms for network flow and other combinatorial optimization problems, the identification of polynomial-time computability with the intuitive notion of algorithmic efficiency, and, most notably, contributions to the theory of NP-completeness 1986 John Hopcroft and Robert Tarjan For fundamental achievements in the design and analysis of algorithms and data structures 1987 John Cocke For significant contributions in the design and theory of compilers, the architecture of large systems and the development of reduced instruction set computers (RISC) 1988 Ivan Sutherland For his pioneering and visionary contributions to computer graphics , starting with Sketchpad , and continuing after 1989 William (Velvel) Kahan For his fundamental contributions to numerical analysis . One of the foremost experts on floating-point computations. Kahan has dedicated himself to "making the world safe for numerical computations." 1990 Fernando J. Corbató For his pioneering work organizing the concepts and leading the development of the general-purpose, large-scale, time-sharing and resource-sharing computer systems, CTSS and Multics . 1991 Robin Milner For three distinct and complete achievements: 1) LCF , the mechanization of Scott's Logic of Computable Functions, probably the first theoretically based yet practical tool for machine assisted proof construction ; 2) ML , the first language to include polymorphic type inference together with a type-safe exception-handling mechanism; 3) CCS , a general theory of concurrency . In addition, he formulated and strongly advanced full abstraction , the study of the relationship between operational and denotational semantics . 1992 Butler W. Lampson For contributions to the development of distributed, personal computing environments and the technology for their implementation: workstations , networks , operating systems , programming systems , displays , security and document publishing . 1993 Juris Hartmanis and Richard E. Stearns In recognition of their seminal paper which established the foundations for the field of computational complexity theory . 1994 Edward Feigenbaum and Raj Reddy For pioneering the design and construction of large scale artificial intelligence systems , demonstrating the practical importance and potential commercial impact of artificial intelligence technology. 1995 Manuel Blum In recognition of his contributions to the foundations of computational complexity theory and its application to cryptography and program checking . 1996 Amir Pnueli For seminal work introducing temporal logic into computing science and for outstanding contributions to program and systems verification . 1997 Douglas Engelbart For an inspiring vision of the future of interactive computing and the invention of key technologies to help realize this vision . 1998 Jim Gray For seminal contributions to database and transaction processing research and technical leadership in system implementation. 1999 Frederick P. Brooks, Jr. For landmark contributions to computer architecture , operating systems , and software engineering . 2000 Andrew Chi-Chih Yao In recognition of his fundamental contributions to the theory of computation , including the complexity-based theory of pseudorandom number generation , cryptography , and communication complexity . 2001 Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard For ideas fundamental to the emergence of object-oriented programming , through their design of the programming languages Simula I and Simula 67 . 2002 Ronald L. Rivest , Adi Shamir and Leonard M. Adleman For their ingenious contribution for making public-key cryptography useful in practice. 2003 Alan Kay For pioneering many of the ideas at the root of contemporary object-oriented programming languages , leading the team that developed Smalltalk , and for fundamental contributions to personal computing. 2004 Vinton G. Cerf and Robert E. Kahn For pioneering work on internetworking , including the design and implementation of the Internet 's basic communications protocols, TCP/IP , and for inspired leadership in networking. 2005 Peter Naur For fundamental contributions to programming language design and the definition of ALGOL 60 , to compiler design, and to the art and practice of computer programming . 2006 Frances E. Allen For pioneering contributions to the theory and practice of optimizing compiler techniques that laid the foundation for modern optimizing compilers and automatic parallel execution. 2007 Edmund M. Clarke , E. Allen Emerson and Joseph Sifakis For in developing model checking into a highly effective verification technology, widely adopted in the hardware and software industries. 2008 Barbara Liskov For contributions to practical and theoretical foundations of programming language and system design , especially related to data abstraction, fault tolerance, and distributed computing. 2009 Charles P. Thacker For his pioneering design and realization of the Xerox Alto , the first modern personal computer, and in addition for his contributions to the Ethernet and the Tablet PC. 2010 Leslie G. Valiant For transformative contributions to the theory of computation , including the theory of probably approximately correct ( PAC ) learning, the complexity of enumeration and of algebraic computation, and the theory of parallel and distributed computing. 2011 Judea Pearl For fundamental contributions to artificial intelligence through the development of a calculus for probabilistic and causal reasoning . The ACM A.M. Turing Award is an annual prize given by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) to " an individual selected for contributions of a technical nature made to the computing community ". It is stipulated that " The contributions should be of lasting and major technical importance to the computer field ". The Turing Award is recognized as the " highest distinction in Computer science " and " Nobel Prize of computing ". The award is named after Alan Turing , mathematician and reader in mathematics at the University of Manchester. Turing is "frequently credited for being the Father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence ". As of 2007, the award is accompanied by a prize of $250,000, with financial support provided by Intel and Google . The first recipient, in 1966 , was Alan Perlis , of Carnegie Mellon University . Frances E. Allen of IBM , in 2006, was the first female recipient in the award's forty year history. The 2008 award also went to a woman, Barbara Liskov . from : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Award
2012年6月23日 是 Alan Turing ( 艾伦·图灵 ) 诞辰100周年. 让我们来看看这位传奇人物的一生,其诞辰100年后的今天 他的死 还在 牛津被探讨 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1, 简介: 艾伦·麦席森·图灵 , OBE , FRS ( 英语 : Alan Mathison Turing ,又译 阿兰·图灵 , Turing 也常翻譯成 涂林 或者 杜林 , 1912年6月23日 -1954年6月7日),是 英国 数学家 、 邏輯學家 , 他被视为 计算机科学 之父。 1931年 图灵进入 剑桥大学国王学院 ,毕业后到美国 普林斯顿大学 攻读 博士 学位, 二战 爆发后回到剑桥,后曾协助军方破解 德国 的著名密码系统 Enigma ,对盟军取得了二战的胜利有一定的帮助。 图灵对于 人工智能 的发展有诸多贡献 ,例如图灵曾写过一篇名为《机器会思考吗?》( Can Machines Think ? )的论文,其中提出了一种用于判定机器是否具有 智能 的 试验 方法,即 图灵测试 。至今,每年都有试验的比赛。此外,图灵提出的著名的 图灵机 模型为现代 计算机 的 逻辑 工作方式奠定了基础。 图灵是著名的 男同性恋 者之一 ,并因为其性倾向而遭到当时的英国政府迫害,职业生涯尽毁。他亦患有 花粉过敏症 。 图灵还是一位 世界级 的长跑运动员 。他的马拉松最好成绩是2小时46分3秒,比1948年 奥林匹克运动会 金牌成绩慢11分钟。1948年的一次跨国赛跑比赛中,他跑赢了同年奥运会银牌得主汤姆·理查兹( Tom Richards )。 2, 他的死今天还是迷 (from BBC news): 图灵诞辰100年后的今天在牛津的一个会议上,图灵专家Jack Copeland 教授对其自杀死因产生怀疑。主要疑点有: 1, 对于离职,图灵是坦然面对的(他心态很好)。Turing's career was at an intellectual high, and that he had borne his treatment "with good humour". 2,图灵有睡觉前吃苹果的习惯,经常吃不完。并且,他死时发现的苹果警察并没有证明有氰化物(毒)。it was Turing's habit to take an apple at bedtime, and that it was quite usual for him not to finish it; the half-eaten remains found near his body cannot be seen as an indication of a deliberate act. Indeed, the police never tested the apple for the presence of cyanide. 3,图灵死之前周五留了便签银行假期回来后要做的事 He had left a note on his office desk, as was his practice, the previous Friday to remind himself of the tasks to be done on his return after the Bank Holiday weekend. 4 图灵一直积极面对对他同性恋倾向的治疗,与朋友邻居相处也好。 In statements to the coroner, friends had attested to his good humour in the days before his death. His neighbour described him throwing "such a jolly party" for her and her son four days before he died. 而关于他死于氰化钾,他做的一个电解有毒物实验正需要氰化钾。他经常做一些不正常的实验,都带有危险性而且他有品尝物品的习惯。 He had been electrolysing solutions of the poison, and electroplating spoons with gold, a process that requires potassium cyanide. Although famed for his cerebral powers, Turing had also always shown an experimental bent, and these activities were not unusual for him. And he was known for tasting chemicals to identify them. 而这可能是他的死因 -- 一次事故! accident 3, 关于其传奇一生,以下来自维基百科: 孩童和年轻时代 图灵的父亲朱利斯·麦席森·图灵( Julius Mathison Turing )是一名英属印度的公务员。 1911年 ,图灵的母亲Ethel在 印度 的Chatrapur怀了孕。他们希望艾伦在 英国 出生,所以回到 伦敦 ,住在 帕丁顿 ( Paddington )。结果就在那里生下了艾伦。父亲的公务员委任使他在艾伦小时候经常来往于英伦和印度。由于担心印度的气候不利于儿童成长,他把家庭留在英伦与朋友同住。图灵很小的时候就表现出他的天才,后来就更加显著。他说他在三个星期里自己学会阅读,而且,就对数字和智力游戏着迷。 六岁的时候,他的父母为他在一间叫圣迈克尔的( St. Michael's )日间学校註了册。女校长很快就注意到他的天才,随后Marlborough学院的许多教育家也注意到这点。 1926年 ,他十四岁的时候转到了在 多塞特郡 ( Dorset )的Sherborne寄宿学校。开学的第一天,刚好遇上了大罢工。图灵决心要赶上第一天的课,于是他独自从 南安普顿 ( Southampton )骑了六十英里的自行车去上学,途中还在一间旅社度过一宵。 图灵天生对科学的喜好并没有给他在Sherborne的老师留下好印象。他们对教育的定义是着重于人文学科而不是科学。虽然如此,图灵继续在他喜欢的学科表现出惊人的能力,还没有学过基础 微积分 的他,就已经能够解答以他年纪来说算是很高深的难题。 1928年 ,在图灵16岁的时候,開始閱讀 阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦 的著作。他不但能够理解,而且能够从一段并没有明示的文字里推导出爱因斯坦的运动定律。 大学和可计算性的工作 國王學院的電腦房現在以圖靈為名 1931年,图灵考入 剑桥大学国王学院 。1934年他以优异成绩毕业。 1935年 因为一篇有关 中心极限定理 的论文当选为国王学院院士。 图灵在他的重要论文《论 可计算数 及其在判定问题上的应用》( 英语 : On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem )( 1936年 5月28日 提交)里,对 哥德尔 1931年 在证明和计算的限制的结果作了重新论述,他用现在叫做 图灵机 的简单形式裝置代替了哥德尔的以通用算术为基础的形式语言。由于速度很慢,尽管没有一台图灵机会有实际用途,图灵还是证明了这样的机器有能力解决任何可想像的数学难题,如果这些难题是用一种算法来表达。现今,图灵机还是 计算理论 研究的中心课题。他继续证明了 判定问题 ( Entscheidungsproblem )是没有答案的。他的证明首先展示了图灵机的 停机问题 ( halting problem )是没有答案的,这是说不可能用一个算法来决定一台指定的图灵机是否会停机。尽管他的证明比 阿隆佐·邱奇 在 λ演算 方面相等的证明晚发表了几个月,图灵的著作是更易于理解和直观的。 他的通用(图灵)机的概念也是新穎的。这一通用机能够完成任何其他机器所能做的任务。这篇论文还介绍了可定义数的概念。 图灵在 普林斯顿大学 度过了 1937年 和 1938年 的大部分时间,在邱奇指导下学习。 1938年 ,他取得了 博士 学位。他的论文介绍了 超计算 ( hypercomputation )的概念。这里,图灵机给加上了启示器,因而,可以用于研究不能用算法解答的问题。 1939年 图灵回到剑桥,聆听了 维特根斯坦 关于 数学基本原理 ( foundations of mathematics )的讲座。他们激烈地争论,图灵为 形式主义 辩护,而维特根斯坦則认为把数学抬得太高而且不能发现任何绝对真理。 早期的计算机研究:图灵测试 在 布萊切利園 的图灵石像 主条目: 图灵测试 1945年 到 1948年 ,图灵在国家物理实验室,负责自动计算引擎( ACE )的工作 。 1949年 ,他成为 曼彻斯特大学 计算机实验室的副主任,负责最早的真正的计算机---曼彻斯特一号的软件工作。在这段时间,他继续作一些比较抽象的研究,如“计算机械和智能”。图灵在对人工智能的研究中,提出了一个叫做 图灵测试 ( Turing test )的实验,尝试定出一个决定机器是否有感觉的标准。 1952年 ,图灵写了一个 国际象棋 程序。可是,当时没有一台计算机有足够的运算能力去执行这个程序,他就模仿计算机,每走一步要用半小时。他与一位同事下了一盘,结果程序输了。 後來 美国 新墨西哥州 洛斯阿拉莫斯國家實驗室 的研究群根據圖靈的理論,在 ENIAC 上設計出世界上第一個電腦程序的象棋。 图案形成和数理生物学的研究 从 1952年 直到去世,图灵一直在数理生物学方面做研究。他在 1952年 发表了一篇论文《形態發生的化学基础》( 英语 : The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis )。他主要的兴趣是斐波那契葉序列,存在于植物结构的 斐波那契數 。他应用了反应-扩散公式,现在已经成为图案形成范畴的核心。他后期的论文都没有发表,一直等到 1992年 《艾伦·图灵选集》出版,这些文章才见天日。 迫害和逝世 图灵在 Cheshire East 威姆斯洛 的家,挂有 藍色牌匾 。 因为图灵的 同性恋 倾向而遭到的迫害使得他的职业生涯尽毁。 1952年 ,他的同性伴侣协同一名同谋一起闯进图灵的房子实施盗窃,图灵为此而报警。但是 英国警方 的调查结果使得他被控以“明显的猥亵和性颠倒行为”罪(请参看 鸡奸法 )。他没有申辩,并被定罪。在著名的公审后,他被给予了两个选择:坐牢或 荷尔蒙 “疗法”(即 化学阉割 )。他最后选择了荷尔蒙注射, 并持续一年。在这段时间里,药物产生了包括乳房不断發育的副作用,也使原本热爱体育运动的图灵在身心上受到极大伤害。 1954年 ,图灵因食用浸过 氰化物 溶液的苹果死亡。很多人相信他的死是有意的,并判决他的死是自杀。但是他的母亲极力争辩他的死是意外,因为他不小心在实验室里堆放了很多化学物品(既然是他母亲亲自承认的,那应该属于一个不该的意外)。 苹果公司 的商标有时会被误认为是源于图灵自杀时咬下的半个苹果 ,但该图案的设计师 和苹果公司都否认了这一说法 。 平反 在 2009年 9月10日 ,一份超过3万人的請愿签名,使 英国首相 戈登·布朗 在《 每日電訊報 》撰文,因為 英國政府 當年以同性戀相關罪名起訴圖靈並定罪,導致他自殺身亡,正式向艾伦·图灵公開道歉。 至2012年,有21000多人签名请愿,要求英国政府追赠图灵死后赦免状,但被当局拒绝。 英國上議院 的McNally勋爵解释说,死後赦免状是不合适的,因为图灵是根据当时的法律被定罪。