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在争议中提高自己
热度 9 xin 2017-8-23 12:10
厌恶一个人,喜欢一个人,似乎没有多少道理,都是一种直觉和个人偏好。这叫罗卜白菜各有所爱,也是情人眼里出西施。如果对自己的口味了,就由衷的喜欢。如果不对口味,气场不和,即使百般取悦也不能满足对方。 记得高中的时候,我作文的文风和书法已基本稳定,但不同老师对此评判,差异很大,颇有几分争议。 高一时,语文老师,浪荡形骸,但水平极高,对我文风和书法,嗤之以鼻,难入其法眼。每次最后判分之后,都在卷面上再扣我四分。他甚严厉,从不敢追问为何?偶尔,旁敲侧击,他回答说我不好好的写字。高二和高三时,语文老师是他学生,对我文风和书法似乎赞赏有加,每次卷面分常常加四分。问其原因,说我写的清楚。同样一件事情,不同老师差异甚大。 高一语文老师燃起我的斗志,让我感受语言之美,醉心古文,只可惜教了我一年就去区教委当调研员了。高二高三的语文老师,给我信心,让我感到自己有所不同。评判有正面和负面,都能从中有所裨益。 同理,同样一份基金本子。有的人会赞赏有加,觉得需要资助、甚至优先资助,因为基础好、立意好、对理论和应用有价值,缺点几乎都不提了,就算有也不是事了。但也有的人刚好相反,从大面上说的一无是处,没有一句褒奖之词,然后从文本里面挑出个60°C当死手,做实枪毙之结果。 正面的评价给我们信心,让我们感到人生难得遇到一位知己。负面的评价,让我们看到自己不足,更加严格地要求自己。这都是评议人的权利,我们只有尊重,让自己内心变得强大,平时提高自己学术水平,变得无可挑剔。负气并不解决问题,只是觉得时间蹉跎,大好青春就这样过去了,实在是可惜。 照片是高一语文老师孙春雨先生
4628 次阅读|18 个评论
如此科普 百度脸红
热度 10 squirrelroco 2017-3-4 21:42
  科普岂能如儿戏   一口老血满屏红   学风!   学风!   还是学风!    与小赵同学聊科普 http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-259438-1037617.html
1966 次阅读|24 个评论
回复喻海良博士
热度 3 陈龙珠 2014-6-23 09:07
本博文章 : 正式申请退出“科学网顾问博主委员会” 喻海良 2014-6-23 07:59 您怎么不回我的邮件? 博主回复 (2014-6-23 09:02) : 喻博士,邮件收到,恕不( 对发来的博文稿 )回复任何意见。 本人对待网络公开学术打假或揭露不端的信息,有时会对看到的疑点表示疑惑,但不参与对他人拟公开揭露第三方的博文( 草稿 )进行核实和提出任何修改意见。本人对待涉及他人和自己声誉的事,历来坚持认真和谨慎的态度 不会人格分裂的。
个人分类: 社会思考|547 次阅读|4 个评论
科学网编辑:请用好您手中精选博文的权利!
热度 24 陈龙珠 2014-6-19 09:13
在科学网博客首页精选博文上,读到海外华人学者喻博士的如下博文,对其逻辑与观点乃至科学网编辑的精选行为,实在是感到疑惑。现将在该文下的点评留存如下,抛砖引玉。 ------- 喻海良 : 用这样的文章,居然可以评上土木学院的教授 (2014-06-18) http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-117889-804430.html 陈龙珠 2014-6-19 09:09 大致2000年前后,大陆高校兴起学院建制热,部分学校对其规模不大的几个系,以能搭上边的理由组合到一起成立一个学院,上海交大、西安交大、华中科大等高校,就组建过建筑或土木工程与力学学院,其中包括完整的土木工程系、力学系、建筑学等,各系晋升职称的评审按照各自学科的要求进行。因此,我觉得喻老师这篇博文,很可能属于不了解情况下的推测。恕我直言,博主的不少 时评 博文具有本文的逻辑特色,而科学网编辑还对此一如既往地加精 戴 小红花,是极其令人失望的!
个人分类: 高等教育|6190 次阅读|26 个评论
请教【别扭的党报文风】(仅好友)
outcrop 2013-8-15 18:06
最近经常看到一些党报文章,觉得这类文风很别扭——但又似曾相识,却想不起来和什么时期的文风类似,就想请科学网年长的博友鉴别下。 比如博文后面的一篇文章《对不信仰共产主义的党员喝一声你危险了》,从标题到正文的一些遣词造句,都觉得很多别扭的地方。比如【喝一声你危险了】,是恐吓吗?危险在哪里?当头棒喝?再比如“扫灰尘”“照镜子”“洗脸”这类朴素的比喻,80后的我就觉得不好接受。 而且还有一些逻辑上的硬伤,比如:“一个政党不可能没有缺点,一个干部不可能不犯错误”这个结论依据何在? ===================== 转载的分割线 ===================== 党报:对不信仰共产主义的党员喝一声你危险了 2013-08-15 12:04:08 来源: 南方网  以整风精神开展批评和自我批评,是习近平总书记在党的群众路线教育实践活动工作会议上突出强调的一个重要思想,也是搞好这次教育实践活动的重要保障。 批评和自我批评是中国共产党一贯的优良作风,是纯洁党的组织、净化党员干部思想的重要武器,也是解决党内矛盾、推进党内民主的有效途径,还是超越区别于其他政党的重要标志之一。毛泽东还形象地将其比作“扫灰尘”“照镜子”“洗脸”,“是抵抗各种政治灰尘和政治微生物侵蚀我们同志的思想和我们党的肌体的唯一有效的方法”。 一个政党不可能没有缺点,一个干部不可能不犯错误。尤其是对于中国共产党这样一个长期执政的政党来说,缺点错误是不可避免的。有了缺点错误并不可怕,只要有批评与自我批评就可以防微杜渐,就可以未雨绸缪,就可以药到病除。反之,就会应验政治学上那句名言:当建设性的批评没有的时候,破坏性的批判就不远了。 邓小平当年讲过一句话:“有很多同志都怀念过去我们的党内生活。既然怀念,就说明大家还记得,那就恢复起来吧。”在近日召开的中央政治局民主生活会上,政治局委员们开展了批评与自我批评,这一举措为在全党范围内开展批评与自我批评注入了强有力的正能量。不仅向全党也向人民群众表明:中国共产党开展批评与自我批评,不是虚晃一枪说说而已,而是来真的、做实功夫。这对于打消一些党员干部虚与委蛇、过了风头依然如故的侥幸心态,杜绝一些党员干部敷衍了事逢场作戏的消极行为很有意义。而且从中央政治局做起,要求别人做到的自己先要做到,要求别人不做的自己坚决不做,这样的行为具有很强的示范作用。上行下必效,从组织行为的角度,政治局都已经做了,党的各级组织怎能无动于衷。更重要的是,通过政治局民主生活会的收获与经验,可以为全党开展批评与自我批评确定一些基本的规范,比如在干什么、不干什么、怎么干,干到什么程度、用什么样的力度、以什么为突破口着力点等等方面做出一些明确的规定,可以让群众路线教育实践活动进行起来更有针对性、更加规范和到位。 近些年来,一些党的基层组织批评与自我批评的作风越来越淡漠了,避重就轻,明贬实褒,正话反说,把党内生活庸俗化很有气候。现在有种说法:批评上级怕穿小鞋,批评同级怕伤和气,批评下级怕丢选票,自我批评怕丢面子。于是乎上级对下级和风细雨,下级对上级暖意洋洋,用中央文件的话就是“逢迎讨好、相互吹捧”。结果在你好我好一团和气中,矛盾越来越尖锐,问题越积越多,以至于积重难返。 之所以存在这种走过场、假批评的现象,有两个原因:一是中国社会六十余年来巨大的发展成果和长期的和平环境对我们出现的问题、犯的错误具有消化稀释和缓解延时的功能,不像在战争年代一旦有错误当下就要付出血的代价,所以,暂时睁一只眼闭一只眼得过且过问题也不大;二是一些党员干部出于私心、为了私利而明哲保身,各人自扫门前雪,我的地盘我做主,你不批评我我也不批评你。 要想“治治病”,不先“红红脸”“出出汗”是不会有疗效的。当年中国共产党的整风运动之所以取得了很大的成效,就是因为我们在这个运动中展开了正确的而不是歪曲的、认真的而不是敷衍的批评和自我批评。今天我们同样要以整风的精神开展批评与自我批评。 我们要通过整风触动灵魂,开好民主生活会,开门搞活动。对马克思主义的信仰,对社会主义和共产主义的信念,是共产党人的政治灵魂。但现在已经有不少身份是“共产党员”但不信仰“共产主义”的失魂落魄分子,这些人在组织上入党了但在思想上没有甚至也不准备入党。对于这样的人,我们要大喝一声:“同志,你危险了”。不在灵魂深处自我革命,就躲不过人民群众对你的革命。 我们还要通过整风触动利益,惩前毖后,治病救人。之所以在党的生活中出现了一系列与党的性质宗旨相背离的现象与行为,其背后是不正当的利益在作怪。但是,“除了法律和政策规定范围内的个人利益和工作职权以外,所有共产党员都不得谋求任何私利和特权”。对照党章“照镜子”,难道还有什么既得利益不应该放弃吗? 对于作风方面出了问题的同志怎么办?不搞下不为例,不讲情有可原,违反了党章用党纪处理,违反了国法用法律处理。有尘就扫,有病就治。如果已经化脓溃烂,该截肢就截肢,决不能让坏肉感染了好的肌体。真正这样做了,群众路线教育实践活动就会扎扎实实落到实处。 本文来源《学习时报》 作者:辛鸣
个人分类: 生活点滴|50 次阅读|0 个评论
当被人指责为“抄袭”之后
热度 2 gongshiliang 2012-3-31 18:48
当某人被指“抄袭”…… 【作者:陈歆耕;转引自《新民晚报》2012-03-27-B5版】 当一个写作者被指控有“抄袭”行为,一般会作出什么反应呢?我们看到的有这样几种模式:A.对待法院的判决,赔钱但“拒不道歉”;B.如驼鸟般把头埋进沙子里,长时间装聋作哑,不作回应;C.立即将相关材料交给学术机构,让他们作出权威判别认证……个人认为C的处置最为理智、得体。有没有面对同样“指控”作出别样反应的呢?有。最近我就碰到一例——    数天前突然接到北京一个电话,听到的是一位陌生女士的声音:“……我是何南爱人××……”,何南?我脑子里快速搜索,一时想不起有关信息。对方接着往下说:“前天《文学报·新批评》上刊登了一篇唐小林的文章《当代文抄公是如何疯狂抄袭的》,文中指控我爱人何南写的《一代大师季羡林》抄袭了蔡德贵写的《季羡林传》。这个作者的指控不成立,您能否提供唐小林的联系方式,我们想跟他探讨澄清一下。”这下我才弄清楚,何南是《一代大师季羡林》一书的作者。于是我建议对方:与其与唐小林小范围商榷,不如请何南先生写一篇回应文章,公开澄清事实真相,效果岂不更好?   对方接受了我的建议。隔两天,何南先生的回应文章来了,题目为《我的答谢》。文章回顾了他写作该书的过程,最核心的是指出,唐小林指控的那些“抄袭”文字,皆是化用了季羡林本人散文、随笔、自传中提供的材料。为何与蔡德贵写的《季羡林传》有文字雷同之处?因为《季羡林传》作者也同样化用了季羡林本人文章中提供的传记材料。两本书的材料同源,因此不存在谁抄袭谁的问题。   他的申辩是传记乃至非虚构写作中值得探讨的一个问题:如何参照、借鉴二手材料,尤其是已经作为艺术成品面世的二手材料?避免“抄袭”、“挪用”嫌疑的上上策,是通过采访掌握大量第一手的材料,或通过考证索隐挖掘出新的材料,这都是别人未知的“新料”;对二手间接材料,尤其是已经成书的材料的使用则须小心谨慎,如果没新的思想角度去重新观照揉合那些材料,或无法用自己的语言重新表述,只能挪用原文,则应注明出处,即使是来自传主本人著作中的材料也应如此。   本文主旨并非讨论传记写作中的问题,而是对被批评者何南先生“回应”的态度颇有一番感慨。何南“回应”文章用了《我的答谢》做标题,对批评者不但没有怒火中烧,或立马表示要诉诸法律,而是采取了一种感恩的态度,实在难得。评论家葛红兵在一篇评述《新批评》的文章中曾表示过一点遗憾,一些著名作家为何面对评论家的批评文章,几乎无人作出书面回应。评论家认真读了作品,对文本作出解析,付出了辛勤劳动,理应得到作家的尊重和重视,无论你的“回应”是认同,还是有歧见,都是可以发表出来进行探讨的,都是尊重对方的一种方式。朋友之间也是可以争得面红耳赤的,由此创作和评论才能相互碰撞、沟通、交流,这才是一种正常的创作与批评的生态,一种有益于文学生长的生态。   因此形成健康的批评生态,不仅仅是批评家一方的事。常言道:琴瑟和谐。光有琴,缺了瑟,声音未免单调。 包你烦 【作者:刘心武;转引自《新民晚报》2012-03-27-B5版】 淑娟正看手机新闻,上头说菜蔬涨价,先是有“蒜你狠”,之后有“豆你玩”,如今又来了“向钱葱”……忽听门铃响,开门一看,竟是久违了的索索,索索一身名牌自不消说,人一现,一股特殊的香水气息就辐射出来……   淑娟老公一回家,立刻发现沙发上有个扎眼的异物,淑娟不等他问,就拎起来显摆:“LV啊!正品啊!”老公吃惊:“哪儿来的?”淑娟就告诉她,是索索送的。索索原是淑娟的闺密,自从跟了个比她大二十岁的男人后,来往就很少了,但是索索又有了最新款的LV包,这个去年秋天买的就多余了,开着宝马车路过他们楼下,顺便就上来赠给了淑娟。淑娟告诉老公,人家索索说起巴黎发音是“趴瑞斯”,说起那里的老佛爷百货店发音是“拉法耶特”,这包就是在那家店里买的,包里还保存着那天的购物小票,三千欧元啊,合三万人民币哩!淑娟把索索的一番指点学舌给老公:这材料用的是“字母组合帆布”,这缝制是完全手工,这青金铜色的金属扣件是难以仿制的,瞧,包里还附有专门去污橡皮擦和金属扣清洁剂……老公搔着后脑勺道:“你接受丽芬这么贵重的礼物,也太……”淑娟道:“跟你说人家现在不用王丽芬那个名字了,人家现在就叫索索,她老公喜欢法国女明星苏菲·玛索嘛!”老公撇撇嘴道:“那老头是她老公吗?”淑娟道:“你管索索行二行三哩,反正她对我还是那么好,这包对她来说不是什么贵重物品,倒是个累赘,她说我要不收,她就扔咱们楼外垃圾桶里,她可不是说着玩的!”老公就说:“那你怎么不留人家吃饭?”淑娟道:“人家自然是又有饭局。”老公说出几家高级餐馆的名字,道:“是呀,她一定去那种地方了。”淑娟笑:“我也是那么猜的,索索笑我老土,他们那样的人士哪有去开放式餐馆的?人家都是去会所,没有VIP卡是不让进的啊!”   淑娟两口子都是靠一门技术挣工资的科技人员,买了套两居室的二手房,装修得似模似样,又都爱整洁,屋子里总那么清爽,除了不敢贸然生孩子,他们的生活堪称完满小康。按说添了个高级包,他们的日子会更加光亮,但是,当晚就出现了问题:那LV包搁哪儿保存呢?就搁沙发上?怎么看怎么是炫富的架势,犯不上。就挂平时挂包的地方?这包又不适合那么挂。这才懂得,有这种包的人家,应该有一个专门的换衣间,换衣间里除了宽大的衣柜,还有鞋柜、帽柜、包柜……淑娟最后决定把包搁到他们俩的书房,老公跟进去说:“正如天竺机场T3航站楼是世界最大单体建筑一样,现在这个LV包是咱们家最贵重的一个单件东西,原来以为咱们的笔记本电脑最值钱,老怕丢,现在重点保护的应该是这个‘趴瑞斯拉法耶特’买来的‘字母组合帆布包’!”   第二天要不要拎那个包去上班?淑娟略有犹豫,最后觉得“包既来之,何不用之”,就拎着去了,范姐看到笑笑:“现在仿真技术越来越高了。”小翠却抚摸细观后尖叫一声:“真的吔!”先满脸羡慕,见淑娟从里面拿出一小包擦手纸,却又很快讥讽起来:“这种包哪是让你搁这种东西的哟!”再上下扫扫淑娟:“全不配套!这包要配香奈儿丝巾……”又满嘴滚珠地道出一大串与之匹配的名牌,涉及到全身服装鞋袜及装饰品,还有化妆品、太阳镜、签字笔等等。淑娟不理她,范姐朝小翠摇头:“偏你都知道,你倒都弄来把自己彻底包装一番好不好?”小翠就笑:“我置备不起,就不兴知道么?其实现在有的小说里每段总得写到几个名牌,不用读万卷书,瞄一卷书就齐了!”副主任走了过来,大家赶忙盯着电脑忙碌。   熬到下班,老公开车来接淑娟,俩人吃了快餐就去看电影,买好票刚要往里走,被保安从背后追上,招呼他们让挪车。老公说:“我的车停在正经车位上,挪什么?”保安非说是挡了道,别人的车开不出去。边争议边往外走,到了停车场,原来是辆玛莎拉蒂乱停在那里,淑娟指责保安:“你怎么诬赖我们啊?”保安指指她拎的包:“你拎这包,当然开这样的车啦!”后来终于闹明白他们开来的车不过是辆旧富康,保安只好再去找挡路的车主,临离开又用怀疑的眼光盯了盯淑娟的包……   看完电影回到小区,只见停着警车,问保安,说是有业主报案,有贼入室盗窃,保安盯着淑娟拎的包劝告:“现在贼都知道各家不放很多现金,所以专偷值钱又好拿的东西,要是让贼先盯上那就麻烦了……”回到家,不待老公开口,淑娟就拨索索手机,很快通了,索索非常快乐地道:“我跟他都在巴哈马,住到下月再经巴西、南非回去,你有什么事啊?”老公问:“能退给她吗?”淑娟道:“蒜你狠、豆你玩、向钱葱……那烦恼都比不上眼下的包你烦啊!”
个人分类: 自说自话|3245 次阅读|2 个评论
断章取义的风气,要不得
热度 3 陈龙珠 2011-9-22 10:37
经常阅读科学网博文及其下面评论栏中的网友、博主互动,有时也参与讨论。 说实在话,一些博主和网友,对所涉及的问题,断章取义来评论甚至攻击的现象,屡见不鲜。 在言论自由的社会里,发达的网络平台,为大家各自发表各种各样的观点提供了场所。这是言论自由于利的一面。 但是,任何事物都有两面性,言论自由于弊的一面,包括在揭露他人不阳光一面的同时,也会将言论者自身的认识乃至人品昭然于大众的眼光之中。 我们在批评他人或这或那缺点的同时,想过自己正在说的话、正在做的事,是否也有这类或那类的不足呢? 种瓜得瓜,种豆得豆。你不信,反正我是信的。 推荐一读: 沉思的生活是有益的 (@SZ)
个人分类: 陈词滥调|3002 次阅读|6 个评论
英文写作圣经—《风格的要素》The Elements of Style
FrankZhao 2011-8-23 15:29
英文写作圣经—《风格的要素》The Elements of Style
The Elements of Style Oliver Strunk Contents FOREWORD ix INTRODUCTION xiii I. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE 1 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's . 1 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. 2 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. 2 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause. 5 5. Do not join independent clauses with a comma. 5 6. Do not break sentences in two. 7 7. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. 7 8. Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary. 9 9. The number of the subject determines the number of the verb. 9 10. Use the proper case of pronoun. 11 11. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject. 13 II. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION 15 12. Choose a suitable design and hold to it. 15 13. Make the paragraph the unit of composition. 15 14. Use the active voice. 18 15. Put statements in positive form. 19 16. Use definite, specific, concrete language. 21 17. Omit needless words. 23 18. Avoid a succession of loose sentences. 25 19. Express coordinate ideas in similar form. 26 20. Keep related words together. 28 21. In summaries, keep to one tense. 31 22. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end. 32 III. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM 34 IV. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED 39 V. AN APPROACH TO STYLE (With a List of Reminders) 66 1. Place yourself in the background. 70 2. Write in a way that comes naturally. 70 3. Work from a suitable design. 70 4. Write with nouns and verbs. 71 5. Revise and rewrite. 72 6. Do not overwrite. 72 7. Do not overstate. 73 8. Avoid the use of qualifiers. 73 9. Do not affect a breezy manner. 73 10. Use orthodox spelling. 74 11. Do not explain too much. 75 12. Do not construct awkward adverbs. 75 13. Make sure the reader knows who is speaking. 76 14. Avoid fancy words. 76 15. Do not use dialect unless your ear is good. 78 16. Be clear. 79 17. Do not inject opinion. 79 18. Use figures of speech sparingly. 80 19. Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity. 80 20. Avoid foreign languages. 81 21. Prefer the standard to the offbeat. 81 AFTERWORD 87 GLOSSARY 89 INDEX 97 Foreword * THE FIRST writer I watched at work was my stepfather, E. B. White. Each Tuesday morning, he would close his study door and sit down to write the "Notes and Comment" page for The New Yorker . The task was familiar to him — he was required to file a few hundred words of editorial or personal commentary on some topic in or out of the news that week — but the sounds of his typewriter from his room came in hesitant bursts, with long silences in between. Hours went by. Summoned at last for lunch, he was silent and preoccupied, and soon excused himself to get back to the job. When the copy went off at last, in the afternoon RFD pouch — we were in Maine, a day's mail away from New York — he rarely seemed satisfied. "It isn't good enough," he said sometimes. "I wish it were better." Writing is hard, even for authors who do it all the time. Less frequent practitioners — the job applicant; the business executive with an annual report to get out; the high school senior with a Faulkner assignment; the graduate-school student with her thesis proposal; the writer of a letter of condolence — often get stuck in an awkward passage or find a muddle on their screens, and then blame themselves. What should be easy and flowing looks tangled or feeble or overblown — not what was meant at all. What's wrong with me, each one thinks. Why can't I get this right? It was this recurring question, put to himself, that must have inspired White to revive and add to a textbook by an English professor of his, Will Strunk Jr., that he had first read in college, and to get it published. The result, this quiet book, has been in print for forty years, and has offered more than ten million writers a helping hand. White knew that a compendium of specific tips — about singular and plural verbs, parentheses, the "that" — "which" scuffle, and many others — could clear up a recalcitrant sentence or subclause when quickly reconsulted, and that the larger principles needed to be kept in plain sight, like a wall sampler. How simple they look, set down here in White's last chapter: "Write in a way that comes naturally," "Revise and rewrite," "Do not explain too much," and the rest; above all, the cleansing, clarion "Be clear." How often I have turned to them, in the book or in my mind, while trying to start or unblock or revise some piece of my own writing! They help — they really do. They work. They are the way. E. B. White's prose is celebrated for its ease and clarity — just think of Charlotte's Web — but maintaining this standard required endless attention. When the new issue of The New Yorker turned up in Maine, I sometimes saw him reading his "Comment" piece over to himself, with only a slightly different expression than the one he'd worn on the day it went off. Well, O.K., he seemed to be saying. At least I got the elements right. This edition has been modestly updated, with word processors and air conditioners making their first appearance among White's references, and with a light redistribution of genders to permit a feminine pronoun or female farmer to take their places among the males who once innocently served him. Sylvia Plath has knocked Keats out of the box, and I notice that "America" has become "this country" in a sample text, to forestall a subsequent and possibly demeaning "she" in the same paragraph. What is not here is anything about E-mail — the rules-free, lower-case flow that cheerfully keeps us in touch these days. E-mail is conversation, and it may be replacing the sweet and endless talking we once sustained (and tucked away) within the informal letter. But we are all writers and readers as well as communicators, with the need at times to please and satisfy ourselves (as White put it) with the clear and almost perfect thought. Roger Angell Introduction * AT THE close of the first World War, when I was a student at Cornell, I took a course called English 8. My professor was William Strunk Jr. A textbook required for the course was a slim volume called The Elements of Style , whose author was the professor himself. The year was 1919. The book was known on the campus in those days as "the little book," with the stress on the word "little." It had been privately printed by the author. (* E. B. White wrote this introduction for the 1979 edition.) I passed the course, graduated from the university, and forgot the book but not the professor. Some thirty-eight years later, the book bobbed up again in my life when Macmillan commissioned me to revise it for the college market and the general trade. Meantime, Professor Strunk had died. The Elements of Style , when I reexamined it in 1957, seemed to me to contain rich deposits of gold. It was Will Strunk's parvum opus , his attempt to cut the vast tangle of English rhetoric down to size and write its rules and principles on the head of a pin. Will himself had hung the tag "little" on the book; he referred to it sardonically and with secret pride as "the little book," always giving the word "little" a special twist, as though he were putting a spin on a ball. In its original form, it was a forty-three page summation of the case for cleanliness, accuracy, and brevity in the use of English. Today, fifty-two years later, its vigor is unimpaired, and for sheer pith I think it probably sets a record that is not likely to be broken. Even after I got through tampering with it, it was still a tiny thing, a barely tarnished gem. Seven rules of usage, eleven principles of composition, a few matters of form, and a list of words and expressions commonly misused — that was the sum and substance of Professor Strunk's work. Somewhat audaciously, and in an attempt to give my publisher his money's worth, I added a chapter called "An Approach to Style," setting forth my own prejudices, my notions of error, my articles of faith. This chapter (Chapter V) is addressed particularly to those who feel that English prose composition is not only a necessary skill but a sensible pursuit as well — a way to spend one's days. I think Professor Strunk would not object to that. A second edition of the book was published in 1972. I have now completed a third revision. Chapter IV has been refurbished with words and expressions of a recent vintage; four rules of usage have been added to Chapter I. Fresh examples have been added to some of the rules and principles, amplification has reared its head in a few places in the text where I felt an assault could successfully be made on the bastions of its brevity, and in general the book has received a thorough overhaul — to correct errors, delete bewhiskered entries, and enliven the argument. Professor Strunk was a positive man. His book contains rules of grammar phrased as direct orders. In the main I have not tried to soften his commands, or modify his pronouncements, or remove the special objects of his scorn. I have tried, instead, to preserve the flavor of his discontent while slightly enlarging the scope of the discussion. The Elements of Style does not pretend to survey the whole field. Rather it proposes to give in brief space the principal requirements of plain English style. It concentrates on fundamentals: the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated. The reader will soon discover that these rules and principles are in the form of sharp commands, Sergeant Strunk snapping orders to his platoon. "Do not join independent clauses with a comma." (Rule 5.) "Do not break sentences in two." (Rule 6.) "Use the active voice." (Rule 14.) "Omit needless words." (Rule 17.) "Avoid a succession of loose sentences." (Rule 18.) "In summaries, keep to one tense." (Rule 21.) Each rule or principle is followed by a short hortatory essay, and usually the exhortation is followed by, or interlarded with, examples in parallel columns — the true vs. the false, the right vs. the wrong, the timid vs. the bold, the ragged vs. the trim. From every line there peers out at me the puckish face of my professor, his short hair parted neatly in the middle and combed down over his forehead, his eyes blinking incessantly behind steel-rimmed spectacles as though he had just emerged into strong light, his lips nibbling each other like nervous horses, his smile shuttling to and fro under a carefully edged mustache. "Omit needless words!" cries the author on page 23, and into that imperative Will Strunk really put his heart and soul. In the days when I was sitting in his class, he omitted so many needless words, and omitted them so forcibly and with such eagerness and obvious relish, that he often seemed in the position of having shortchanged himself — a man left with nothing more to say yet with time to fill, a radio prophet who had out-distanced the clock. Will Strunk got out of this predicament by a simple trick: he uttered every sentence three times. When he delivered his oration on brevity to the class, he leaned forward over his desk, grasped his coat lapels in his hands, and, in a husky, conspiratorial voice, said, "Rule Seventeen. Omit needless words! Omit needless words! Omit needless words!" He was a memorable man, friendly and funny. Under the remembered sting of his kindly lash, I have been trying to omit needless words since 1919, and although there are still many words that cry for omission and the huge task will never be accomplished, it is exciting to me to reread the masterly Strunkian elaboration of this noble theme. It goes: Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all sentences short or avoid all detail and treat subjects only in outline, but that every word tell. There you have a short, valuable essay on the nature and beauty of brevity — fifty-nine words that could change the world. Having recovered from his adventure in prolixity (fifty-nine words were a lot of words in the tight world of William Strunk Jr.), the professor proceeds to give a few quick lessons in pruning. Students learn to cut the dead-wood from "this is a subject that," reducing it to "this subject," a saving of three words. They learn to trim "used for fuel purposes" down to "used for fuel." They learn that they are being chatterboxes when they say "the question as to whether" and that they should just say "whether" — a saving of four words out of a possible five. The professor devotes a special paragraph to the vile expression the fact that , a phrase that causes him to quiver with revulsion. The expression, he says, should be "revised out of every sentence in which it occurs." But a shadow of gloom seems to hang over the page, and you feel that he knows how hopeless his cause is. I suppose I have written the fact that a thousand times in the heat of composition, revised it out maybe five hundred times in the cool aftermath. To be batting only .500 this late in the season, to fail half the time to connect with this fat pitch, saddens me, for it seems a betrayal of the man who showed me how to swing at it and made the swinging seem worthwhile. I treasure The Elements of Style for its sharp advice, but I treasure it even more for the audacity and self-confidence of its author. Will knew where he stood. He was so sure of where he stood, and made his position so clear and so plausible, that his peculiar stance has continued to invigorate me — and, I am sure, thousands of other ex-students — during the years that have intervened since our first encounter. He had a number of likes and dislikes that were almost as whimsical as the choice of a necktie, yet he made them seem utterly convincing. He disliked the word forceful and advised us to use forcible instead. He felt that the word clever was greatly overused: "It is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters." He despised the expression student body , which he termed gruesome, and made a special trip downtown to the Alumni News office one day to protest the expression and suggest that studentry be substituted — a coinage of his own, which he felt was similar to citizenry . I am told that the News editor was so charmed by the visit, if not by the word, that he ordered the student body buried, never to rise again. Studentry has taken its place. It's not much of an improvement, but it does sound less cadaverous, and it made Will Strunk quite happy. Some years ago, when the heir to the throne of England was a child, I noticed a headline in the Times about Bonnie Prince Charlie: "CHARLES' TONSILS OUT." Immediately Rule 1 leapt to mind. 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's . Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write, Charles's friend Burns's poems the witch's malice Clearly, Will Strunk had foreseen, as far back as 1918, the dangerous tonsillectomy of a prince, in which the surgeon removes the tonsils and the Times copy desk removes the final s . He started his book with it. I commend Rule 1 to the Times , and I trust that Charles's throat, not Charles' throat, is in fine shape today. Style rules of this sort are, of course, somewhat a matter of individual preference, and even the established rules of grammar are open to challenge. Professor Strunk, although one of the most inflexible and choosy of men, was quick to acknowledge the fallacy of inflexibility and the danger of doctrine. "It is an old observation," he wrote, "that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules of rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader will usually find in the sentence some compensating merit, attained at the cost of the violation. Unless he is certain of doing as well, he will probably do best to follow the rules." It is encouraging to see how perfectly a book, even a dusty rule book, perpetuates and extends the spirit of a man. Will Strunk loved the clear, the brief, the bold, and his book is clear, brief, bold. Boldness is perhaps its chief distinguishing mark. On page 26, explaining one of his parallels, he says, "The lefthand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid, apparently unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it." And his original Rule 11 was "Make definite assertions." That was Will all over. He scorned the vague, the tame, the colorless, the irresolute. He felt it was worse to be irresolute than to be wrong. I remember a day in class when he leaned far forward, in his characteristic pose — the pose of a man about to impart a secret — and croaked, "If you don't know how to pronounce a word, say it loud! If you don't know how to pronounce a word, say it loud!" This comical piece of advice struck me as sound at the time, and I still respect it. Why compound ignorance with inaudibility? Why run and hide? All through The Elements of Style one finds evidences of the author's deep sympathy for the reader. Will felt that the reader was in serious trouble most of the time, floundering in a swamp, and that it was the duty of anyone attempting to write English to drain this swamp quickly and get the reader up on dry ground, or at least to throw a rope. In revising the text, I have tried to hold steadily in mind this belief of his, this concern for the bewildered reader. In the English classes of today, "the little book" is surrounded by longer, lower textbooks — books with permissive steering and automatic transitions. Perhaps the book has become something of a curiosity. To me, it still seems to maintain its original poise, standing, in a drafty time, erect, resolute, and assured. I still find the Strunkian wisdom a comfort, the Strunkian humor a delight, and the Strunkian attitude toward right-and- wrong a blessing undisguised. 1979 The Elements of Style IElementary Rules of Usage 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's. Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write, Charles's friend Burns's poems the witch's malice Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names ending in -es and -is , the possessive Jesus' , and such forms as for conscience' sake, for righteousness' sake . But such forms as Moses' Laws, Isis' temple are commonly replaced by the laws of Moses the temple of Isis The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours , and ours have no apostrophe. Indefinite pronouns, however, use the apostrophe to show possession. one's rights somebody else's umbrella A common error is to write it's for its , or vice versa. The first is a contraction, meaning "it is." The second is a possessive. It's a wise dog that scratches its own fleas. 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. Thus write, red, white, and blue gold, silver, or copper He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents. This comma is often referred to as the "serial" comma. In the names of business firms the last comma is usually omitted. Follow the usage of the individual firm. Little, Brown and Company Donaldson, Lufkin Jenrette 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot. This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word, such as however , or a brief phrase is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight, the commas may be safely omitted. But whether the interruption is slight or considerable, never omit one comma and leave the other. There is no defense for such punctuation as Marjories husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday. or My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health. Dates usually contain parenthetic words or figures. Punctuate as follows: February to July, 1992 April 6, 1986 Wednesday, November 14, 1990 Note that it is customary to omit the comma in 6 April 1988 The last form is an excellent way to write a date; the figures are separated by a word and are, for that reason, quickly grasped. A name or a title in direct address is parenthetic. If, Sir, you refuse, I cannot predict what will happen. Well, Susan, this is a fine mess you are in. The abbreviations etc. , i.e ., and e.g ., the abbreviations for academic degrees, and titles that follow a name are parenthetic and should be punctuated accordingly. Letters, packages, etc., should go here. Horace Fulsome, Ph.D., presided. Rachel Simonds, Attorney The Reverend Harry Lang, S.J. No comma, however, should separate a noun from a restrictive term of identification. Billy the Kid The novelist Jane Austen William the Conqueror The poet Sappho Although Junior , with its abbreviation Jr ., has commonly been regarded as parenthetic, logic suggests that it is, in fact, restrictive and therefore not in need of a comma. James Wright Jr. Nonrestrictive relative clauses are parenthetic, as are similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place. Commas are therefore needed. A nonrestrictive clause is one that does not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun. The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested. In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France. Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner , is a few miles from Bridgewater. In these sentences, the clauses introduced by which , when , and where are nonrestrictive; they do not limit or define, they merely add something. In the first example, the clause introduced by which does not serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant; the reader presumably knows that already. The clause adds, parenthetically, a statement supplementing that in the main clause. Each of the three sentences is a combination of two statements that might have been made independently. The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more and more interested. Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but recently been acquired by France. Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner at Nether Stowey. Nether Stowey is a few miles from Bridgewater. Restrictive clauses, by contrast, are not parenthetic and are not set off by commas. Thus, People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. Here the clause introduced by who does serve to tell which people are meant; the sentence, unlike the sentences above, cannot be split into two independent statements. The same principle of comma use applies to participial phrases and to appositives. People sitting in the rear couldn't hear, (restrictive ) Uncle Bert, being slightly deaf, moved forward, (non-restrictive ) My cousin Bob is a talented harpist, (restrictive ) Our oldest daughter, Mary, sings, (nonrestrictive ) When the main clause of a sentence is preceded by a phrase or a subordinate clause, use a comma to set off these elements. Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east and rose to royal rank with the possession of Sicily. 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause. The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape. Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as (in the sense of "because"), for, or, nor , or while (in the sense of "and at the same time") likewise require a comma before the conjunction. If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction. The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape. When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is useful if the connective is but . When the connective is and , the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or immediate. I have heard the arguments, but am still unconvinced. He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent. 5. Do not join independent clauses with a comma. If two or more clauses grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon. Mary Shelley's works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas. It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark. It is, of course, equally correct to write each of these as two sentences, replacing the semicolons with periods. Mary Shelley's works are entertaining. They are full of engaging ideas. It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark. If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma. (Rule 4.) Mary Shelley's works are entertaining, for they are full of engaging ideas. It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark. A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better than the second form because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and better than the third because it is briefer and therefore more forcible. Indeed, this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of composition. The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause and consequence. Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, then, therefore , or thus , and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required. I had never been in the place before; besides, it was dark as a tomb. An exception to the semicolon rule is worth noting here. A comma is preferable when the clauses are very short and alike in form, or when the tone of the sentence is easy and conversational. Man proposes, God disposes. The gates swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up. I hardly knew him, he was so changed. Here today, gone tomorrow. 6. Do not break sentences in two. In other words, do not use periods for commas. I met them on a Cunard liner many years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York. She was an interesting talker. A woman who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries. In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma and the following word begun with a small letter. It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly: Again and again he called out. No reply. The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, lest a clipped sentence seem merely a blunder in syntax or in punctuation. Generally speaking, the place for broken sentences is in dialogue, when a character happens to speak in a clipped or fragmentary way. Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles that govern punctuation. They should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature. 7. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause. The colon has more effect than the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon, and more formality than the dash. It usually follows an independent clause and should not separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its object. The examples in the lefthand column, below, are wrong; they should be rewritten as in the righthand column. Your dedicated whittler requires: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch. Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge that grows from: theory, practice, conviction, assertion, error, and humiliation. Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch. Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge that grows from theory, practice, conviction, assertion, error, and humiliation. Join two independent clauses with a colon if the second interprets or amplifies the first. But even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor, no wreath or spray. A colon may introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause. The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: "We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars." The colon also has certain functions of form: to follow the salutation of a formal letter, to separate hour from minute in a notation of time, and to separate the title of a work from its subtitle or a Bible chapter from a verse. Dear Mr. Montague: departs at 10:48 P.M. Practical Calligraphy: An Introduction to Italic Script Nehemiah 11:7 8. Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary. A dash is a mark of separation stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than parentheses. His first thought on getting out of bed — if he had any thought at all — was to get back in again. The rear axle began to make a noise — a grinding, chattering, teeth-gritting rasp. The increasing reluctance of the sun to rise, the extra nip in the breeze, the patter of shed leaves dropping — all the evidences of fall drifting into winter were clearer each day. Use a dash only when a more common mark of punctuation seems inadequate. Her father's suspicions proved well-founded — it was not Edward she cared for — it was San Francisco. Her father's suspicions proved well- founded. It was not Edward she cared for, it was San Francisco. Violence — the kind you see on television — is not honestly violent — there lies its harm. Violence, the kind you see on television, is not honestly violent. There lies its harm. 9. The number of the subject determines the number of the verb. Words that intervene between subject and verb do not affect the number of the verb. The bittersweet flavor of youth — its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges — are not soon forgotten. The bittersweet flavor of youth — its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges — is not soon forgotten. A common blunder is the use of a singular verb form in a relative clause following "one of..." or a similar expression when the relative is the subject. One of the ablest scientists who has attacked this problem One of the ablest scientists who have attacked this problem One of those people who is never ready on time One of those people who are never ready on time Use a singular verb form after each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone . Everybody thinks he has a unique sense of humor. Although both clocks strike cheerfully, neither keeps good time. With none , use the singular verb when the word means "no one" or "not one." None of us are perfect. None of us is perfect. A plural verb is commonly used when none suggests more than one thing or person. None are so fallible as those who are sure they're right. A compound subject formed of two or more nouns joined by and almost always requires a plural verb. The walrus and the carpenter were walking close at hand. But certain compounds, often cliches, are so inseparable they are considered a unit and so take a singular verb, as do compound subjects qualified by each or every . The long and the short of it is ... Bread and butter was all she served. Give and take is essential to a happy household. Every window, picture, and mirror was smashed. A singular subject remains singular even if other nouns are connected to it by with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with , and no less than . His speech as well as his manner is objectionable. A linking verb agrees with the number of its subject. What is wanted is a few more pairs of hands. The trouble with truth is its many varieties. Some nouns that appear to be plural are usually construed as singular and given a singular verb. Politics is an art, not a science. The Republican Headquarters is on this side of the tracks. But The general's quarters are across the river. In these cases the writer must simply learn the idioms. The contents of a book is singular. The contents of a jar may be either singular or plural, depending on what's in the jar — jam or marbles. 10. Use the proper case of pronoun. The personal pronouns, as well as the pronoun who , change form as they function as subject or object. Will Jane or he be hired, do you think? The culprit, it turned out, was he. We heavy eaters would rather walk than ride. Who knocks? Give this work to whoever looks idle. In the last example, whoever is the subject of looks idle ; the object of the preposition to is the entire clause whoever looks idle . When who introduces a subordinate clause, its case depends on its function in that clause. Virgil Soames is the candidate whom we think will win. Virgil Soames is the candidate who we think will win. Virgil Soames is the candidate who we hope to elect. Virgil Soames is the candidate whom we hope to elect. A pronoun in a comparison is nominative if it is the subject of a stated or understood verb. Sandy writes better than I. (Than I write.) In general, avoid "understood" verbs by supplying them. I think Horace admires Jessica more than I. I think Horace admires Jessica more than I do. Polly loves cake more than me. Polly loves cake more than she loves me. The objective case is correct in the following examples. The ranger offered Shirley and him some advice on campsites. They came to meet the Baldwins and us. Let's talk it over between us, then, you and me. Whom should I ask? A group of us taxpayers protested. Us in the last example is in apposition to taxpayers, the object of the preposition of . The wording, although grammatically defensible, is rarely apt. "A group of us protested as taxpayers" is better, if not exactly equivalent. Use the simple personal pronoun as a subject. Blake and myself stayed home. Blake and I stayed home. Howard and yourself brought the lunch, I thought. Howard and you brought the lunch, I thought. The possessive case of pronouns is used to show ownership. It has two forms: the adjectival modifier, your hat, and the noun form, a hat of yours . The dog has buried one of your gloves and one of mine in the flower bed. Gerunds usually require the possessive case. Mother objected to our driving on the icy roads. A present participle as a verbal, on the other hand, takes the objective case. They heard him singing in the shower. The difference between a verbal participle and a gerund is not always obvious, but note what is really said in each of the following. Do you mind me asking a question? Do you mind my asking a question? In the first sentence, the queried objection is to me , as opposed to other members of the group, asking a question. In the second example, the issue is whether a question may be asked at all. 11. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject. Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children. The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. To make it refer to the woman, the writer must recast the sentence. He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road. Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence. On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. On arriving in Chicago, he was met at the station by his friends. A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defense of the city. A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defense of the city. Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy. Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible. Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible. Sentences violating Rule 11 are often ludicrous: Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap. Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve. II Elementary Principles of Composition 12. Choose a suitable design and hold to it. A basic structural design underlies every kind of writing. Writers will in part follow this design, in part deviate from it, according to their skills, their needs, and the unexpected events that accompany the act of composition. Writing, to be effective, must follow closely the thoughts of the writer, but not necessarily in the order in which those thoughts occur. This calls for a scheme of procedure. In some cases, the best design is no design, as with a love letter, which is simply an outpouring, or with a casual essay, which is a ramble. But in most cases, planning must be a deliberate prelude to writing. The first principle of composition, therefore, is to foresee or determine the shape of what is to come and pursue that shape. A sonnet is built on a fourteen-line frame, each line containing five feet. Hence, sonneteers know exactly where they are headed, although they may not know how to get there. Most forms of composition are less clearly defined, more flexible, but all have skeletons to which the writer will bring the flesh and the blood. The more clearly the writer perceives the shape, the better are the chances of success. 13. Make the paragraph the unit of composition. The paragraph is a convenient unit; it serves all forms of literary work. As long as it holds together, a paragraph may be of any length — a single, short sentence or a passage of great duration. If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it briefly, there may be no need to divide it into topics. Thus, a brief description, a brief book review, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea — any one of these is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, examine it to see whether division will improve it. Ordinarily, however, a subject requires division into topics, each of which should be dealt with in a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached. As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is usually a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The application of this rule when dialogue and narrative are combined is best learned from examples in well-edited works of fiction. Sometimes a writer, seeking to create an effect of rapid talk or for some other reason, will elect not to set off each speech in a separate paragraph and instead will run speeches together. The common practice, however, and the one that serves best in most instances, is to give each speech a paragraph of its own. As a rule, begin each paragraph either with a sentence that suggests the topic or with a sentence that helps the transition. If a paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (again, therefore, for the same reason ) in the first sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to get into the topic slowly, by way of a sentence or two of introduction or transition. In narration and description, the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow. The breeze served us admirably. The campaign opened with a series of reverses. The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries. But when this device, or any device, is too often used, it becomes a mannerism. More commonly, the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject the direction the paragraph is to take. At length I thought I might return toward the stockade. He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore. Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof. In animated narrative, the paragraphs are likely to be short and without any semblance of a topic sentence, the writer rushing headlong, event following event in rapid succession. The break between such paragraphs merely serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action. In general, remember that paragraphing calls for a good eye as well as a logical mind. Enormous blocks of print look formidable to readers, who are often reluctant to tackle them. Therefore, breaking long paragraphs in two, even if it is not necessary to do so for sense, meaning, or logical development, is often a visual help. But remember, too, that firing off many short paragraphs in quick succession can be distracting. Paragraph breaks used only for show read like the writing of commerce or of display advertising. Moderation and a sense of order should be the main considerations in paragraphing. 14. Use the active voice. The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive: I shall always remember my first visit to Boston. This is much better than My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me. The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me," My first visit to Boston will always be remembered, it becomes indefinite: is it the writer or some undisclosed person or the world at large that will always remember this visit? This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary. The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today. Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration. The first would be the preferred form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration, the second in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The need to make a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used. The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative concerned principally with action but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is or could be heard . There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground. Dead leaves covered the ground. At dawn the crowing of a rooster could be heard. The cock's crow came with dawn. The reason he left college was that his health became impaired. Failing health compelled him to leave college. It was not long before she was very sorry that she had said what she had. She soon repented her words. Note, in the examples above, that when a sentence is made stronger, it usually becomes shorter. Thus, brevity is a by-product of vigor. 15. Put statements in positive form. Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, noncommittal language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion. He was not very often on time. He usually came late. She did not think that studying Latin was a sensible way to use one's time. She thought the study of Latin a waste of time. The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant. The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention. All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not . Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; the reader wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express even a negative in positive form. not honest dishonest not important trifling did not remember forgot did not pay any attention to ignored did not have much confidence in distrusted Placing negative and positive in opposition makes for a stronger structure. Not charity, but simple justice. Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country. Negative words other than not are usually strong. Her loveliness I never knew / Until she smiled on me. Statements qualified with unnecessary auxiliaries or conditionals sound irresolute. If you would let us know the time of your arrival, we would be happy to arrange your transportation from the airport. If you will let us know the time of your arrival, we shall be happy to arrange your transportation from the airport. Applicants can make a good impression by being neat and punctual. Applicants will make a good impression if they are neat and punctual. Plath may be ranked among those modem poets who died young. Plath was one of those modern poets who died young. If your every sentence admits a doubt, your writing will lack authority. Save the auxiliaries would, should, could, may, might , and can for situations involving real uncertainty. 16. Use definite, specific, concrete language. Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract. A period of unfavorable weather set in. It rained every day for a week. He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward. He grinned as he pocketed the coin. If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is this: the surest way to arouse and hold the readers attention is by being specific, definite, and concrete. The greatest writers — Homer, Dante, Shakespeare — are effective largely because they deal in particulars and report the details that matter. Their words call up pictures. Jean Stafford, to cite a more modern author, demonstrates in her short story "In the Zoo" how prose is made vivid by the use of words that evoke images and sensations: ... Daisy and I in time found asylum in a small menagerie down by the railroad tracks. It belonged to a gentle alcoholic ne'er-do- well, who did nothing all day long but drink bathtub gin in rickeys and play solitaire and smile to himself and talk to his animals. He had a little, stunted red vixen and a deodorized skunk, a parrot from Tahiti that spoke Parisian French, a woebegone coyote, and two capuchin monkeys, so serious and humanized, so small and sad and sweet, and so religious-looking with their tonsured heads that it was impossible not to think their gibberish was really an ordered language with a grammar that someday some philologist would understand. Gran knew about our visits to Mr. Murphy and she did not object, for it gave her keen pleasure to excoriate him when we came home. His vice was not a matter of guesswork; it was an established fact that he was half-seas over from dawn till midnight. "With the black Irish," said Gran, "the taste for drink is taken in with the mother's milk and is never mastered. Oh, I know all about those promises to join the temperance movement and not to touch another drop. The way to Hell is paved with good intentions."* (* Excerpt from "In the Zoo" from Bad Characters by Jean Stafford. Copyright © 1964 by Jean Stafford. Copyright renewed © 1992 by Nora Cosgrove. Reprinted by permission of Farrar, Straus Giroux, Inc. Also copyright © 1969 by Jean Stafford; reprinted by permission of Curtis Brown, Ltd.) If the experiences of Walter Mitty, of Molly Bloom, of Rabbit Angstrom have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Faulkner we have almost the sense of inhabiting Yoknapatawpha County during the decline of the South, it is because the details used are definite, the terms concrete. It is not that every detail is given — that would be impossible, as well as to no purpose — but that all the significant details are given, and with such accuracy and vigor that readers, in imagination, can project themselves into the scene. In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose hold of the concrete; and even when dealing with general principles, the writer must furnish particular instances of their application. In his Philosophy of Style , Herbert Spencer gives two sentences to illustrate how the vague and general can be turned into the vivid and particular: In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of its penal code will be severe. In proportion as men delight in battles, bullfights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack. To show what happens when strong writing is deprived of its vigor, George Orwell once took a passage from the Bible and drained it of its blood. On the left, below, is Orwell's translation; on the right, the verse from Ecclesiastes (King James Version). Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must inevitably be taken into account. I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favor to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. 17. Omit needless words. Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all sentences short, or avoid all detail and treat subjects only in outline, but that every word tell. Many expressions in common use violate this principle. the question as to whether whether (the question whether) there is no doubt but that no doubt (doubtless) used for fuel purposes used for fuel he is a man who he in a hasty manner hastily this is a subject that this subject Her story is a strange one. Her story is strange. the reason why is that because The fact that is an especially debilitating expression. It should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs. owing to the fact that since (because) in spite of the fact that though (although) call your attention to the fact that remind you (notify you) I was unaware of the fact that I was unaware that (did not know) the fact that he had not succeeded his failure the fact that I had arrived my arrival See also the words case, character, nature in Chapter IV. Who is, which was , and the like are often superfluous. His cousin, who is a member of the same firm His cousin, a member of the same firm Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle As the active voice is more concise than the passive, and a positive statement more concise than a negative one, many of the examples given under Rules 14 and 15 illustrate this rule as well. A common way to fall into wordiness is to present a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences that might to advantage be combined into one. Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. (51 words) Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26 words) 18. Avoid a succession of loose sentences. This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type: those consisting of two clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. A writer may err by making sentences too compact and periodic. An occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences are common in easy, unstudied writing. The danger is that there may be too many of them. An unskilled writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives and, but , and, less frequently, who, which, when, where , and while , these last in nonrestrictive senses. (See Rule 3.) The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive program will be presented. Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is bad because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and singsong. Compare these sentences from the chapter "What I Believe" in E. M. Forster's Two Cheers for Democracy : I believe in aristocracy, though — if that is the right word, and if a democrat may use it. Not an aristocracy of power, based upon rank and influence, but an aristocracy of the sensitive, the considerate and the plucky. Its members are to be found in all nations and classes, and all through the ages, and there is a secret understanding between them when they meet. They represent the true human tradition, the one permanent victory of our queer race over cruelty and chaos. Thousands of them perish in obscurity, a few are great names. They are sensitive for others as well as for themselves, they are considerate without being fussy, their pluck is not swankiness but the power to endure, and they can take a joke.* (* Excerpt from "What I Believe" in Two Cheers for Democracy, copyright 1939 and renewed 1967 by E. M. Forster, reprinted by permission of Harcourt, Inc. Also, by permission of The Provost and Scholars of King's College, Cambridge, and The Society of Authors as the literary representatives of the E. M. Forster Estate.) A writer who has written a series of loose sentences should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them with simple sentences, sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, periodic sentences of two clauses, or sentences (loose or periodic) of three clauses — whichever best represent the real relations of the thought. 19. Express coordinate ideas in similar form. This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions similar in content and function be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. The familiar Beatitudes exemplify the virtue of parallel construction. Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled. The unskilled writer often violates this principle, mistakenly believing in the value of constantly varying the form of expression. When repeating a statement to emphasize it, the writer may need to vary its form. Otherwise, the writer should follow the principle of parallel construction. Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method. The lefthand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid, apparently unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The righthand version shows that the writer has at least made a choice and abided by it. By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term. the French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese the French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese in spring, summer, or in winter in spring, summer, or winter (in spring, in summer, or in winter) Some words require a particular preposition in certain idiomatic uses. When such words are joined in a compound construction, all the appropriate prepositions must be included, unless they are the same. His speech was marked by disagreement and scorn for his opponent's position. His speech was marked by disagreement with and scorn for his opponent's position. Correlative expressions ( both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third ; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence. It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. The ceremony was both long and tedious. A time not for words but action. A time not for words but for action. Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional. My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional. It may be asked, what if you need to express a rather large number of similar ideas — say, twenty? Must you write twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination, you will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary — that these twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that you need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise, it is best to avoid the difficulty by putting statements in the form of a table. 20. Keep related words together. The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. Confusion and ambiguity result when words are badly placed. The writer must, therefore, bring together the words and groups of words that are related in thought and keep apart those that are not so related. He noticed a large stain in the rug that was right in the center. He noticed a large stain right in the center of the rug. You can call your mother in London and tell her all about George's taking you out to dinner for just two dollars. For just two dollars you can call your mother in London and tell her all about George's taking you out to dinner. New York's first commercial human-sperm bank opened Friday with semen samples from eighteen men frozen in a stainless steel tank. New York's first commercial human- sperm bank opened Friday when semen samples were taken from eighteen men. The samples were then frozen and stored in a stainless steel tank. In the lefthand version of the first example, the reader has no way of knowing whether the stain was in the center of the rug or the rug was in the center of the room. In the lefthand version of the second example, the reader may well wonder which cost two dollars — the phone call or the dinner. In the lefthand version of the third example, the reader's heart goes out to those eighteen poor fellows frozen in a steel tank. The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning. Toni Morrison, in Beloved , writes about characters who have escaped from slavery but are haunted by its heritage. In Beloved , Toni Morrison writes about characters who have escaped from slavery but are haunted by its heritage. A dog, if you fail to discipline him, becomes a household pest. Unless disciplined, a dog becomes a household pest. Interposing a phrase or a clause, as in the lefthand examples above, interrupts the flow of the main clause. This interruption, however, is not usually bothersome when the flow is checked only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Sometimes, in periodic sentences, the interruption is a deliberate device for creating suspense. (See examples under Rule 22.) The relative pronoun should come, in most instances, immediately after its antecedent. There was a stir in the audience that suggested disapproval. A stir that suggested disapproval swept the audience. He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine . He published three articles in Harper's Magazine about his adventures in Spain. This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, who became President in 1889. He was the grandson of William Henry Harrison. This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became President in 1889. If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity. The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who No ambiguity results from the above. But A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged leaves the reader wondering whether it is the proposal or the Act that has been variously judged. The relative clause must be moved forward, to read, "A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend the Sherman Act...." Similarly The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who William Henry Harrison's grandson, Benjamin Harrison, who A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise. The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the words they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be arranged so that no wrong relation is suggested. All the members were not present. Not all the members were present. She only found two mistakes. She found only two mistakes. The director said he hoped all members would give generously to the Fund at a meeting of the committee yesterday. At a meeting of the committee yesterday, the director said he hoped all members would give generously to the Fund. Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia" at 8:00 P.M. On Tuesday evening at eight, Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture in Bailey Hall on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia." The public is invited. Note, in the last lefthand example, how swiftly meaning departs when words are wrongly juxtaposed. 21. In summaries, keep to one tense. In summarizing the action of a drama, use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, also use the present, though you may use the past if it seems more natural to do so. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect. Chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the nondelivery of the letter. But whichever tense is used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged. The Friar confesses that it was he who married them. Apart from the exceptions noted, the writer should use the same tense throughout. Shifting from one tense to another gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution. In presenting the statements or the thought of someone else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, do not overwork such expressions as "he said," "she stated," "the speaker added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks." Indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification. In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools retelling a story in their own words is a useful exercise. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature, be careful to avoid dropping into summary. It may be necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work being discussed, or to cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But you should aim at writing an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of the discussion includes a number of works, as a rule it is better not to take them up singly in chronological order but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions. 22. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end. The proper place in the sentence for the word or group of words that the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end. Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. Because of its hardness, this steel is used principally for making razors. The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate — that is, the new element in the sentence, as it is in the second example. The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence it gives to the main statement. Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies to offset the achievement of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America. With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war. The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence other than the subject becomes emphatic when placed first. Deceit or treachery she could never forgive. Vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature. Home is the sailor. A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence Great kings worshiped at his shrine the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate. Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream. The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition. III A Few Matters of Form Colloquialisms. If you use a colloquialism or a slang word or phrase, simply use it; do not draw attention to it by enclosing it in quotation marks. To do so is to put on airs, as though you were inviting the reader to join you in a select society of those who know better. Exclamations. Do not attempt to emphasize simple statements by using a mark of exclamation. It was a wonderful show! It was a wonderful show. The exclamation mark is to be reserved for use after true exclamations or commands. What a wonderful show! Halt! Headings. If a manuscript is to be submitted for publication, leave plenty of space at the top of page 1. The editor will need this space to write directions to the compositor. Place the heading, or title, at least a fourth of the way down the page. Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the heading. On succeeding pages, begin near the top, but not so near as to give a crowded appearance. Omit the period after a title or heading. A question mark or an exclamation point may be used if the heading calls for it. Hyphen. When two or more words are combined to form a compound adjective, a hyphen is usually required. "He belonged to the leisure class and enjoyed leisure-class pursuits." "She entered her boat in the round-the-island race." Do not use a hyphen between words that can better be written as one word: water-fowl, waterfowl . Common sense will aid you in the decision, but a dictionary is more reliable. The steady evolution of the language seems to favor union: two words eventually become one, usually after a period of hyphenation. bed chamber bed-chamber bedchamber wild life wild-life wildlife bell boy bell-boy bellboy The hyphen can play tricks on the unwary, as it did in Chattanooga when two newspapers merged — the News and the Free Press . Someone introduced a hyphen into the merger, and the paper became The Chattanooga News-Free Press , which sounds as though the paper were news-free, or devoid of news. Obviously, we ask too much of a hyphen when we ask it to cast its spell over words it does not adjoin. Margins. Keep righthand and lefthand margins roughly the same width. Exception: If a great deal of annotating or editing is anticipated, the lefthand margin should be roomy enough to accommodate this work. Numerals. Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as appropriate. August 9, 1988 Part XII Rule 3 352d Infantry Exception: When they occur in dialogue, most dates and numbers are best spelled out. "I arrived home on August ninth." "In the year 1990, I turned twenty-one." "Read Chapter Twelve." Parentheses. A sentence containing an expression in parentheses is punctuated outside the last mark of parenthesis exactly as if the parenthetical expression were absent. The expression within the marks is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point. I went to her house yesterday (my third attempt to see her), but she had left town. He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success. (When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.) Quotations. Formal quotations cited as documentary evidence are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks. The United States Coast Pilot has this to say of the place: "Bracy Cove, 0.5 mile eastward of Bear Island, is exposed to southeast winds, has a rocky and uneven bottom, and is unfit for anchorage." A quotation grammatically in apposition or the direct object of a verb is preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks. I am reminded of the advice of my neighbor, "Never worry about your heart till it stops beating." Mark Twain says, "A classic is something that everybody wants to have read and nobody wants to read." When a quotation is followed by an attributive phrase, the comma is enclosed within the quotation marks. "I can't attend," she said. Typographical usage dictates that the comma be inside the marks, though logically it often seems not to belong there. "The Fish," "Poetry," and "The Monkeys" are in Marianne Moore's Selected Poems . When quotations of an entire line, or more, of either verse or prose are to be distinguished typographically from text matter, as are the quotations in this book, begin on a fresh line and indent. Quotation marks should not be used unless they appear in the original, as in dialogue. Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the French Revolution was at first unbounded: Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven! Quotations introduced by that are indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks. Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty. Dickinson states that a coffin is a small domain. Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks. These are the times that try men's souls. He lives far from the madding crowd. References. In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parentheses or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words act, scene, line, book, volume, page , except when referring to only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below. in the second scene of the third act in III.ii (Better still, simply insert m.ii in parentheses at the proper place in the sentence.) After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii.14). 2 Samuel i: 17-27 Othello II.iii. 264-267, III.iii. 155-161 Syllabication. When a word must be divided at the end of a line, consult a dictionary to learn the syllables between which division should be made. The student will do well to examine the syllable division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book. Titles. For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring) except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial A or The from titles when you place the possessive before them. A Tale of Two Cities ; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities. The Age of Innocence ; Wharton's Age of Innocence . IV Words and Expressions Commonly Misused MANY of the words and expressions listed here are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of careless writing. As illustrated under Feature , the proper correction is likely to be not the replacement of one word or set of words by another but the replacement of vague generality by definite statement. The shape of our language is not rigid; in questions of usage we have no lawgiver whose word is final. Students whose curiosity is aroused by the interpretations that follow, or whose doubts are raised, will wish to pursue their investigations further. Books useful in such pursuits are Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary , Tenth Edition; The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language , Third Edition; Webster's Third New International Dictionary; The New Fowler's Modern English Usage , Third Edition, edited by R. W. Burchfield; Modern American Usage: A Guide by Wilson Follett and Erik Wensberg; and The Careful Writer by Theodore M. Bernstein. Aggravate. Irritate. The first means "to add to" an already troublesome or vexing matter or condition. The second means "to vex" or "to annoy" or "to chafe." All right. Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense "Agreed," or "Go ahead," or "O.K." Properly written as two words — all right . Allude. Do not confuse with elude . You allude to a book; you elude a pursuer. Note, too, that allude is not synonymous with refer . An allusion is an indirect mention, a reference is a specific one. Allusion. Easily confused with illusion . The first means "an indirect reference"; the second means "an unreal image" or "a false impression." Alternate. Alternative. The words are not always interchangeable as nouns or adjectives. The first means every other one in a series; the second, one of two possibilities. As the other one of a series of two, an alternate may stand for "a substitute," but an alternative, although used in a similar sense, connotes a matter of choice that is never present with alternate . As the flooded road left them no alternative, they took the alternate route. Among. Between. When more than two things or persons are involved, among is usually called for: "The money was divided among the four players." When, however, more than two are involved but each is considered individually, between is preferred: "an agreement between the six heirs." And / or. A device, or shortcut, that damages a sentence and often leads to confusion or ambiguity. First of all, would an honor system successfully cut down on the amount of stealing and/or cheating? First of all, would an honor system reduce the incidence of stealing or cheating or both? Anticipate. Use expect in the sense of simple expectation. I anticipated that he would look older. I expected that he would look older. My brother anticipated the upturn in the market. My brother expected the upturn in the market. In the second example, the word anticipated is ambiguous. It could mean simply that the brother believed the upturn would occur, or it could mean that he acted in advance of the expected upturn — by buying stock, perhaps. Anybody. In the sense of "any person," not to be written as two words. Any body means "any corpse," or "any human form," or "any group." The rule holds equally for everybody, nobody , and somebody . Anyone. In the sense of "anybody," written as one word. Any one means "any single person" or "any single thing." As good or better than. Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentences. My opinion is as good or better than his. My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better). As to whether. Whether is sufficient. As yet. Yet nearly always is as good, if not better. No agreement has been reached as yet. No agreement has yet been reached. The chief exception is at the beginning of a sentence, where yet means something different. Yet ( or despite everything) he has not succeeded. As yet ( or so far) he has not succeeded. Being. Not appropriate after regard ... as. He is regarded as being the best dancer in the club He is regarded as the best dancer in the club. But. Unnecessary after doubt and help . I have no doubt but that I have no doubt that He could not help but see that He could not help seeing that The too-frequent use of but as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule 18. A loose sentence formed with but can usually be converted into a periodic sentence formed with although . Particularly awkward is one but closely following another, thus making a contrast to a contrast, or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily corrected by rearrangement. Our country had vast resources but seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year it had created an army of four million. Our country seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but it had vast resources. Within a year it had created an army of four million. Can. Means "am (is, are) able." Not to be used as a substitute for may . Care less. The dismissive "I couldn't care less" is often used with the shortened "not" mistakenly (and mysteriously) omitted: "I could care less." The error destroys the meaning of the sentence and is careless indeed. Case. Often unnecessary. In many cases, the rooms lacked air conditioning. Many of the rooms lacked air conditioning. It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made. Few mistakes have been made. Certainly. Used indiscriminately by some speakers, much as others use very , in an attempt to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing. Character. Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness. acts of a hostile character hostile acts Claim. ( verb ). With object-noun, means "lay claim to." May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly intended: "She claimed that she was the sole heir." (But even here claimed to be would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for declare, maintain , or charge . He claimed he knew how. He declared he knew how. Clever. Note that the word means one thing when applied to people, another when applied to horses. A clever horse is a good-natured one, not an ingenious one. Compare. To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances between objects regarded as essentially of a different order; to compare with is mainly to point out differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus, life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London. Comprise. Literally, "embrace": A zoo comprises mammals, reptiles, and birds (because it "embraces," or "includes," them). But animals do not comprise ("embrace") a zoo — they constitute a zoo. Consider. Not followed by as when it means "believe to be." I consider him as competent. I consider him competent. When considered means "examined" or "discussed," it is followed by as : The lecturer considered Eisenhower first as soldier and second as administrator. Contact. As a transitive verb, the word is vague and self-important. Do not contact people; get in touch with them, look them up, phone them, find them, or meet them. Cope. An intransitive verb used with with . In formal writing, one doesn't "cope," one "copes with" something or somebody. I knew they'd cope. (jocular) I knew they would cope with the situation. Currently. In the sense of now with a verb in the present tense, currently is usually redundant; emphasis is better achieved through a more precise reference to time. We are currently reviewing your application. We are at this moment reviewing your application. Data. Like strata, phenomena , and media, data is a plural and is best used with a plural verb. The word, however, is slowly gaining acceptance as a singular. The data is misleading. These data are misleading. Different than. Here logic supports established usage: one thing differs from another, hence, different from . Or, other than, unlike . Disinterested. Means "impartial." Do not confuse it with uninterested , which means "not interested in." Let a disinterested person judge our dispute, (an impartial person) This man is obviously uninterested in our dispute, (couldn't care less) Divided into. Not to be misused for composed of . The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas. An apple, halved, is divided into sections, but an apple is composed of seeds, flesh, and skin. Due to. Loosely used for through, because of , or owing to , in adverbial phrases. He lost the first game due to carelessness. He lost the first game because of carelessness. In correct use, synonymous with attributable to : "The accident was due to bad weather"; "losses due to preventable fires." Each and every one. Pitchman's jargon. Avoid, except in dialogue. It should be a lesson to each and every one of us. It should be a lesson to every one of us (to us all). Effect. As a noun, means "result"; as a verb, means "to bring about," "to accomplish" (not to be confused with affect , which means "to influence"). As a noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: "a Southwestern effect"; "effects in pale green"; "very delicate effects"; "subtle effects"; "a charming effect was produced." The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness. Enormity. Use only in the sense of "monstrous wickedness." Misleading, if not wrong, when used to express bigness. Enthuse. An annoying verb growing out of the noun enthusiasm . Not recommended. She was enthused about her new car. She was enthusiastic about her new car. She enthused about her new car. She talked enthusiastically (expressed enthusiasm) about her new car. Etc. Literally, "and other things"; sometimes loosely used to mean "and other persons." The phrase is equivalent to and the rest, and so forth , and hence is not to be used if one of these would be insufficient — that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given almost in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation. At the end of a list introduced by such as, for example , or any similar expression, etc . is incorrect. In formal writing, etc . is a misfit. An item important enough to call for etc . is probably important enough to be named. Fact. Use this word only of matters capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date and that lead melts at a certain temperature are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals or that the climate of California is delightful, however defensible they may be, are not properly called facts. Facility. Why must jails, hospitals, and schools suddenly become "facilities"? Parents complained bitterly about the fire hazard in the wooden facility. Parents complained bitterly about the fire hazard in the wooden schoolhouse. He has been appointed warden of the new facility. He has been appointed warden of the new prison. Factor. A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it is a part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic. Her superior training was the great factor in her winning the match. She won the match by being better trained. Air power is becoming an increasingly important factor in deciding battles. Air power is playing a larger and larger part in deciding battles. Farther. Further. The two words are commonly interchanged, but there is a distinction worth observing: farther serves best as a distance word, further as a time or quantity word. You chase a ball farther than the other fellow; you pursue a subject further . Feature. Another hackneyed word; like factor , it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs. A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Allison Jones. (Better use the same number of words to tell what Allison Jones sang and how she sang it.) As a verb, in the sense of "offer as a special attraction," it is to be avoided. Finalize. A pompous, ambiguous verb. (See Chapter V, Reminder 21.) Fix. Colloquial in America for arrange, prepare, mend . The usage is well established. But bear in mind that this verb is from figere: "to make firm," "to place definitely." These are the preferred meanings of the word. Flammable. An oddity, chiefly useful in saving lives. The common word meaning "combustible" is inflammable . But some people are thrown off by the in- and think inflammable means "not combustible." For this reason, trucks carrying gasoline or explosives are now markedFLAMMABLE. Unless you are operating such a truck and hence are concerned with the safety of children and illiterates, use inflammable . Folk. A collective noun, equivalent to people . Use the singular form only. Folks , in the sense of "parents," "family," "those present," is colloquial and too folksy for formal writing. Her folks arrived by the afternoon train. Her father and mother arrived by the afternoon train. Fortuitous. Limited to what happens by chance. Not to be used for fortunate or lucky . Get. The colloquial have got for have should not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle is got , not gotten . He has not got any sense. He has no sense. They returned without having gotten any. They returned without having got any. Gratuitous. Means "unearned," or "unwarranted." The insult seemed gratuitous, (undeserved) He is a man who. A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 17. He is a man who is very ambitious. He is very ambitious. Vermont is a state that attracts visitors because of its winter sports. Vermont attracts visitors because of its winter sports. Hopefully. This once-useful adverb meaning "with hope" has been distorted and is now widely used to mean "I hope" or "it is to be hoped." Such use is not merely wrong, it is silly. To say, "Hopefully I'll leave on the noon plane" is to talk nonsense. Do you mean you'll leave on the noon plane in a hopeful frame of mind? Or do you mean you hope you'll leave on the noon plane? Whichever you mean, you haven't said it clearly. Although the word in its new, free-floating capacity may be pleasurable and even useful to many, it offends the ear of many others, who do not like to see words dulled or eroded, particularly when the erosion leads to ambiguity, softness, or nonsense. However. Avoid starting a sentence with however when the meaning is "nevertheless." The word usually serves better when not in first position. The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp. The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp. When however comes first, it means "in whatever way" or "to whatever extent." However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best. However discouraging the prospect, they never lost heart. Illusion. See allusion . Imply. Infer. Not interchangeable. Something implied is something suggested or indicated, though not expressed. Something inferred is something deduced from evidence at hand. Farming implies early rising. Since she was a farmer, we inferred that she got up early. Importantly. Avoid by rephrasing. More importantly, he paid for the damages. What's more, he paid for the damages. With the breeze freshening, he altered course to pass inside the island. More importantly, as things turned out, he tucked in a reef. With the breeze freshening, he altered course to pass inside the island. More important, as things turned out, he tucked in a reef. In regard to. Often wrongly written in regards to . But as regards is correct, and means the same thing. In the last analysis. A bankrupt expression. Inside of. Inside. The of following inside is correct in the adverbial meaning "in less than." In other meanings, of is unnecessary. Inside of five minutes I'll be inside the bank. Insightful. The word is a suspicious overstatement for "perceptive." If it is to be used at all, it should be used for instances of remarkably penetrating vision. Usually, it crops up merely to inflate the commonplace. That was an insightful remark you made. That was a perceptive remark you made. In terms of. A piece of padding usually best omitted. The job was unattractive in terms of salary. The salary made the job unattractive. Interesting. An unconvincing word; avoid it as a means of introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so. An interesting story is told of (Tell the story without preamble.) In connection with the forthcoming visit of Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall that he Mr. B., who will soon visit America Also to be avoided in introduction is the word funny . Nothing becomes funny by being labeled so. Irregardless. Should be regardless . The error results from failure to see the negative in -less and from a desire to get it in as a prefix, suggested by such words as irregular, irresponsible , and, perhaps especially, irrespective . -ize. Do not coin verbs by adding this tempting suffix. Many good and useful verbs do end in -ize : summarize, fraternize, harmonize, fertilize . But there is a growing list of abominations: containerize, prioritize, finalize , to name three. Be suspicious of -ize ; let your ear and your eye guide you. Never tack -ize onto a noun to create a verb. Usually you will discover that a useful verb already exists. Why say "utilize" when there is the simple, unpretentious word use ? Kind of. Except in familiar style, not to be used as a substitute for rather or something like . Restrict it to its literal sense: "Amber is a kind of fossil resin"; "I dislike that kind of publicity." The same holds true for sort of . Lay. A transitive verb. Except in slang ("Let it lay"), do not misuse it for the intransitive verb lie . The hen, or the play, lays an egg; the llama lies down. The playwright went home and lay down. lie, lay, lain, lying lay, laid, laid, laying Leave. Not to be misused for let . Leave it stand the way it is. Let it stand the way it is. Leave go of that rope! Let go of that rope! Less. Should not be misused for fewer . They had less workers than in the previous campaign. They had fewer workers than in the previous campaign. Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. "His troubles are less than mine" means "His troubles are not so great as mine." "His troubles are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous as mine." Like. Not to be used for the conjunction as. Like governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is as. We spent the evening like in the old days. We spent the evening as in the old days. Chloë smells good, like a baby should. Chloë smells good, as a baby should. The use of like for as has its defenders; they argue that any usage that achieves currency becomes valid automatically. This, they say, is the way the language is formed. It is and it isn't. An expression sometimes merely enjoys a vogue, much as an article of apparel does. Like has long been widely misused by the illiterate; lately it has been taken up by the knowing and the well- informed, who find it catchy, or liberating, and who use it as though they were slumming. If every word or device that achieved currency were immediately authenticated, simply on the ground of popularity, the language would be as chaotic as a ball game with no foul lines. For the student, perhaps the most useful thing to know about like is that most carefully edited publications regard its use before phrases and clauses as simple error. Line. Along these lines. Line in the sense of "course of procedure, conduct, thought" is allowable but has been so overworked, particularly in the phrase along these lines , that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely. Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. Mr. B. also spoke to the same effect. She is studying along the line of French literature. She is studying French literature. Literal. Literally. Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor. a literal flood of abuse a flood of abuse literally dead with fatigue almost dead with fatigue Loan. A noun. As a verb, prefer lend . Lend me your ears. the loan of your ears Meaningful. A bankrupt adjective. Choose another, or rephrase. His was a meaningful contribution. His contribution counted heavily. We are instituting many meaningful changes in the curriculum. We are improving the curriculum in many ways. Memento. Often incorrectly written momento . Most. Not to be used for almost in formal composition. most everybody almost everybody most all the time almost all the time Nature. Often simply redundant, used like character . acts of a hostile nature hostile acts Nature should be avoided in such vague expressions as "a lover of nature," "poems about nature." Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels. Nauseous. Nauseated. The first means "sickening to contemplate"; the second means "sick at the stomach." Do not, therefore, say, "I feel nauseous," unless you are sure you have that effect on others. Nice. A shaggy, all-purpose word, to be used sparingly in formal composition. "I had a nice time." "It was nice weather." "She was so nice to her mother." The meanings are indistinct. Nice is most useful in the sense of "precise" or "delicate": "a nice distinction." Nor. Often used wrongly for or after negative expressions. He cannot eat nor sleep. He cannot eat or sleep. He can neither eat nor sleep. He cannot eat nor can he sleep. Noun used as verb. Many nouns have lately been pressed into service as verbs. Not all are bad, but all are suspect. Be prepared for kisses when you gift your girlfriend with this merry scent. Be prepared for kisses when you give your girlfriend this merry scent. The candidate hosted a dinner for fifty of her workers. The candidate gave a dinner for fifty of her workers. The meeting was chaired by Mr. Oglethorp. Mr. Oglethorp was chair of the meeting. She headquarters in Newark. She has headquarters in Newark. The theater troupe debuted last fall. The theatre troupe made its debut last fall. Offputting. Ongoing. Newfound adjectives, to be avoided because they are inexact and clumsy. Ongoing is a mix of "continuing" and "active" and is usually superfluous. He devoted all his spare time to the ongoing program for aid to the elderly. He devoted all his spare time to the program for aid to the elderly. Offputting might mean "objectionable," "disconcerting," "distasteful." Select instead a word whose meaning is clear. As a simple test, transform the participles to verbs. It is possible to upset something. But to offput ? To ongo ? One. In the sense of "a person," not to be followed by his or her . One must watch his step. One must watch one's step. (You must watch your step.) One of the most. Avoid this feeble formula. "One of the most exciting developments of modern science is ..."; "Switzerland is one of the most beautiful countries of Europe." There is nothing wrong with the grammar; the formula is simply threadbare. -oriented. A clumsy, pretentious device, much in vogue. Find a better way of indicating orientation or alignment or direction. It was a manufacturing-oriented company. It was a company chiefly concerned with manufacturing. Many of the skits are situation-oriented. Many of the skits rely on situation. Partially. Not always interchangeable with partly . Best used in the sense of "to a certain degree," when speaking of a condition or state: "I'm partially resigned to it." Partly carries the idea of a part as distinct from the whole — usually a physical object. The log was partially submerged. The log was partly submerged. She was partially in and partially out. She was partly in and partly out. She was part in, part out. Participle for verbal noun. There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this compromise. There was little prospect of the Senate's accepting even this compromise. In the lefthand column, accepting is a present participle; in the righthand column, it is a verbal noun (gerund). The construction shown in the lefthand column is occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet it is easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the Senate but with a prospect of accepting. Any sentence in which the use of the possessive is awkward or impossible should of course be recast. In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matters becoming necessary If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company. There was great dissatisfaction with the arbitrators' decision in favor of the company. People. A word with many meanings. ( The American Heritage Dictionary , Third Edition, gives nine.) The people is a political term, not to be confused with the public . From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage. The word people is best not used with words of number, in place of persons . If of "six people" five went away, how many people would be left? Answer: one people. Personalize. A pretentious word, often carrying bad advice. Do not personalize your prose; simply make it good and keep it clean. See Chapter V, Reminder 1. a highly personalized affair a highly personal affair Personalize your stationery. Design a letterhead. Personally. Often unnecessary. Personally, I thought it was a good book. I thought it a good book. Possess. Often used because to the writer it sounds more impressive than have or own . Such usage is not incorrect but is to be guarded against. She possessed great courage. She had great courage (was very brave). He was the fortunate possessor of He was lucky enough to own Presently. Has two meanings: "in a short while" and "currently." Because of this ambiguity it is best restricted to the first meaning: "She'll be here presently" ("soon," or "in a short time"). Prestigious. Often an adjective of last resort. It's in the dictionary, but that doesn't mean you have to use it. Refer. See allude . Regretful. Sometimes carelessly used for regrettable : "The mixup was due to a regretful breakdown in communications." Relate. Not to be used intransitively to suggest rapport. I relate well to Janet. Janet and I see things the same way. Janet and I have a lot in common. Respective. Respectively. These words may usually be omitted with advantage. Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors. Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors. The mile run and the two-mile run were won by Jones and Cummings respectively. The mile run was won by Jones, the two-mile run by Cummings. Secondly, thirdly, etc. Unless you are prepared to begin with firstly and defend it (which will be difficult), do not prettify numbers with -ly . Modern usage prefers second, third , and so on. Shall. Will. In formal writing, the future tense requires shall for the first person, will for the second and third. The formula to express the speaker's belief regarding a future action or state is I shall ; I will expresses determination or consent. A swimmer in distress cries, "I shall drown; no one will save me!" A suicide puts it the other way: "I will drown; no one shall save me!" In relaxed speech, however, the words shall and will are seldom used precisely; our ear guides us or fails to guide us, as the case may be, and we are quite likely to drown when we want to survive and survive when we want to drown. So. Avoid, in writing, the use of so as an intensifier: "so good"; "so warm"; "so delightful." Sort of. See kind of . Split infinitive. There is precedent from the fourteenth century down for interposing an adverb between to and the infinitive it governs, but the construction should be avoided unless the writer wishes to place unusual stress on the adverb. to diligently inquire to inquire diligently For another side to the split infinitive, see Chapter V, Reminder 14. State. Not to be used as a mere substitute for say, remark . Restrict it to the sense of "express fully or clearly": "He refused to state his objections." Student body. Nine times out of ten a needless and awkward expression, meaning no more than the simple word students . a member of the student body a student popular with the student body liked by the students Than. Any sentence with than (to express comparison) should be examined to make sure no essential words are missing. I'm probably closer to my mother than my father. (Ambiguous.) I'm probably closer to my mother than to my father. I'm probably closer to my mother than my father is. It looked more like a cormorant than a heron. It looked more like a cormorant than like a heron. Thanking you in advance. This sounds as if the writer meant, "It will not be worth my while to write to you again." In making your request, write "Will you please," or "I shall be obliged." Then, later, if you feel moved to do so, or if the circumstances call for it, write a letter of acknowledgment. That. Which. That is the defining, or restrictive, pronoun, which the nondefining, or nonrestrictive. (See Rule 3.) The lawn mower that is broken is in the garage. (Tells which one.) The lawn mower, which is broken, is in the garage. (Adds a fact about the only mower in question.) The use of which for that is common in written and spoken language ("Let us now go even unto Bethlehem, and see this thing which is come to pass."). Occasionally which seems preferable to that , as in the sentence from the Bible. But it would be a convenience to all if these two pronouns were used with precision. Careful writers, watchful for small conveniences, go which- hunting, remove the defining whiches , and by so doing improve their work. The foreseeable future. A cliche, and a fuzzy one. How much of the future is foreseeable? Ten minutes? Ten years? Any of it? By whom is it foreseeable? Seers? Experts? Everybody? The truth. is.... The fact is .... A bad beginning for a sentence. If you feel you are possessed of the truth, or of the fact, simply state it. Do not give it advance billing. They. He or She. Do not use they when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as each, each one, everybody, every one, many a man . Use the singular pronoun. Every one of us knows they are fallible. Every one of us knows he is fallible. Everyone in the community, whether they are a member of the Association or not, is invited to attend. Everyone in the community, whether he is a member of the Association or not, is invited to attend. A similar fault is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent anybody, somebody, someone , the intention being either to avoid the awkward he or she or to avoid committing oneself to one or the other. Some bashful speakers even say, "A friend of mine told me that they...." The use of he as a pronoun for nouns embracing both genders is a simple, practical convention rooted in the beginnings of the English language. Currently, however, many writers find the use of the generic he or his to rename indefinite antecedents limiting or offensive. Substituting he or she in its place is the logical thing to do if it works. But it often doesn't work, if only because repetition makes it sound boring or silly. Consider these strategies to avoid an awkward overuse of he or she or an unintentional emphasis on the masculine: Use the plural rather than the singular. The writer must address his readers' concerns. Writers must address their readers' concerns. Eliminate the pronoun altogether. The writer must address his readers' concerns. The writer must address readers' concerns. Substitute the second person for the third person. The writer must address his readers' concerns. As a writer, you must address your readers' concerns. No one need fear to use he if common sense supports it. If you think she is a handy substitute for he , try it and see what happens. Alternatively, put all controversial nouns in the plural and avoid the choice of sex altogether, although you may find your prose sounding general and diffuse as a result. This. The pronoun this , referring to the complete sense of a preceding sentence or clause, can't always carry the load and so may produce an imprecise statement. Visiting dignitaries watched yesterday as ground was broken for the new high-energy physics laboratory with a blowout safety wall. This is the first visible evidence of the university's plans for modernization and expansion. Visiting dignitaries watched yesterday as ground was broken for the new high-energy physics laboratory with a blowout safety wall. The ceremony afforded the first visible evidence of the university's plans for modernization and expansion. In the lefthand example above, this does not immediately make clear what the first visible evidence is. Thrust. This showy noun, suggestive of power, hinting of sex, is the darling of executives, politicos, and speech-writers. Use it sparingly. Save it for specific application. Our reorganization plan has a tremendous thrust. The piston has a five-inch thrust. The thrust of his letter was that he was working more hours than he'd bargained for. The point he made in his letter was that he was working more hours than he'd bargained for. Tortuous. Torturous. A winding road is tortuous , a painful ordeal is torturous . Both words carry the idea of "twist," the twist having been a form of torture. Transpire. Not to be used in the sense of "happen," "come to pass." Many writers so use it (usually when groping toward imagined elegance), but their usage finds little support in the Latin "breathe across or through." It is correct, however, in the sense of "become known." "Eventually, the grim account of his villainy transpired" (literally, "leaked through or out"). Try. Takes the infinitive: "try to mend it," not "try and mend it." Students of the language will argue that try and has won through and become idiom. Indeed it has, and it is relaxed and acceptable. But try to is precise, and when you are writing formal prose, try and write try to . Type. Not a synonym for kind of . The examples below are common vulgarisms. that type employee that kind of employee I dislike that type publicity. I dislike that kind of publicity. small, homelike hotels a new type plane a new type plane a plane of a new design (new kind) Unique. Means "without like or equal." Hence, there can be no degrees of uniqueness. It was the most unique coffee maker on the market. It was a unique coffee maker. The balancing act was very unique. The balancing act was unique. Of all the spiders, the one that lives in a bubble under water is the most unique. Among spiders, the one that lives in a bubble under water is unique. Utilize. Prefer use . I utilized the facilities. I used the toilet. He utilized the dishwasher. He used the dishwasher. Verbal. Sometimes means "word for word" and in this sense may refer to something expressed in writing. Oral (from Latin os , "mouth") limits the meaning to what is transmitted by speech. Oral agreement is more precise than verbal agreement . Very. Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves. While. Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and , but , and although . Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for and or but , either from a mere desire to vary the connective or from doubt about which of the two connectives is more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon. The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is used for manufacturing. The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is used for manufacturing. Its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity. While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause. This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase I admire his energy; at the same time, I wish it were employed in a better cause. Compare: While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. The paraphrase shows why the use of while is incorrect: The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same time the nights are often chilly. In general, the writer will do well to use while only with strict literalness, in the sense of "during the time that." -wise. Not to be used indiscriminately as a pseudosuffix: taxwise, pricewise, marriagewise, prosewise, saltwater taffy-wise . Chiefly useful when it means "in the manner of: clockwise . There is not a noun in the language to which -wise cannot be added if the spirit moves one to add it. The sober writer will abstain from the use of this wild additive. Worth while. Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with not ) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: "Is it worth while to telegraph?" His books are not worth while. His books are not worth reading (are not worth one's while to read; do not repay reading). The adjective worthwhile (one word) is acceptable but emaciated. Use a stronger word. a worthwhile project a promising (useful, valuable, exciting) project Would. Commonly used to express habitual or repeated action. ("He would get up early and prepare his own breakfast before he went to work.") But when the idea of habit or repetition is expressed, in such phrases as once a year, every day, each Sunday , the past tense, without would , is usually sufficient, and, from its brevity, more emphatic. Once a year he would visit the old mansion. Once a year he visited the old mansion. In narrative writing, always indicate the transition from the general to the particular — that is, from sentences that merely state a general habit to those that express the action of a specific day or period. Failure to indicate the change will cause confusion. Townsend would get up early and prepare his own breakfast. If the day was cold, he filled the stove and had a warm fire burning before he left the house. On his way out to the garage, he noticed that there were footprints in the new-fallen snow on the porch. The reader is lost, having received no signal that Townsend has changed from a mere man of habit to a man who has seen a particular thing on a particular day. Townsend would get up early and prepare his own breakfast. If the day was cold, he filled the stove and had a warm fire burning before he left the house. One morning in January, on his way out to the garage, he noticed footprints in the new-fallen snow on the porch. V An Approach to Style (With a List of Reminders) UP TO this point, the book has been concerned with what is correct, or acceptable, in the use of English. In this final chapter, we approach style in its broader meaning: style in the sense of what is distinguished and distinguishing. Here we leave solid ground. Who can confidently say what ignites a certain combination of words, causing them to explode in the mind? Who knows why certain notes in music are capable of stirring the listener deeply, though the same notes slightly rearranged are impotent? These are high mysteries, and this chapter is a mystery story, thinly disguised. There is no satisfactory explanation of style, no infallible guide to good writing, no assurance that a person who thinks clearly will be able to write clearly, no key that unlocks the door, no inflexible rule by which writers may shape their course. Writers will often find themselves steering by stars that are disturbingly in motion. The preceding chapters contain instructions drawn from established English usage; this one contains advice drawn from a writer's experience of writing. Since the book is a rule book, these cautionary remarks, these subtly dangerous hints, are presented in the form of rules, but they are, in essence, mere gentle reminders: they state what most of us know and at times forget. Style is an increment in writing. When we speak of Fitzgerald's style, we don't mean his command of the relative pronoun, we mean the sound his words make on paper. All writers, by the way they use the language, reveal something of their spirits, their habits, their capacities, and their biases. This is inevitable as well as enjoyable. All writing is communication; creative writing is communication through revelation — it is the Self escaping into the open. No writer long remains incognito. If you doubt that style is something of a mystery, try rewriting a familiar sentence and see what happens. Any much-quoted sentence will do. Suppose we take "These are the times that try men's souls." Here we have eight short, easy words, forming a simple declarative sentence. The sentence contains no flashy ingredient such as "Damn the torpedoes!" and the words, as you see, are ordinary. Yet in that arrangement, they have shown great durability; the sentence is into its third century. Now compare a few variations: Times like these try men's souls. How trying it is to live in these times! These are trying times for men's souls. Soulwise, these are trying times. It seems unlikely that Thomas Paine could have made his sentiment stick if he had couched it in any of these forms. But why not? No fault of grammar can be detected in them, and in every case the meaning is clear. Each version is correct, and each, for some reason that we can't readily put our finger on, is marked for oblivion. We could, of course, talk about "rhythm" and "cadence," but the talk would be vague and unconvincing. We could declare soulwise to be a silly word, inappropriate to the occasion; but even that won't do — it does not answer the main question. Are we even sure soulwise is silly? If otherwise is a serviceable word, what's the matter with soulwise ? Here is another sentence, this one by a later Tom. It is not a famous sentence, although its author (Thomas Wolfe) is well known. "Quick are the mouths of earth, and quick the teeth that fed upon this loveliness." The sentence would not take a prize for clarity, and rhetorically it is at the opposite pole from "These are the times." Try it in a different form, without the inversions: The mouths of earth are quick, and the teeth that fed upon this loveliness are quick, too. The author's meaning is still intact, but not his overpowering emotion. What was poetical and sensuous has become prosy and wooden; instead of the secret sounds of beauty, we are left with the simple crunch of mastication. (Whether Mr. Wolfe was guilty of overwriting is, of course, another question — one that is not pertinent here.) With some writers, style not only reveals the spirit of the man but reveals his identity, as surely as would his fingerprints. Here, following, are two brief passages from the works of two American novelists. The subject in each case is languor. In both, the words used are ordinary, and there is nothing eccentric about the construction. He did not still feel weak, he was merely luxuriating in that supremely gutful lassitude of convalescence in which time, hurry, doing, did not exist, the accumulating seconds and minutes and hours to which in its well state the body is slave both waking and sleeping, now reversed and time now the lip-server and mendicant to the body's pleasure instead of the body thrall to time's headlong course. Manuel drank his brandy. He felt sleepy himself. It was too hot to go out into the town. Besides there was nothing to do. He wanted to see Zurito. He would go to sleep while he waited. Anyone acquainted with Faulkner and Hemingway will have recognized them in these passages and perceived which was which. How different are their languors! Or take two American poets, stopping at evening. One stops by woods, the other by laughing flesh. My little horse must think it queer To stop without a farmhouse near Between the woods and frozen lake The darkest evening of the year.* (* From "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" from The Poetry of Robert Frost , edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright 1923, © 1969 by Henry Holt and Company, LLC. Reprinted by permission of Henry Holt and Company, LLC.) I have perceived that to be with those I like is enough, To stop in company with the rest at evening is enough, To be surrounded by beautiful, curious, breathing, laughing flesh is enough ... Because of the characteristic styles, there is little question about identity here, and if the situations were reversed, with Whitman stopping by woods and Frost by laughing flesh (not one of his regularly scheduled stops), the reader would know who was who. Young writers often suppose that style is a garnish for the meat of prose, a sauce by which a dull dish is made palatable. Style has no such separate entity; it is nondetachable, unfilterable. The beginner should approach style warily, realizing that it is an expression of self, and should turn resolutely away from all devices that are popularly believed to indicate style — all mannerisms, tricks, adornments. The approach to style is by way of plainness, simplicity, orderliness, sincerity. Writing is, for most, laborious and slow. The mind travels faster than the pen; consequently, writing becomes a question of learning to make occasional wing shots, bringing down the bird of thought as it flashes by. A writer is a gunner, sometimes waiting in the blind for something to come in, sometimes roaming the countryside hoping to scare something up. Like other gunners, the writer must cultivate patience, working many covers to bring down one partridge. Here, following, are some suggestions and cautionary hints that may help the beginner find the way to a satisfactory style. 1. Place yourself in the background. Write in a way that draws the reader's attention to the sense and substance of the writing, rather than to the mood and temper of the author. If the writing is solid and good, the mood and temper of the writer will eventually be revealed and not at the expense of the work. Therefore, the first piece of advice is this: to achieve style, begin by affecting none — that is, place yourself in the background. A careful and honest writer does not need to worry about style. As you become proficient in the use of language, your style will emerge, because you yourself will emerge, and when this happens you will find it increasingly easy to break through the barriers that separate you from other minds, other hearts — which is, of course, the purpose of writing, as well as its principal reward. Fortunately, the act of composition, or creation, disciplines the mind; writing is one way to go about thinking, and the practice and habit of writing not only drain the mind but supply it, too. 2. Write in a way that comes naturally. Write in a way that comes easily and naturally to you, using words and phrases that come readily to hand. But do not assume that because you have acted naturally your product is without flaw. The use of language begins with imitation. The infant imitates the sounds made by its parents; the child imitates first the spoken language, then the stuff of books. The imitative life continues long after the writer is secure in the language, for it is almost impossible to avoid imitating what one admires. Never imitate consciously, but do not worry about being an imitator; take pains instead to admire what is good. Then when you write in a way that comes naturally, you will echo the halloos that bear repeating. 3. Work from a suitable design. Before beginning to compose something, gauge the nature and extent of the enterprise and work from a suitable design. (See Chapter II, Rule 12.) Design informs even the simplest structure, whether of brick and steel or of prose. You raise a pup tent from one sort of vision, a cathedral from another. This does not mean that you must sit with a blueprint always in front of you, merely that you had best anticipate what you are getting into. To compose a laundry list, you can work directly from the pile of soiled garments, ticking them off one by one. But to write a biography, you will need at least a rough scheme; you cannot plunge in blindly and start ticking off fact after fact about your subject, lest you miss the forest for the trees and there be no end to your labors. Sometimes, of course, impulse and emotion are more compelling than design. If you are deeply troubled and are composing a letter appealing for mercy or for love, you had best not attempt to organize your emotions; the prose will have a better chance if the emotions are left in disarray — which you'll probably have to do anyway, since feelings do not usually lend themselves to rearrangement. But even the kind of writing that is essentially adventurous and impetuous will on examination be found to have a secret plan: Columbus didn't just sail, he sailed west, and the New World took shape from this simple and, we now think, sensible design. 4. Write with nouns and verbs. Write with nouns and verbs, not with adjectives and adverbs. The adjective hasn't been built that can pull a weak or inaccurate noun out of a tight place. This is not to disparage adjectives and adverbs; they are indispensable parts of speech. Occasionally they surprise us with their power, as in Up the airy mountain, Down the rushy glen, We daren't go a-hunting For fear of little men ... The nouns mountain and glen are accurate enough, but had the mountain not become airy, the glen rushy, William Ailing-ham might never have got off the ground with his poem. In general, however, it is nouns and verbs, not their assistants, that give good writing its toughness and color. 5. Revise and rewrite. Revising is part of writing. Few writers are so expert that they can produce what they are after on the first try. Quite often you will discover, on examining the completed work, that there are serious flaws in the arrangement of the material, calling for transpositions. When this is the case, a word processor can save you time and labor as you rearrange the manuscript. You can select material on your screen and move it to a more appropriate spot, or, if you cannot find the right spot, you can move the material to the end of the manuscript until you decide whether to delete it. Some writers find that working with a printed copy of the manuscript helps them to visualize the process of change; others prefer to revise entirely on screen. Above all, do not be afraid to experiment with what you have written. Save both the original and the revised versions; you can always use the computer to restore the manuscript to its original condition, should that course seem best. Remember, it is no sign of weakness or defeat that your manuscript ends up in need of major surgery. This is a common occurrence in all writing, and among the best writers. 6. Do not overwrite. Rich, ornate prose is hard to digest, generally unwholesome, and sometimes nauseating. If the sickly-sweet word, the overblown phrase are your natural form of expression, as is sometimes the case, you will have to compensate for it by a show of vigor, and by writing something as meritorious as the Song of Songs, which is Solomon's. When writing with a computer, you must guard against wordiness. The click and flow of a word processor can be seductive, and you may find yourself adding a few unnecessary words or even a whole passage just to experience the pleasure of running your fingers over the keyboard and watching your words appear on the screen. It is always a good idea to reread your writing later and ruthlessly delete the excess. 7. Do not overstate. When you overstate, readers will be instantly on guard, and everything that has preceded your overstatement as well as everything that follows it will be suspect in their minds because they have lost confidence in your judgment or your poise. Overstatement is one of the common faults. A single overstatement, wherever or however it occurs, diminishes the whole, and a single carefree superlative has the power to destroy, for readers, the object of your enthusiasm. 8. Avoid the use of qualifiers. Rather, very, little, pretty — these are the leeches that infest the pond of prose, sucking the blood of words. The constant use of the adjective little (except to indicate size) is particularly debilitating; we should all try to do a little better, we should all be very watchful of this rule, for it is a rather important one, and we are pretty sure to violate it now and then. 9. Do not affect a breezy manner. The volume of writing is enormous, these days, and much of it has a sort of windiness about it, almost as though the author were in a state of euphoria. "Spontaneous me," sang Whitman, and, in his innocence, let loose the hordes of uninspired scribblers who would one day confuse spontaneity with genius. The breezy style is often the work of an egocentric, the person who imagines that everything that comes to mind is of general interest and that uninhibited prose creates high spirits and carries the day. Open any alumni magazine, turn to the class notes, and you are quite likely to encounter old Spontaneous Me at work — an aging collegian who writes something like this: Well, guys, here I am again dishing the dirt about your disorderly classmates, after pa$$ing a weekend in the Big Apple trying to catch the Columbia hoops tilt and then a cab-ride from hell through the West Side casbah. And speaking of news, howzabout tossing a few primo items this way? This is an extreme example, but the same wind blows, at lesser velocities, across vast expanses of journalistic prose. The author in this case has managed in two sentences to commit most of the unpardonable sins: he obviously has nothing to say, he is showing off and directing the attention of the reader to himself, he is using slang with neither provocation nor ingenuity, he adopts a patronizing air by throwing in the word primo , he is humorless (though full of fun), dull, and empty. He has not done his work. Compare his opening remarks with the following — a plunge directly into the news: Clyde Crawford, who stroked the varsity shell in 1958, is swinging an oar again after a lapse of forty years. Clyde resigned last spring as executive sales manager of the Indiana Flotex Company and is now a gondolier in Venice. This, although conventional, is compact, informative, unpretentious. The writer has dug up an item of news and presented it in a straightforward manner. What the first writer tried to accomplish by cutting rhetorical capers and by breeziness, the second writer managed to achieve by good reporting, by keeping a tight rein on his material, and by staying out of the act. 10. Use orthodox spelling. In ordinary composition, use orthodox spelling. Do not write nite for night , thru for through , pleez for please , unless you plan to introduce a complete system of simplified spelling and are prepared to take the consequences. In the original edition of The Elements of Style , there was a chapter on spelling. In it, the author had this to say: The spelling of English words is not fixed and invariable, nor does it depend on any other authority than general agreement. At the present day there is practically unanimous agreement as to the spelling of most words.... At any given moment, however, a relatively small number of words may be spelled in more than one way. Gradually, as a rule, one of these forms comes to be generally preferred, and the less customary form comes to look obsolete and is discarded. From time to time new forms, mostly simplifications, are introduced by innovators, and either win their place or die of neglect. The practical objection to unaccepted and oversimplified spellings is the disfavor with which they are received by the reader. They distract his attention and exhaust his patience. He reads the form though automatically, without thought of its needless complexity; he reads the abbreviation tho and mentally supplies the missing letters, at the cost of a fraction of his attention. The writer has defeated his own purpose. The language manages somehow to keep pace with events. A word that has taken hold in our century is thru-way ; it was born of necessity and is apparently here to stay. In combination with way , thru is more serviceable than through ; it is a high-speed word for readers who are going sixty-five. Throughway would be too long to fit on a road sign, too slow to serve the speeding eye. It is conceivable that because of our thruways, through will eventually become thru — after many more thousands of miles of travel. 11. Do not explain too much. It is seldom advisable to tell all. Be sparing, for instance, in the use of adverbs after "he said," "she replied," and the like: "he said consolingly"; "she replied grumblingly." Let the conversation itself disclose the speaker's manner or condition. Dialogue heavily weighted with adverbs after the attributive verb is cluttery and annoying. Inexperienced writers not only overwork their adverbs but load their attributives with explanatory verbs: "he consoled," "she congratulated." They do this, apparently, in the belief that the word said is always in need of support, or because they have been told to do it by experts in the art of bad writing. 12. Do not construct awkward adverbs. Adverbs are easy to build. Take an adjective or a participle, add -ly , and behold! you have an adverb. But you'd probably be better off without it. Do not write tangledly . The word itself is a tangle. Do not even write tiredly . Nobody says tangledly and not many people say tiredly . Words that are not used orally are seldom the ones to put on paper. He climbed tiredly to bed. He climbed wearily to bed. The lamp cord lay tangledly beneath her chair. The lamp cord lay in tangles beneath her chair. Do not dress words up by adding -ly to them, as though putting a hat on a horse. overly over muchly much thusly thus 13. Make sure the reader knows who is speaking. Dialogue is a total loss unless you indicate who the speaker is. In long dialogue passages containing no attributives, the reader may become lost and be compelled to go back and reread in order to puzzle the thing out. Obscurity is an imposition on the reader, to say nothing of its damage to the work. In dialogue, make sure that your attributives do not awkwardly interrupt a spoken sentence. Place them where the break would come naturally in speech — that is, where the speaker would pause for emphasis, or take a breath. The best test for locating an attributive is to speak the sentence aloud. "Now, my boy, we shall see," he said, "how well you have learned your lesson." "Now, my boy," he said, "we shall see how well you have learned your lesson." "What's more, they would never," she added, "consent to the plan." "What's more," she added, "they would never consent to the plan." 14. Avoid fancy words. Avoid the elaborate, the pretentious, the coy, and the cute. Do not be tempted by a twenty-dollar word when there is a ten-center handy, ready and able. Anglo-Saxon is a livelier tongue than Latin, so use Anglo-Saxon words. In this, as in so many matters pertaining to style, one's ear must be one's guide: gut is a lustier noun than intestine , but the two words are not interchangeable, because gut is often inappropriate, being too coarse for the context. Never call a stomach a tummy without good reason. If you admire fancy words, if every sky is beauteous , every blonde curvaceous , every intelligent child prodigious, if you are tickled by discombobulate , you will have a bad time with Reminder 14. What is wrong, you ask, with beauteous ? No one knows, for sure. There is nothing wrong, really, with any word — all are good, but some are better than others. A matter of ear, a matter of reading the books that sharpen the ear. The line between the fancy and the plain, between the atrocious and the felicitous, is sometimes alarmingly fine. The opening phrase of the Gettysburg address is close to the line, at least by our standards today, and Mr. Lincoln, knowingly or unknowingly, was flirting with disaster when he wrote "Four score and seven years ago." The President could have got into his sentence with plain "Eighty-seven" — a saving of two words and less of a strain on the listeners' powers of multiplication. But Lincoln's ear must have told him to go ahead with four score and seven. By doing so, he achieved cadence while skirting the edge of fanciness. Suppose he had blundered over the line and written, "In the year of our Lord seventeen hundred and seventy-six." His speech would have sustained a heavy blow. Or suppose he had settled for "Eighty-seven." In that case he would have got into his introductory sentence too quickly; the timing would have been bad. The question of ear is vital. Only the writer whose ear is reliable is in a position to use bad grammar deliberately; this writer knows for sure when a colloquialism is better than formal phrasing and is able to sustain the work at a level of good taste. So cock your ear. Years ago, students were warned not to end a sentence with a preposition; time, of course, has softened that rigid decree. Not only is the preposition acceptable at the end, sometimes it is more effective in that spot than anywhere else. "A claw hammer, not an ax, was the tool he murdered her with." This is preferable to "A claw hammer, not an ax, was the tool with which he murdered her." Why? Because it sounds more violent, more like murder. A matter of ear. And would you write "The worst tennis player around here is I" or "The worst tennis player around here is me"? The first is good grammar, the second is good judgment — although the me might not do in all contexts. The split infinitive is another trick of rhetoric in which the ear must be quicker than the handbook. Some infinitives seem to improve on being split, just as a stick of round stovewood does. "I cannot bring myself to really like the fellow." The sentence is relaxed, the meaning is clear, the violation is harmless and scarcely perceptible. Put the other way, the sentence becomes stiff, needlessly formal. A matter of ear. There are times when the ear not only guides us through difficult situations but also saves us from minor or major embarrassments of prose. The ear, for example, must decide when to omit that from a sentence, when to retain it. "She knew she could do it" is preferable to "She knew that she could do it" — simpler and just as clear. But in many cases the that is needed. "He felt that his big nose, which was sunburned, made him look ridiculous." Omit the that and you have "He felt his big nose...." 15. Do not use dialect unless your ear is good. Do not attempt to use dialect unless you are a devoted student of the tongue you hope to reproduce. If you use dialect, be consistent. The reader will become impatient or confused upon finding two or more versions of the same word or expression. In dialect it is necessary to spell phonetically, or at least ingeniously, to capture unusual inflections. Take, for example, the word once . It often appears in dialect writing as oncet , but oncet looks as though it should be pronounced "onset." A better spelling would be wunst . But if you write it oncet once, write it that way throughout. The best dialect writers, by and large, are economical of their talents; they use the minimum, not the maximum, of deviation from the norm, thus sparing their readers as well as convincing them. 16. Be clear. Clarity is not the prize in writing, nor is it always the principal mark of a good style. There are occasions when obscurity serves a literary yearning, if not a literary purpose, and there are writers whose mien is more overcast than clear. But since writing is communication, clarity can only be a virtue. And although there is no substitute for merit in writing, clarity comes closest to being one. Even to a writer who is being intentionally obscure or wild of tongue we can say, "Be obscure clearly! Be wild of tongue in a way we can understand!" Even to writers of market letters, telling us (but not telling us) which securities are promising, we can say, "Be cagey plainly! Be elliptical in a straightforward fashion!" Clarity, clarity, clarity. When you become hopelessly mired in a sentence, it is best to start fresh; do not try to fight your way through against the terrible odds of syntax. Usually what is wrong is that the construction has become too involved at some point; the sentence needs to be broken apart and replaced by two or more shorter sentences. Muddiness is not merely a disturber of prose, it is also a destroyer of life, of hope: death on the highway caused by a badly worded road sign, heartbreak among lovers caused by a misplaced phrase in a well-intentioned letter, anguish of a traveler expecting to be met at a railroad station and not being met because of a slipshod telegram. Think of the tragedies that are rooted in ambiguity, and be clear! When you say something, make sure you have said it. The chances of your having said it are only fair. 17. Do not inject opinion. Unless there is a good reason for its being there, do not inject opinion into a piece of writing. We all have opinions about almost everything, and the temptation to toss them in is great. To air one's views gratuitously, however, is to imply that the demand for them is brisk, which may not be the case, and which, in any event, may not be relevant to the discussion. Opinions scattered indiscriminately about leave the mark of egotism on a work. Similarly, to air one's views at an improper time may be in bad taste. If you have received a letter inviting you to speak at the dedication of a new cat hospital, and you hate cats, your reply, declining the invitation, does not necessarily have to cover the full range of your emotions. You must make it clear that you will not attend, but you do not have to let fly at cats. The writer of the letter asked a civil question; attack cats, then, only if you can do so with good humor, good taste, and in such a way that your answer will be courteous as well as responsive. Since you are out of sympathy with cats, you may quite properly give this as a reason for not appearing at the dedicatory ceremonies of a cat hospital. But bear in mind that your opinion of cats was not sought, only your services as a speaker. Try to keep things straight. 18. Use figures of speech sparingly. The simile is a common device and a useful one, but similes coming in rapid fire, one right on top of another, are more distracting than illuminating. Readers need time to catch their breath; they can't be expected to compare everything with something else, and no relief in sight. When you use metaphor, do not mix it up. That is, don't start by calling something a swordfish and end by calling it an hourglass. 19. Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity. Do not use initials for the names of organizations or movements unless you are certain the initials will be readily understood. Write things out. Not everyone knows that MADD means Mothers Against Drunk Driving, and even if everyone did, there are babies being born every minute who will someday encounter the name for the first time. They deserve to see the words, not simply the initials. A good rule is to start your article by writing out names in full, and then, later, when your readers have got their bearings, to shorten them. Many shortcuts are self-defeating; they waste the reader's time instead of conserving it. There are all sorts of rhetorical stratagems and devices that attract writers who hope to be pithy, but most of them are simply bothersome. The longest way round is usually the shortest way home, and the one truly reliable shortcut in writing is to choose words that are strong and surefooted to carry readers on their way. 20. Avoid foreign languages. The writer will occasionally find it convenient or necessary to borrow from other languages. Some writers, however, from sheer exuberance or a desire to show off, sprinkle their work liberally with foreign expressions, with no regard for the reader's comfort. It is a bad habit. Write in English. 21. Prefer the standard to the offbeat. Young writers will be drawn at every turn toward eccentricities in language. They will hear the beat of new vocabularies, the exciting rhythms of special segments of their society, each speaking a language of its own. All of us come under the spell of these unsettling drums; the problem for beginners is to listen to them, learn the words, feel the vibrations, and not be carried away. Youths invariably speak to other youths in a tongue of their own devising: they renovate the language with a wild vigor, as they would a basement apartment. By the time this paragraph sees print, psyched, nerd, ripoff, dude, geek , and funky will be the words of yesteryear, and we will be fielding more recent ones that have come bouncing into our speech — some of them into our dictionary as well. A new word is always up for survival. Many do survive. Others grow stale and disappear. Most are, at least in their infancy, more appropriate to conversation than to composition. Today, the language of advertising enjoys an enormous circulation. With its deliberate infractions of grammatical rules and its crossbreeding of the parts of speech, it profoundly influences the tongues and pens of children and adults. Your new kitchen range is so revolutionary it obsoletes all other ranges. Your counter top is beautiful because it is accessorized with gold-plated faucets. Your cigarette tastes good like a cigarette should. And, like the man says , you will want to try one. You will also, in all probability, want to try writing that way, using that language. You do so at your peril, for it is the language of mutilation. Advertisers are quite understandably interested in what they call "attention getting." The man photographed must have lost an eye or grown a pink beard, or he must have three arms or be sitting wrong-end-to on a horse. This technique is proper in its place, which is the world of selling, but the young writer had best not adopt the device of mutilation in ordinary composition, whose purpose is to engage, not paralyze, the readers senses. Buy the gold-plated faucets if you will, but do not accessorize your prose. To use the language well, do not begin by hacking it to bits; accept the whole body of it, cherish its classic form, its variety, and its richness. Another segment of society that has constructed a language of its own is business. People in business say that toner cartridges are in short supply , that they have updated the next shipment of these cartridges, and that they will finalize their recommendations at the next meeting of the board. They are speaking a language familiar and dear to them. Its portentous nouns and verbs invest ordinary events with high adventure; executives walk among toner cartridges, caparisoned like knights. We should tolerate them — every person of spirit wants to ride a white horse. The only question is whether business vocabulary is helpful to ordinary prose. Usually, the same ideas can be expressed less formidably, if one makes the effort. A good many of the special words of business seem designed more to express the user's dreams than to express a precise meaning. Not all such words, of course, can be dismissed summarily; indeed, no word in the language can be dismissed offhand by anyone who has a healthy curiosity. Update isn't a bad word; in the right setting it is useful. In the wrong setting, though, it is destructive, and the trouble with adopting coinages too quickly is that they will bedevil one by insinuating themselves where they do not belong. This may sound like rhetorical snobbery, or plain stuffiness; but you will discover, in the course of your work, that the setting of a word is just as restrictive as the setting of a jewel. The general rule here is to prefer the standard. Finalize , for instance, is not standard; it is special, and it is a peculiarly fuzzy and silly word. Does it mean "terminate," or does it mean "put into final form"? One can't be sure, really, what it means, and one gets the impression that the person using it doesn't know, either, and doesn't want to know. The special vocabularies of the law, of the military, of government are familiar to most of us. Even the world of criticism has a modest pouch of private words ( luminous, taut ), whose only virtue is that they are exceptionally nimble and can escape from the garden of meaning over the wall. Of these critical words, Wolcott Gibbs once wrote, "... they are detached from the language and inflated like little balloons." The young writer should learn to spot them — words that at first glance seem freighted with delicious meaning but that soon burst in air, leaving nothing but a memory of bright sound. The language is perpetually in flux: it is a living stream, shifting, changing, receiving new strength from a thousand tributaries, losing old forms in the backwaters of time. To suggest that a young writer not swim in the main stream of this turbulence would be foolish indeed, and such is not the intent of these cautionary remarks. The intent is to suggest that in choosing between the formal and the informal, the regular and the offbeat, the general and the special, the orthodox and the heretical, the beginner err on the side of conservatism, on the side of established usage. No idiom is taboo, no accent forbidden; there is simply a better chance of doing well if the writer holds a steady course, enters the stream of English quietly, and does not thrash about. "But," you may ask, "what if it comes natural to me to experiment rather than conform? What if I am a pioneer, or even a genius?" Answer: then be one. But do not forget that what may seem like pioneering may be merely evasion, or laziness — the disinclination to submit to discipline. Writing good standard English is no cinch, and before you have managed it you will have encountered enough rough country to satisfy even the most adventurous spirit. Style takes its final shape more from attitudes of mind than from principles of composition, for, as an elderly practitioner once remarked, "Writing is an act of faith, not a trick of grammar." This moral observation would have no place in a rule book were it not that style is the writer, and therefore what you are, rather than what you know, will at last determine your style. If you write, you must believe — in the truth and worth of the scrawl, in the ability of the reader to receive and decode the message. No one can write decently who is distrustful of the reader's intelligence, or whose attitude is patronizing. Many references have been made in this book to "the reader," who has been much in the news. It is now necessary to warn you that your concern for the reader must be pure: you must sympathize with the reader's plight (most readers are in trouble about half the time) but never seek to know the reader's wants. Your whole duty as a writer is to please and satisfy yourself, and the true writer always plays to an audience of one. Start sniffing the air, or glancing at the Trend Machine, and you are as good as dead, although you may make a nice living. Full of belief, sustained and elevated by the power of purpose, armed with the rules of grammar, you are ready for exposure. At this point, you may well pattern yourself on the fully exposed cow of Robert Louis Stevenson's rhyme. This friendly and commendable animal, you may recall, was "blown by all the winds that pass /And wet with all the showers." And so must you as a young writer be. In our modern idiom, we would say that you must get wet all over. Mr. Stevenson, working in a plainer style, said it with felicity, and suddenly one cow, out of so many, received the gift of immortality. Like the steadfast writer, she is at home in the wind and the rain; and, thanks to one moment of felicity, she will live on and on and on. 1935 T H E E N D ________ Thank you John. E-mail: john@orwell.ru Afterword WILL STRUNK and E. B. White were unique collaborators. Unlike Gilbert and Sullivan, or Woodward and Bernstein, they worked separately and decades apart. We have no way of knowing whether Professor Strunk took particular notice of Elwyn Brooks White, a student of his at Cornell University in 1919. Neither teacher nor pupil could have realized that their names would be linked as they now are. Nor could they have imagined that thirty-eight years after they met, White would take this little gem of a textbook that Strunk had written for his students, polish it, expand it, and transform it into a classic. E. B. White shared Strunk's sympathy for the reader. To Strunk's do's and don'ts he added passages about the power of words and the clear expression of thoughts and feelings. To the nuts and bolts of grammar he added a rhetorical dimension. The editors of this edition have followed in White's footsteps, once again providing fresh examples and modernizing usage where appropriate. The Elements of Style is still a little book, small enough and important enough to carry in your pocket, as I carry mine. It has helped me to write better. I believe it can do the same for you. Charles Osgood Glossary adjectival modifier A word, phrase, or clause that acts as an adjective in qualifying the meaning of a noun or pronoun, Your country; a turn-of-the-century style; people who are always late . adjective A word that modifies, quantifies, or otherwise describes a noun or pronoun. Drizzly November; midnight dreary; only requirement. adverb A word that modifies or otherwise qualifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Gestures gracefully ; exceptionally quiet engine. adverbial phrase A phrase that functions as an adverb. (See phrase .) Landon laughs with abandon . agreement The correspondence of a verb with its subject in person and number (Karen goes to Cal Tech; her sisters go to UCLA), and of a pronoun with its antecedent in person, number, and gender (As soon as Karen finished the exam, she picked up her books and left the room). antecedent The noun to which a pronoun refers. A pronoun and its antecedent must agree in person, number, and gender. Michael and his teammates moved off campus. appositive A noun or noun phrase that renames or adds identifying information to a noun it immediately follows. His brother, an accountant with Arthur Andersen , was recently promoted. articles The words a , an , and the , which signal or introduce nouns. The definite article the refers to a particular item: the report. The indefinite articles a and an refer to a general item or one not already mentioned: an apple. auxiliary verb A verb that combines with the main verb to show differences in tense, person, and voice. The most common auxiliaries are forms of be , do , and have . I am going; we did not go; they have gone. (See also modal auxiliaries. ) case The form of a noun or pronoun that reflects its grammatical function in a sentence as subject ( they ), object ( them ), or possessor ( their ). She gave her employees a raise that pleased them greatly. clause A group of related words that contains a subject and predicate. Moths swarm around a burning candle. While she was taking the test, Karen muttered to herself. colloquialism A word or expression appropriate to informal conversation but not usually suitable for academic or business writing. They wanted to get even (instead of they wanted to retaliate ). complement A word or phrase (especially a noun or adjective) that completes the predicate. Subject complements complete linking verbs and rename or describe the subject: Martha is my neighbor . She seems shy . Object complements complete transitive verbs by describing or renaming the direct object: They found the play exciting . Robert considers Mary a wonderful wife . compound sentence Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon. Caesar conquered Gaul , but Alexander the Great conquered the world . compound subject Two or more simple subjects joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction. Hemingway and Fitzgerald had little in common. conjunction A word that joins words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. The coordinating conjunctions, and, but, or, nor, yet, so, for , join grammatically equivalent elements. Correlative conjunctions ( both, and; either, or; neither, nor ) join the same kinds of elements. contraction A shortened form of a word or group of words: can't for cannot; they're for they are. correlative expression See conjunction . dependent clause A group of words that includes a subject and verb but is subordinate to an independent clause in a sentence. Dependent clauses begin with either a subordinating conjunction, such as if, because, since , or a relative pronoun, such as who, which, that . When it gets dark , we'll find a restaurant that has music . direct object A noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb. Pearson publishes books . gerund The -ing form of a verb that functions as a noun: Hiking is good exercise. She was praised for her playing . indefinite pronoun A pronoun that refers to an unspecified person ( anybody ) or thing ( something ). independent clause A group of words with a subject and verb that can stand alone as a sentence. Raccoons steal food . indirect object A noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or for whom, to what or for what the action of a transitive verb is performed. I asked her a question. Ed gave the door a kick. infinitive/split infinitive In the present tense, a verb phrase consisting of to followed by the base form of the verb ( to write ). A split infinitive occurs when one or more words separate to and the verb ( to boldly go ). intransitive verb A verb that does not take a direct object. His nerve failed . linking verb A verb that joins the subject of a sentence to its complement. Professor Chapman is a philosophy teacher. They were ecstatic. loose sentence A sentence that begins with the main idea and then attaches modifiers, qualifiers, and additional details: He was determined to succeed, with or without the promotion he was hoping for and in spite of the difficulties he was confronting at every turn. main clause An independent clause, which can stand alone as a grammatically complete sentence. Grammarians quibble. modal auxiliaries Any of the verbs that combine with the main verb to express necessity ( must ), obligation ( should ), permission ( may ), probability ( might ), possibility ( could ), ability ( can ), or tentativeness ( would ). Mary might wash the car. modifier A word or phrase that qualifies, describes, or limits the meaning of a word, phrase, or clause. Frayed ribbon, dancing flowers, worldly wisdom. nominative pronoun A pronoun that functions as a subject or a subject complement: I, we, you, he, she, it, they, who . nonrestrictive modifier A phrase or clause that does not limit or restrict the essential meaning of the element it modifies. My youngest niece, who lives in Ann Arbor , is a magazine editor. noun A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Most nouns have a plural form and a possessive form. Carol ; the park ; the cup ; democracy . number A feature of nouns, pronouns, and a few verbs, referring to singular or plural. A subject and its corresponding verb must be consistent in number; a pronoun should agree in number with its antecedent. A solo flute plays ; two oboes join in. object The noun or pronoun that completes a prepositional phrase or the meaning of a transitive verb. (See also direct object , indirect object , and preposition .) Frost offered his audience a poetic performance they would likely never forget. participial phrase A present or past participle with accompanying modifiers, objects, or complements. The buzzards, circling with sinister determination , squawked loudly. participle A verbal that functions as an adjective. Present participles end in -ing ( brimming ); past participles typically end in -d or -ed ( injured ) or -en ( broken ) but may appear in other forms ( brought, been, gone ). periodic sentence A sentence that expresses the main idea at the end. With or without their parents' consent, and whether or not they receive the assignment relocation they requested, they are determined to get married . phrase A group of related words that functions as a unit but lacks a subject, a verb, or both. Without the resources to continue . possessive The case of nouns and pronouns that indicates ownership or possession ( Harold's, ours, mine ). predicate The verb and its related words in a clause or sentence. The predicate expresses what the subject does, experiences, or is. Birds fly. The partygoers celebrated wildly for a long time . preposition A word that relates its object (a noun, pronoun, or -ing verb form) to another word in the sentence. She is the leader of our group. We opened the door by picking the lock. She went out the window. prepositional phrase A group of words consisting of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers. Georgia on my mind . principal verb The predicating verb in a main clause or sentence. pronominal possessive Possessive pronouns such as hers , its , and theirs . proper noun The name of a particular person ( Frank Sinatra ), place ( Boston ), or thing ( Moby Dick ). Proper nouns are capitalized. Common nouns name classes of people ( singers ), places ( cities ), or things ( books ) and are not capitalized. relative clause A clause introduced by a relative pronoun, such as who, which, that , or by a relative adverb, such as where, when, why . relative pronoun A pronoun that connects a dependent clause to a main clause in a sentence: who, whom, whose, which, that, what, whoever, whomever, whichever , and whatever . restrictive term, element, clause A phrase or clause that limits the essential meaning of the sentence element it modifies or identifies. Professional athletes who perform exceptionally should earn stratospheric salaries. Since there are no commas before and after the italicized clause, the italicized clause is restrictive and suggests that only those athletes who perform exceptionally are entitled to such salaries. If commas were added before who and after exceptionally , the clause would be nonrestrictive and would suggest that all professional athletes should receive stratospheric salaries. sentence fragment A group of words that is not grammatically a complete sentence but is punctuated as one: Because it mattered greatly . subject The noun or pronoun that indicates what a sentence is about, and which the principal verb of a sentence elaborates. The new Steven Spielberg movie is a box office hit. subordinate clause A clause dependent on the main clause in a sentence. After we finish our work , we will go out for dinner. syntax The order or arrangement of words in a sentence. Syntax may exhibit parallelism ( I came, I saw, I conquered ), inversion ( Whose woods these are I think I know ), or other formal characteristics. tense The time of a verb's action or state of being, such as past, present, or future. Saw, see, will see . transition A word or group of words that aids coherence in writing by showing the connections between ideas. William Carlos Williams was influenced by the poetry of Walt Whitman. Moreover , Williams's emphasis on the present and the immediacy of the ordinary represented a rejection of the poetic stance and style of his contemporary T. S. Eliot. In addition , Williams's poetry .... transitive verb A verb that requires a direct object to complete its meaning: They washed their new car. An intransitive verb does not require an object to complete its meaning: The audience laughed . Many verbs can be both: The wind blew furiously. My car blew a gasket. verb A word or group of words that expresses the action or indicates the state of being of the subject. Verbs activate sentences. verbal A verb form that functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb rather than as a principal verb. Thinking can be fun. An embroidered handkerchief. (See also gerund, infinitive, and participle .) voice The attribute of a verb that indicates whether its subject is active (Janet played the guitar) or passive (The guitar was played by Janet). Prepared by Robert DiYanni Index a/an in parallel construction 27 in titles 38 abbreviations punctuation of 3 and writing style 80-81 accordingly , semicolon with 6 active voice 18-19 adjectival modifier 12 adjective(s) compound, hyphen in 34-35 and writing style 71 adverb(s) 6 awkward 75-76 sparing use of 75 adverbial phrase 44 advertising, language of 81-82 affect vs. effect 45 aggravate vs. irritate 39 agreement, subject-verb 9-11 all right 39 Allingham, William 71 allude 40 allusion vs. illusion 40 almost vs. most 53 along these lines 52 alternate vs. alternative 40 among vs. between 40 and comma before 5, 6 loose sentences with 25 parallelism with 27 subjects joined by 10 while as substitute for 63 and/or , misuse of 40 Anglo-Saxon vs. Latin 77 antecedent(s) position in sentence 29-30 anticipate vs. expect 40-41 anybody vs. any body 41 pronoun after 60 anyone vs. any one 41 apostrophe, use of 1 appositive introductory 13 position in sentence 30 pronoun as 12 punctuation of 4-5, 9 article(s) in parallel construction 27 in titles 38 as comma before 5 vs. like 51-52, 82 as good or better than 41 as regards 49 as to whether 41 as well as , subjects joined by 10 as yet 41 attributives, in dialogue 31, 75, 76 auxiliary verb(s) 20 modal 20 being , misuse of 41, 56 besides , semicolon with 6 between vs. among 40 both ... and , parallelism with 27 breezy style 73-74 brevity. See concise writing business, language of 82-83 business firms, names of 2 but comma before 5 loose sentences with 25 use of 41-42 while as substitute for 63 can vs. may 42 sparing use of 20 care less , misuse of 42 case of pronouns 11-13 case (noun), misuse of 42 certainly 42 character , misuse of 42 claim (verb) 42-43 clarity in writing 79 clause(s) punctuation of 3-7 restrictive vs. nonrestrictive 3-5, 59 clever 43 colloquialism(s) 34 colon, use of 7-8 comma(s) with abbreviations 3 in compound sentence 6-7 before conjunction 5, 6 in dates 2-3 with parenthetical expressions 2-5 vs. period 7 with quotations 36 serial 2 compare to vs. compare with 43 comparisons case of pronoun in 12 than in 59 complement inverted position of 33 in periodic sentence 32 composed of vs. divided into 44 composition, principles of 15-33 compound adjective, hyphen in 34-35 compound sentence comma in 6-7 semicolon in 5-6 compound subject verb form after 10 comprise 43 concise writing 23-24 active voice and 18-19 positive statements and 19-20 concrete language 21-23 conditional verbs 20 conjunction(s) comma with 5, 6 loose sentences with 25 parallelism with 27 consider vs. considered as 43 contact (verb) 43 contraction vs. possessive 1 coordinating conjunctions comma with 5, 6 loose sentences with 25 cope with 44 correlative conjunctions comma with 5 parallelism with 27 could , sparing use of 20 currently , misuse of 44 dash, use of 9 data 44 dates numerals vs. words for 35 punctuation of 2-3 degrees (academic), punctuation of 3 dependent clause punctuation of 5 design 15, 70-71 details, reporting 21-22 dialect 78-79 dialogue adverbs in 75 attributives in 31, 75, 76 dates and numbers in 35 paragraphing of 16 sentence fragment in 7 tense in 31 different than , misuse of 44 direct address, name or title in 3 direct object 36 disinterested vs. uninterested 44 divided into vs. composed of 44 due to 44-45 each pronoun after 60 verb form after 10 each and every one 45 eccentric vs. standard language 81-84 effect vs. affect 45 e.g ., punctuation of 3 either , verb form after 10 either ... or, parallel construction with 27 elude vs. allude 40 emphatic word/expression position in sentence 32-33 as sentence fragment 7 enormity 45 enthuse , misuse of 45 enumeration, comma in 2 etc . 45-46 punctuation of 3 every , compound subject qualified by 10 everybody vs. every body 41 pronoun after 60 verb form after 10 everyone pronoun after 60 verb form after 10 except , subjects joined by 10 exclamations 34 expect vs. anticipate 40-41 facility 46 fact 46 (the) fact is ... 60 (the) fact that 24 factor 46 fancy words, avoiding 76-78 farther vs. further 46 Faulkner, William 68 feature 47 fewer vs. less 51 figures of speech 80 finalize 47, 82, 83 first..., second..., third , parallelism with 27 firstly ... , secondly ... , thirdly , misuse of 57 fix (verb) 47 flammable 47 folk 47 for , comma before 5, 6 for conscience' sake 1 foreign words 81 form, principles of 34-38 Forster, E. M., 25-26 fortuitous 47 Frost, Robert 68-69 funny 50 further vs. farther 46 gerund vs. participle 13, 55-56 possessive case with 12 get 48 Gibbs, Wolcott 83 gratuitous 48 have got 48 he is a man who 48 he or she , avoiding 60-61 he said , in dialogue 31, 75, 76 headings 34 Hemingway, Ernest 68 hopefully 48 however 48-49 hyphen 34-35 I vs. myself 12 i.e ., punctuation of 3 illusion vs. allusion 40 imitation, in writing 70 imply vs. infer 49 importantly , misuse of 49 in addition to , subjects joined by 10 in regard to 49 in terms of 50 in the last analysis 4 indefinite pronouns possessive case of 1 independent clause(s) colon after 7-8 comma before conjunction introducing 5 comma separating 6-7 semicolon separating 5-6 indirect discourse, tense in 31 indirect object 89 infer vs. imply 49 infinitive split 58, 78 inside of 49 insightful 50 interesting , 50 intransitive verb 44, 51 introductory phrase participial 13-14 punctuation of 5 irregardless , misuse of 50 irritate vs. aggravate 39 it's vs. its 1 -ize 50 Jr ., punctuation of 3 kind of 51, 62 Latin vs. Anglo-Saxon 77 lay 51 leave vs. let 51 lend vs. loan 52 less vs. fewer 51 let vs. leave 51 lie vs. lay 51 like vs. as 51-52, 82 Lincoln, Abraham 77 linking verb(s) agreement with subject 11 literal/literally 52 little 73 loan vs. lend 52 logical predicate 32 loose sentence(s) 25-26 -ly , awkward use of 75-76 main clause punctuation of 5-7 statement supplementing 4 mannerisms 17, 42 margins 35 may vs. can 42 sparing use of 20 meaningful 53 memento 53 metaphor, use of 80 might , sparing use of 20 modal auxiliaries sparing use of 20 modifier(s) adjectival 12 position of 30-31 most vs. almost 53 myself vs. I 12 names (of firms), comma in 2 names (of persons) in direct address 3 possessive case of 1 nature 53 nauseous vs. nauseated 53 needless words, omitting 23-24 negative statements, avoiding 19-20 neither , verb form after 10 nice 53 no less than , subjects joined by 10 nobody vs. no body 41 verb form after 10 nominative pronoun 12 none , verb form after 10 nonrestrictive clause 59 punctuation of 3-5 nor comma before 5 vs. or 53-54 not , misuse of 19-20 not... but , parallel construction with 27 not only ... but also , parallel construction with 27 noun(s) in apposition. See appositive possessive case of 1 used as verb 54 and writing style 71-72 number of verb 9-11 numerals 35 object direct 36 indirect 89 pronoun as 11, 12 object complements inverted position of 33 in periodic sentence 32 offputting 54 one 54-55 one of , verb form after 9-10 one of the most 55 ongoing 54 opinion, injecting in writing 79-80 or in and/or 40 comma before 5 vs. nor 53-54 oral vs. verbal 63 -oriented 55 Orwell, George 22-23 overstatement 73 overwriting 72 Paine, Thomas 67 paragraphs 15-17 parallel construction 26-28 parentheses 36 references in 37 parenthetical expressions 2-5 partially vs. partly 55 participial phrase introductory 13-14 punctuation of 4-5 participle as verbal 13, 55-56 passive voice 18 past tense, in indirect discourse 31 people 56 period vs. comma 7 periodic sentence effectiveness of 32 vs. loose sentence 25, 26 personal pronouns case of 11-13 after each/every 60 personalize 56 personally 56 persons 56 phrase adverbial 44 participial 4-5, 13-14 prepositional 13-14 positive statements 19-20 possess 56-57 possessive apostrophe in 1 with gerund 12 with participle 55-56 pronominal 1 of pronouns 12 before titles 38 predicate logical 32 preposition(s) at end of sentence 77-78 in parallel construction 27 prepositional phrase at beginning of sentence 13-14 present participle, as verbal 13, 55-56 present tense, in summaries 31 presently 57 prestigious 57 pretty 73 principal verb 29 pronominal possessive 1 pronoun(s) antecedent of 29, 60 case of 11-13 after each/every 60 indefinite 1 nominative 12 relative 29 proper nouns in direct address 3 possessive case of 1 proverbial expressions 37 qualifiers, avoiding 73 quotation(s) 36-37 colon introducing 8 quotation marks for colloquialisms 34 punctuation with 36 rather 73 refer vs. allude 40 references 37 regard ... as 41 regretful vs. regrettable 57 relate , misuse of 57 relative clause following one of 9-10 position in sentence 30 punctuation of 4 relative pronoun position in sentence 29 repeated action, expressing 64-65 respective/respectively 57 restrictive clause 59 punctuation of 4-5 restrictive term of identification 3 revising 72 -'s , use of 1 said , in dialogue 31, 75, 76 secondly , misuse of 57 semicolon in compound sentence 5-6 while replaced by 63 sentence fragment 7 sentence structure 28-31 emphatic 32-33 prepositions in 77-78 serial comma 2 shall vs. will 58 should , sparing use of 20 similes, use of 80 so 58 somebody pronoun after 60 vs. some body 41 someone pronoun after 60 verb form after 10 sort of 51 specific language 16-23 spelling 74-75 Spencer, Herbert 22 split infinitive 58, 78 Stafford, Jean 21-22 standard English 83-84 state (verb) 58 Stevenson, Robert Louis 84-85 structural design 15, 70-71 student body 58 style 66-69, 84-85 guidelines for 70-84 subject(s) agreement with verb 9-11 compound 10 emphatic position of 33 position in sentence 29 pronoun as 11-12 subject complements inverted position of 33 subordinate clause punctuation of 5 summaries 31-32 superfluous words/phrases 23-24, 72 syllabication 38 syntax 28-31 inversion 32-33 parallelism 26-28 tense in summaries 31-32 than case of pronoun after 12 use of 59 thanking you in advance 59 that omitting 78 quotations introduced by 37 redundant use of 48 vs. which 59 the in parallel construction 27 in titles 38 the fact is ... 60 the fact that 24 the foreseeable future 59 the truth is ... 60 then , semicolon with 6 there is/are , substituting 18-19 therefore , semicolon with 6 they vs. he/she 60-61 thirdly , misuse of 57 this , ambiguous reference 61 thrust 61 thus , semicolon with 6 time, notation of 8 titles (of persons), punctuation of 3 titles (of works) 8, 38 together with , subjects joined by 10 tortuous vs. torturous 62 transition sentences of 16-17 transitive verb(s) 44, 51 and vigorous writing 18-19 transpire 62 (the) truth is ... 60 try to vs. try and 62 type vs. kind of 62 uninterested vs. disinterested 44 unique 62 update 82, 83 us , as appositive 12 utilize vs. use 63 verb(s) agreement with subject 9-11 auxiliary 20 coining with -ize 50 intransitive 44, 51 linking 11 position in sentence 29 principal 29 transitive 18-19 used as noun 54 and writing style 71-72 verbal(s) gerund as 12, 55-56 participle as 13, 55-56 verbal vs. oral 63 very 63, 73 voice, active 18-19 when clause introduced by 4 in loose sentences 25 where clause introduced by 4 in loose sentences 25 which ambiguity in use of 30 clause introduced by 4 in loose sentences 25 vs. that 59 which was 24 while comma before 5 in loose sentences 25 use of 63-64 Whitman, Walt 69 who clause introduced by 4 following one of 9-10 in loose sentences 25 redundant use of 48 vs. whom 4 who is 24 will vs. shall 58 -wise 64, 67 with , subjects joined by 10 Wolfe, Thomas 67-68 word division 38 word order 28-31 for emphasis 32-33 wordiness, avoiding 23-24, 72 worth while/worthwhile 64 would for repeated action 64-65 sparing use of 20 writing benefits of 70 difficulties with 69 ear for 77-78 principles of 15-33 style of 66-85 yet 41 you vs. yourself 12 OLIVER STRUNK: 'THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE' (4th edition) First published in 1935, Copyright © Oliver Strunk Last Revision: © William Strunk Jr. and Edward A. Tenney, 2000 Earlier editions: © Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1959, 1972 Copyright © 2000, 1979, ALLYN BACON, 'A Pearson Education Company' Introduction - © E. B. White, 1979 'The New Yorker Magazine', 1957 Foreword by Roger Angell, Afterward by Charles Osgood, Glossary prepared by Robert DiYanni ISBN 0-205-30902-X (paperback), ISBN 0-205-31342-6 (casebound). ________ Machine-readable version and checking: O. Dag E-mail: dag@orwell.ru URL: http://orwell.ru/library/others/style/ Last modified on April, 2003.
个人分类: 英文写作|29567 次阅读|0 个评论
缘何尽数并列词语后仍加上“等”字?
热度 1 陈龙珠 2010-9-10 21:49
能亲身跟随了中国社会空前不断的繁荣,也算是自己人生的一大幸事。 社会文化的发展,一个基本表现或许在于词语的推陈出新。比如说,我从小学读到拿博士学位的20年中,描述人文环境的一个常用词是气氛。或许这个词与气愤谐音,也不知是谁就先将其改成了氛围。我第一次注意这个新词,印象中是在路副委员长在浙大当校长时的一次大会报告。那个时候,网络没现在这么发达,更谈不上方便地对这个词溯源检索了。 相比之下,目前在那些有档次之人们中流行的愿景一词,大概我们中的绝大多数都清楚它的来源了。 在官方上至央府的红头文件中,除阿拉伯数字序号后跟汉语标点符号 、 不规范外,让我尚没弄清楚的还有尽数并列词语后的等字(如 张赏、李仕、王武等三人 当选为xx委员会委员) 具有咋样的含义。 在我遐思,当预期文中并列词语不能尽数且可能引起误解乃至纠结时,用上这个等字,便有逢凶化吉之效。或许,一些人久而久之用惯这字,在尽数并列词语中就仍照加不误了。若真是这样,这些人表面上对自己负责了,可对汉语语法,负责了吗?
个人分类: 陈词滥调|6425 次阅读|5 个评论
两种文风不可取
Bobby 2010-8-5 07:44
学者在某一问题或事情的看法上不免同别的学者相异,这本身是很正常的。只要是从理性角度出发,相互辩驳、相互批评也是容许的。但如果从情绪出发,以攻讦发泄为主,则大大的不可取。 其一是指名道姓进行羞辱对手,另一种是带着复仇的心态反驳对手。 羞辱对手意图在情绪上打垮对手,而不是从理性上说服对手和读者。如果对手也如此对你,岂不是自招其辱吗? 带着复仇的心态反驳对手会让复仇的火焰遮盖理性的光芒,让读者只看到动物捕猎的残忍,而不见平和的争鸣和包容。如果对手也如此对你,则冤冤相报何时了? 无论那一种文风,都是低估读者智商的表现,攻击对手的同时,不免露出修养低下甚至凶残的丑恶嘴脸,何苦? 反对往死里整的人身攻讦,倡议就事论事的理性争鸣。
个人分类: 科学感想|600 次阅读|4 个评论
E.B. White and "The elements of style"
carldy 2010-5-30 22:46
这一段时间在读由:William Strunk Jr. 与 Elwyn Brooks White(小威廉斯特伦克、EB怀特)撰写的 The Elements of Style(有人把它翻译成《风格的要求》、《风格的要素》,也有人把它翻译成《英文写作指南》,还有人把它翻译成《英文写作圣经》。边读边不得不感叹:何谓经典,何谓大师。 这里简单介绍一下两位作者: 小威廉斯特伦克(18691946)是著名的康奈尔大学英语系教授,英语语法和写作文法方面的专家。其1918年的著作《风格的要素》,是英文写作方面的经典必读书。作者在《风格的要素》一书中确立的精确无暇的英文写作规则,对提高美国大、中学生的英文写作起了不可估量的作用。一个人必须首先了解规则才能够去打破它。这本经典的指导书是每个学生和写作者的必读之书。这本书以简短的篇幅阐明了英文朴实风格必须具备的基本原则,集中阐释了英语文法应用、写作技巧以及一般人在写作中常犯的错误等。本书在中国赴美国的留学生中享有广泛的声誉,经过口口相传,几乎成了每一个出国留学者必备的英文写作指南。 作为小威廉斯特伦克的学生,埃尔文布鲁克斯怀特(Elwyn Brooks White, 1899-1985),是美国当代著名散文家、评论家,以散文名世,最为世人称道的一篇是《湖畔重游》(Once More to the Lake)。 EB怀特1899年生于纽约。1918年他从美军中退役,入康奈尔大学就读,1921 年毕业,期间曾担任《西雅图时报》等多家媒体的记者。1924 年,他回到纽约,当了一位广告撰稿人。1926或1927年,他来到《纽约客》杂志社作编辑工作,随后11年里,他为杂志写下了大量的散文和诗歌。 1929 年他和凯瑟琳结婚(1941年夫妻二人共同撰写了《美国幽默文库》一书)。不久,怀特开始为《新纽约周刊》工作。但是,直到他和他的同事兼朋友詹姆斯特伯合著的《性是必需的吗?》一书在同年出版后,怀特才真正引起了文坛的注意。 1938年至1943年间,作为《哈珀斯》杂志的专栏作家,怀特为个人观点专栏撰写了大量的散文。这些怀特式散文在1942年结集出版,被评论界认为是怀特最优秀的一本散文集。 1939年,怀特搬到缅因州北布鲁克林的一个农场,作为一名自由作家继续写作。1959年,怀特补充小威廉斯特伦克的《文体的要素》并加以出版,该书被广泛地用作美国院校的教材。 怀特写过三部童话:《小老鼠斯图尔特》(1945)、《夏洛蒂的网》(1952)、《天鹅的喇叭》/《吹小号的天鹅》(1970),前两部均已被搬上银幕。《夏洛蒂的网》至今已发行500万余册,拥有20多种文字的译本,是怀特最受欢迎的童话作品。在美国《出版周刊》1976年进行的读者调查中,《夏洛蒂的网》位居美国十佳儿童文学名著的首位,曾有一位小读者写信问怀特:你的童话故事是真的吗?怀特回答道:不,他们是想象出来的故事,但真实的生活也不过是生活的一种罢了,想象里的生活也算一种生活。 1985年10月1日,怀特因罹患阿尔兹海默病在缅因州北布鲁克林去世。 由于怀特在散文创作等方面取得的突出成绩,他生前曾获多项殊荣:1971年,他获得美国国家文学奖章;1973年,他当选美国文学艺术学院50名永久院士之一;1978年,他获得普利策特别文艺奖;此外,他还获得了美国七家大学及学院的名誉学位。 怀特的主要作品有:《女士是冷酷的》(1928),《性是必需的吗?》(1929),《美国幽默文库》(1941),《个人观点》(1942),《小老鼠斯图尔特》(1945),《野菖蒲》(1946),《这里是纽约》(1949),《夏洛蒂的网》(1952),《角落里的第二棵树》(1954),《文体的要素》(1959),《我罗盘的方位》(1962),《天鹅的喇叭》(1970),《怀特散文》(1977),《诗与小品》(1981),《纽约客文选1925-1976》(1990)。 William Strunk Jr. 小威廉斯特伦克(18691946) Elwyn Brooks White 埃尔文布鲁克斯怀特(1899-1985) 该书精华,慢慢上传介绍。 2010年6月1日(儿童节)继续探讨该书的话题: 下文是对The Elements of Style的相关介绍,引自: http://bearwhisper.blogbus.com/logs/14852409.html (备注:该博主的个性化签名很有创意:于今夕之何夕,唯读书以自省) 本文内容译自Wikipedia: 《文章风格的要素》: 本书最初写成于 1918 年,并由康奈尔大学( Cornell University )教授 William Strunk Jr 个人出版,并于 1935 年由 Edward A. Tenney 协助完成第一次修订。 1957 年,《纽约客》杂志的 E. B. White 注意到本书。 White 曾经在 1919 年作为 Strunk 的学生,不过自那之后并没有留心这本小册子一本仅用 43 页讲述如何以清晰、准确、简洁的方式使用英语的总结。几周之后, White 为《纽约客》写了一篇短文,赞颂了 Strunk 教授和他对清晰易懂的英文文体的贡献。由于本书作者已于 1946 年离世, Macmillan 出版公司委托 White 重新修订新版本的《文章风格的元素》,并在 1959 年出版发行。此修订版中, White 独立完成了对 1918 版本的扩展,并使之更符合 1959 年的年代习惯,这就是现在无数写手和学生所熟知的手册,简称为 Strunk and White 。这本小册子的第一版卖掉两百万册,四十年中,三个版本共售出超过一千万册。 Strunk 的最初版本着重于用法上的某些特定问题,培养大家养成良好的写作习惯,避免冗长啰嗦的文风。他写道:要让每个单词都发出自己的声音。有一章总结起来只有一句告诫:去掉不必要的单词! White 把这些部分做了更新和扩展,并从他的《纽约客》系列文章中选出一篇介绍性的文章放在书的前面。 1999 年 Strunk and White 版本第四版问世时,第二作者已经去世了,并且手稿已经被 Longman 出版集团所收购。该版本添加了由 White 的继子 Roger Angell 撰写的前言、 Charles Osgood 撰写的跋、一个术语汇编和一个索引。一位匿名的编辑修改了 1999 版本的文本。在许多引人注目的变更中, Strunk 对于用 he 来指代不分性别第三人称的简短而有力的辩护被移除了。(查看第四章中关于 they 的条目,以及特定性别的代词不分。) 2005 年出版了《文章风格的要素示例》( The Elements of Style Illustrated ),由 Maira Kalman 设计并制作示例。文字部分沿用了 1999 年的版本。 William Strunk, Jr. William Strunk, Jr. ,1869.7.1 生于俄亥俄州辛辛那提, 1946.9.26 卒于纽约伊萨卡。康奈尔大学英语教授,以《文章风格的要素》一书第一版作者而闻名,该书也是关于英语用法指南的一本畅销书。 Strunk 于 1890 年在辛辛那提大学获得学士学位,于 1896 年在康奈尔大学获得博士学位。在康奈尔大学教授英语长达四十六年,他仅有的另一部作品是 English Metres (于 1922 年在本地发行)。他更以编辑而知名,曾编选包括莎士比亚、 约翰德莱顿(John Dryden ) 以及 詹姆斯 芬尼摩尔 库帕(James Fenimore Cooper ) 在内的知名作家的诸多作品。他还曾为 1936 年米高梅电影公司摄制的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》一片担任文学顾问。 Strunk 与 Olivia Emilie Locke 在 1900 年成婚,并育有二子和一女。 E. B. White Elwyn Brooks White , 1899.7.11 生于纽约弗农山 , 1985.10.1 卒于缅因州南布鲁克林。美国知名评论家、作家、幽默作家、诗人,以及文体学家。 James Thurber 曾这样评价他清新典雅的文风:没有人可以像 White 那样写一个句子。作为一个自由主义思想家, White 经常以一个旁观者的角度撰写讽刺文章,拥戴个人自由。他的写作领域跨越讽刺文章、教材,甚至包括儿童幻想小说。他的写作风格指南《文章风格的要素》一书,仍被认为是经典之作,而他的三本儿童作品: 《夏洛特的网》 ( Charlottes Web ) 、 《精灵鼠小弟》 ( Stuart Little ) 和 《真爱伴鹅行》 ( The Trumpet of the Swan ) 被视为儿童作品的经典之作。
个人分类: 我所景仰的学者 My Respected Scholars|12030 次阅读|0 个评论
科学博文的文风应是“短、实、新”
xupeiyang 2010-5-15 21:11
习近平最近提出写作短、实、新的文风,对我很受启发,科学网的博文也存在长、空、假的问题。看看国外几个科学博客网的科学博文的写作风格也是短、实、新。 ---- 许评 全文见 http://politics.people.com.cn/GB/1024/11605379.html  一是短。就是要力求简短精练、直截了当,要言不烦、意尽言止,观点鲜明、重点突出。能够三言两语说清楚的事绝不拖泥带水,能够用短小篇幅阐明的道理绝不绕弯子。古人说删繁就简三秋树,讲的就是这个意思。毛泽东同志为人民英雄纪念碑起草的碑文,只有114个字,却反映了一部中国近代史。1975年,邓小平同志负责起草周恩来总理在四届全国人大一次会议上的报告,只用了五千字。后来谈到这件事的时候,邓小平同志说:毛主席指定我负责起草,要求不得超过五千字,我完成了任务。五千字,不是也很管用吗?江泽民同志和胡锦涛同志也有许多短小精干、言简意赅、思想深刻的文章、讲话。鲁迅先生说过,文章写完至少看两遍,竭力将可有可无的字、句、段删去,毫不可惜。现在,不少地方和部门按照中央改进文风会风的要求,提出以能少则少、能短则短、能精则精、能简则简为原则,尽可能开短会、讲短话、发短文。这三短,就是我们应当大力倡导的风气。   当然,也不是说长文章一概不好。有内容、有见解的长文章,人们也是喜欢读的。文章长短要视具体情况而定,宜短则短,宜长则长。要坚持内容决定形式,有些非长不可、篇幅短说不明白的事情则可以长些。《庄子》上有这样几句话:长者不为有余,短者不为不足。是故凫胫虽短,续之则忧;鹤胫虽长,断之则悲。意思是说,野鸭子的腿虽然很短,给它接上一截它就要发愁;仙鹤的腿虽然很长,给它截去一段它就要悲伤。这个道理同样适用于写文章。就今天来说,把野鸭子的腿加长的文章太多了,提倡短文章、短讲话、短文件是当前改进文风的主要任务。   二是实。就是要讲符合实际的话不讲脱离实际的话,讲管用的话不讲虚话,讲有感而发的话不讲无病呻吟的话,讲反映自己判断的话不讲照本宣科的话,讲明白通俗的话不讲故作高深的话。这就要求我们的文件、讲话和文章,力求反映事物的本来面目,分析问题要客观、全面,既要指出现象,更要弄清本质;阐述对策要具体、实在,要有针对性和可操作性。要实事求是,有一说一、有二说二,是则是、非则非,不夸大成绩,不掩饰问题。要深入浅出,用朴实的语言阐述深刻的理论。要有感而发,情真意切。毛泽东同志笔下的愚公、白求恩、张思德,我们今天记忆犹新,就是因为这些人在他的心灵深处产生过激烈震荡,所以讲出的话饱含深情、富于哲理,能深深植入人民心里,引起共鸣。   这里需要说明,一些关于党和国家工作的总体性要求,事关全局,事关党和国家前进方向及政策连续性,事关党的团结和社会稳定,需要在重要文件和重要讲话中反复强调。这和形式主义的套话、穿靴戴帽是两回事。   三是新。就是力求思想深刻、富有新意,正所谓领异标新二月花。如果一个文件、一篇讲话毫无新意,那么制定这样的文件、作这样的讲话还有多少意义呢?可以说,能不能讲出新意,反映一个领导干部的思想水平、理论水平、经验水平以及语言表达能力。这里所说的新意,既包括在探索规律、认识真理上有新发现、前人没有讲过的话,又包括把中央精神和上级要求与本地区本部门本单位实际结合起来,在解决问题上有新理念、新思路、新举措的话;既包括角度新、材料新、语言表达新的话,又包括富有个性、特色鲜明、生动活泼的话。需要指出的是,讲出新意,并不是要去刻意求新,甚至搞文字游戏。更不能背离马克思主义立场观点方法,背离党的路线方针政策去标新立异。
个人分类: 学习方法|2217 次阅读|0 个评论

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