Degree granting in Medieval Europe Below is a short history and origin on the history of Academic Degrees , including the granting of the Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctorate degree in medieval Europe (also know as a doctoral or doctor's). This excerpt is from: The History of Academical Dress in Europe Until the End of the Eighteenth Century By Hargreaves-Mawdsley, W. N. Oxford University Press 1963 Reprinted Greenwood Press, Inc. Westport, Connecticut 1978 During the thirteenth century a system of degrees seems to have come into being at the universities then in existence. The three grades common to all were those of Scholar, Bachelor, and Masters (sometimes called Doctor or Professor). The scholar attended lectures and argued on set questions in the schools, the bachelor was a student-teacher who was seeking to obtain a license to teach in his own right. The mastership was the highest grade in any faculty, and carried with it the obligation to lecture in the university for two years after inception. Doctor, like Master and Professor, originally meant no more than teacher or learned man. All three terms were thus at first synonymous, but during the fourteenth century the title Doctor began, particularly in southern Europe, to be used instead of Master for the chief degree in the Faculties of Canon Law, Civil Law, and Medicine, but not in those of Theology and Arts. Masters of Theology later became known as doctors except in France where as late as 1584 they were still called masters. The system of degrees in the three original universities was accepted in more or less the same form by all universities subsequently founded. As time passed differenced occurred in various countries, a few of which are worth mentioning. Thus in France the degree Bachelor of Arts came to be little more than a first public examination, and the Mastership in Arts was gained after a mere two years study in philosophy. In England the Mastership in Arts became all-important and without it membership of Convocations or Senate was impossible. In Italy a doctorate became almost a necessity for success in the academical world. In Germany the Bachelor of Arts degree vanished in the sixteenth century and the Mastership of Arts was incorporated in the new title of Doctor of Philosophy which took its place. Quite early the licentiateship became an actual degree in the Faculty of Law at French universities. In all universities a distinction existed between Regents and Non-Regents, that is those actively engaged in the teaching work of their university and those who, having satisfied the requirements of necessary regency, were no longer employed in public lecturing, either because they did not wish to or were considered unsuitable. Although non-regents had the right of the ius suffragii, the regents gained greater rights and wider powers. Gradually a rule of precedence for faculties and degrees came into being and was practically the same in every university. An Act of the University of Vienna of 1389 gives orders for the precedence to be observed in processions. The banner of the university is to be carried first, then are to come Bachelors of Arts, then Bachelors of Medicine, followed by Bachelors of Law, the Bachelors of Theology, then Masters of Arts, Doctors of Medicine, Doctors of Law, and Doctors of Theology, Nobles walking with the Doctors. With Bachelors are to walk their group of Scholars, and with Masters of Arts and Doctors their Licentiates. This is a very clear example, and is particularly interesting as showing the position of licentiates. Among the students the separate status of nobleman, scholars, and commoners was commonly recognized at all universities. On the licentia docend which, as at Paris, had originally always been sought from the chancellor of the cathedral, since he had been the magister scholarium of the cathedral school, see K. Edwards, The English Secular Cathedrals in the Middle Ages, chap. 3. The licentiate was one who had fulfilled the requirements of the course for the mastership, but who had not yet qualified for it by necessary regency. F.K. von Savigny, iii. 151, 77. J. Launoy, Epistolae omnes, p. 801. P. Lnaudire, De Privilegiis Doctorum, p. 8, xx (25-27). For eample, J.C. Nadal, Histoire de l Universit de Vakence, p. 228. G. Panzirolus, De claris legume interpretatibus, p. 77. F. Paulsen, The German Universities, p. 39.. J. von Aschbach, Geschichte der Wiener Universitt, i. 76. See Chap. II. Conspectus Historia universitatis Viennensis, i. 49. For precedence at Oxford in 1432 see S. Gibson, Statuta Antiqua, p. 239, and for that at Paris in 1491 see J. Launoy, op. cit., p. 62. For the distinction at Paris between undergraduates who were scholars (Boursiers) and so lived on the foundation of a college, and commoners (Pensionnaires) who paid their own way see A. Fanklin, La Vie prive dautrefois, x. 30 http://www.academicapparel.com/caps/History-Academic-Degrees.html
This article is about Western European institutions. See also Medieval university (Asia) and Byzantine university The first European medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy , France , and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts , law , medicine , and theology . These universities evolved from much older schools and monasteries, and it is difficult to define the date at which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generali for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide. A different case is the university of Constantinople , which was founded in the 9th century as a secular institute of higher learning, to support the state administration. Origins Representation of a university class, (1350s). With the increasing professionalisation of society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a similar demand grew for professional clergy . Before the 12th century , the intellectual life of Europe had been relegated to monasteries , which were mostly concerned with the study of the liturgy and prayer; very few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the Gregorian Reform 's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacrament s, bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in Canon law , but also in the more secular aspects of church administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances. Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. However, demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which was essentially run by one teacher. In addition, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. So, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Paris and Bologna . The predecessor of the modern university found its roots in Paris , especially under the guidance of Peter Abelard , who wrote Sic et Non (Yes and No), which collected texts for university study. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the Universitas , modelled on the mediaeval guild , a large-scale, self-regulating, permanent institution of higher education. By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters ( abbot s, archbishop s, cardinals ), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages , Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosseteste , were products of the mediaeval university. The development of the mediaeval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Jew ish scholars and the decline in popularity of Platonism and Neoplatonism in favour of Aristotelian thought. Characteristics Class in a mediaeval university, illuminated manuscript from the 13th century . Initially mediaeval universities did not have a campus. Classes were taught wherever space was available such as churches and homes, a university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a universitas (the corporation). Soon, however, some universities (such as Cambridge ) began to buy or rent rooms specifically for the purposes of teaching. Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on who paid the teachers. The first type was in Bologna , where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris , where teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, a fact which helped them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of all the principal Catholic institutions in England . These structural differences created other characteristics. At the Bologna university the students ran everything -- a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. In Paris the main subject matter was theology. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies, the main subject was law. University studies took six years for a Bachelor degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree and doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts : arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The primary emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts had been obtained, the student would choose one of three faculties law , medicine , or theology in which to pursue the master's degree and doctorate degree . Theology was the most prestigious area of study, and the most difficult. Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example a course might be on a book by Aristotle , or a book from the Bible . Courses were not elective, the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use. Students entered the University at fourteen to fifteen years of age. Classes usually started at 05:00 or 06:00. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy. In this way no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in a church court, and were thus immune from any corporal punishment . This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, a fact which produced many abuses: theft, rape and murder were not uncommon among students who did not face serious consequences. This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities. Students would sometimes strike by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot (started by the students) left a number of students dead; the University went on strike and did not return for two years. As the students had the legal status of clerics which, according to the Canon Law, could not be held by women, women were not admitted into universities. A popular textbook for university study was called the Sentences ( Quattuor libri sententiarum ) of Peter Lombard ; theology students and masters were required to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Much of mediaeval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching. Most University of international excellence in Europe were registered by the Holy Roman Empire as a Studia Generale . Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often giving lecture courses at a different Studium Generale . List of medieval universities Map of Mediaeval Universities List of mediaeval universities (founded before 1600 ), in order of foundation. Note that many of these institutions were school s prior to the university foundation date. * University of Bologna , Italy teaching from 10th Century recognised as University 1088 * University of Oxford , England teaching from 1096 recognised as University 1117 * University of Paris , France recognised as University 1150 * University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Italy recognised as University 1175 * Bosnian Church University, Visoko , Bosnia recognised as University 1175 - disbanded 1463 * University of Vicenza , Italy recognised as University 1204 * University of Cambridge , England teaching from 12th Century , recognised as University 1209 * University of Palencia , Spain recognised as University 1212 * University of Arezzo , Italy recognised as University 1215 * University of Salamanca , Spain recognised as University 1218 * University of Padua , Italy recognised as University 1222 * University of Naples Federico II , Italy recognised as University 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor * University of Toulouse , France recognised as University 1229 * University of Siena , Italy recognised as University 1240 * University of Valencia , Spain recognised as University 1245 * University of Piacenza , Italy recognised as University 1248 * University of Valladolid , Spain recognised as University 1250 * University of Seville , Spain recognised as University 1254 * Sorbonne , France (at the University of Paris) recognised as University 1257 * University of Northampton , England recognised as University 1261 disbanded 1264 * University of Montpellier , France recognised as University 1289 * University of Coimbra , Portugal recognised as University 1290 (in Lisbon ) * University of Rome La Sapienza , Italy recognised as University 1303 * University of Macerata , Italy recognised as University 1290 * University of Lisbon , Portugal recognised as University 1290 * University of Lrida recognised as University 1300 * University of Avignon , France recognised as University 1303 * University of Orlans , France recognised as University 1306 * University of Perugia , Italy recognised as University 1308 * University of Coimbra , Portugal recognised as University 1308 * University of Treviso , Italy recognised as University 1318 * University of Cahors recognised as University 1332 * University of Angers , France recognised as University 1337 * University of Pisa , Italy recognised as University 1338 * University of Grenoble recognised as University 1339 * Charles University of Prague , Czech Republic recognised as University 1348 * University of Florence , Italy recognised as University 1349 * University of Perpignan recognised as University 1350 * Jagiellonian University , Krak³w , Poland recognised as University 1364 * University of Vienna , Austria recognised as University 1365 * University of Pcs , Hungary recognised as University 1367 * University of Erfurt , Germany recognised as University 1379 * University of Heidelberg , Germany recognised as University 1385 * University of Cologne , Germany recognised as University 1388 * University of Ferrara , Italy recognised as University 1391 by papal bull * University of Zadar , Croatia recognised as University 1396 * University of Fermo , Italy recognised as University 1398 by papal bull * University of W¼rzburg , Germany recognised as University 1402 by papal bull * University of Leipzig , Germany recognised as University 1409 * University of St Andrews , Scotland recognised as University 1413 by papal bull * University of Rostock , Germany recognised as University 1419 * University of Leuven , Belgium recognised as University 1425 * University of Barcelona , Spain recognised as University 1450 * University of Glasgow , Scotland recognised as University 1451 by papal bull * University of Greifswald , Germany recognised as University 1456 * University of Basel , Switzerland recognised as University 1460 * University of Bratislava (Universitas Istropolitana), Slovakia recognised as University 1465 * University of Ingolstadt , Germany recognised as University 1472 * University of Tubingen (Eberhard Karls Universitt T¼bingen), Germany recognised as University 1476 * University of Uppsala , Sweden recognised as University 1477 * University of Copenhagen , Denmark recognised as University 1479 * University of Aberdeen , Scotland recognised as University 1494 (later merger with Marischal College in 1860 , itself founded 1593 ) * University of Santiago de Compostela , Spain recognised as University 1495 * University of Alcal de Henares , Spain recognised as University 1499 * University of Wittenberg , Germany recognised as University 1502 * University of Seville , Spain recognised as University 1505 by papal bull - 1551 by city council * Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic recognised as University 1538 * National Autonomous University of Mexico , Mexico recognised as University 1551 * National University of San Marcos , Peru recognised as University 1551 * Universit de Genve , Switzerland recognised as University 1559 * University of Leiden , Netherlands recognised as University 1575 * University of Vilnius , Lithuania -- recognised as University 1579 * University of Zaragoza , Spain Teaching started at School of Zaragoza in Century VII, recognised as University 1583 - * University of Edinburgh , Scotland recognised as University 1583 * University of Dublin , Ireland recognised as University 1592 * University of San Carlos , Philippines recognised as University 1595 See also: List of oldest universities in continuous operation References *Cobban, Alan B. English University Life in the Middle Ages Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0814208266 *Ferruolo, Stephen The Origins of the University: The Schools of Paris and their Critics, 1100-1215 Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0804712662 *Haskins, Charles Homer. The Rise of Universities. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1972. ISBN 0879683791 *Rashdall, Hastings, rev. by F. M. Powicke, and A. B. Emden. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages , 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. ISBN 0198214316 *Rait, Robert S. Life in the Medieval University. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931. ISBN 0527736503 *Seybolt, Robert Francis, trans. The Manuale Scholarium: An Original Account of Life in the Mediaeval University. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921. *Thorndike, Lynn, trans. and ed. University Records and Life in the Middle Ages New York: Columbia University Press, 1975. ISBN 039309216X See also * List of oldest universities in continuous operation * Renaissance of the 12th century * Studium Generale * Ancient universities of Scotland * Town and gown * Medieval university (Asia) External links * The Educational Legacy of Mediaeval and Renaissance Traditions. * From Manuscript to Print: Evolution of the Mediaeval Book. * Life of the Students at Paris. * The Heritage of University Planning: Mediaeval Colleges: General Organisation. * Mediaeval Universities. * Mediaeval History: A Mediaeval Atlas * A Brief History: The Mediaeval University. * Discussion Document: Is University Life Any Different Today than it was Yesterday? * Mediaeval Science, the Church, and Universities Related Articles The Medieval Child - University Students in the Middle Ages The Medieval Child - University Students in the Middle Ages University of Arizona University of Oklahoma High School Profile - Review of UOHS University of Miami Online High School Profile - Review of University of Miami Online High School if(zSbL<1){zSbL=3;zSB(2);zSbL=0} else zSB(2) Sponsored Links Coins Medieval MA-Shops: 250.000 Coins Buy with warranty www.ma-shops.com French Art Summer courses in Paris Art market language classes www.iesa.edu http://en.allexperts.com/e/m/me/medieval_university.htm
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