An important part of critical thinking is being able to give reasons, whether it is to support or to criticize a certain idea. To be able to do that, one should know how to identify, analyze, and evaluate argument. What is an argument? In everyday life, people often use “argument” to mean a quarrel between people. But in logic and critical thinking, an argument is a list of statements , Monty Python said: “ An argument is a connected series of statements to establish a definite proposition. ” There are three stages to an argument: Premises , Inference , and Conclusion . To give an argument is to provide a set of premises as reasons for accepting the conclusion through a gradual inference process. Stage one: Premises One or more propositions will be necessary for the argument to continue. They must be stated explicitly. They are called the premises of the argument. They are the evidence (or reasons) for accepting the argument and its conclusions. Premises (or assertions) are often indicated by phrases such as “because”, “since”, “due to” and so on. Stage two: Inference The premises of the argument are used to obtain further propositions. This process is known as inferences. In inference, we start with one or more propositions which have been accepted. We then derive a new proposition. The propositions arrived at by inference may then be used in further inference. Inference is often denoted by phrases such as “implies that” or “therefore”. Stage three: Conclusion Finally, we arrive at the conclusion of the argument, another proposition. The conclusion is often stated as the final stage of inference. It is affirmed on the basis the original premises, and the inference from them. Conclusions are often indicated by phrases such as “Therefore”, “It follows that”, “We conclude” and so on. Type of argument There are two traditional types of argument, deductive and inductive . What is deductive argument? A deductive argument provides conclusive proof of its conclusions. If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. A deductive argument is either valid or invalid. Here is an example of a deductive argument: Every event has a cause ( premise ). The universe has a beginning ( premise ). All beginnings involve an event ( premise ). This implies that the beginning of the universe involved an event ( inference ). Therefore , the universe has a cause ( inference and conclusion ). What is inductive argument? An inductive argument is one in which the premises are supposed to support the conclusion in such a way that if the premises are true, it is improbable that the conclusion would be false. Thus, the conclusion follows probably from the premises and inferences. Here is an example of an inductive argument: The last ten times I’ve played poker, I’ve won money ( premise ). I’m playing poker tonight ( premise ). I’ll win money tonight ( conclusion ). In this example, even if both premises are true, it is still possible for the conclusion to be false (maybe I’ll lose money tonight, for example). Words which tend to mark an argument as inductive – and hence probabilistic rather than necessary – include “probably”, “likely”, “possibly” and “reasonably”. Deductive arguments vs. Inductive arguments It may seem that inductive arguments are weaker than deductive arguments because there must always remain the possibility of their arriving at false conclusions, but that is not entirely true. With deductive arguments, our conclusions are already contained, even if implicitly, in our premises. This means that we don’t arrive at new information. Inductive arguments, on the other hand, do provide us with new ideas and thus may expand our knowledge about the world in a way that is impossible for deductive arguments to achieve. Thus, while deductive arguments may be used mot often with mathematics, most other fields of research make extensive use of inductive arguments. References: 1. http://www.virtualschool.edu/mon/SocialConstruction/Logic.html 2. http://atheism.about.com/od/criticalthinking/a/deductivearg.htm
Ok, I didn't come up with these tips myself, but I worked on them: to reduce the number from 70 to 6+6 for you, based on my own experience and common sense. If you prefer to go over the 70 ways yourself, here is the link: 70 ways to improve your English I used these six ways myself, so I know they work for me 4. Listen to MP3s . Although buying music on the internet is becoming more popular in many countries, not so many people know that you can download speech radio such as audio books (an actor reading out a novel) and speech radio. Not only is this better practice for your English than listening to English music, from sources like Scientific American, BBC and Australia's ABC Radio it is also free. 5. Listen to English music . Even listening to music while doing something else can help a little for things like getting used to the natural rhythm and tone of English speech, although the more time and attention you give to a song the more you will learn from listening to it again in the future. 29. Watch the same film or TV episode over and over again . This can not only save you money on DVDs, but will mean that you can really learn the language without having to study it. Some comedies can also get funnier the more you watch them, especially if you watch them with no subtitles and so understand a little more each time you watch it. 46. Listen to the radio news in English . You can make this easier by reading the news in English first, or even just by reading or listening to the news in your own language. 50. Learn a famous speech or poem in English by heart . Although you may never hear or get the chance to say exactly that line, having one memorable example of an English grammatical form in your head can make it much easier to learn other examples of the same grammar as you hear them. It is also something you can practice over and over without being as boring as grammatical drills. 64. Use an English-English dictionary . Trying to use a bilingual dictionary less and switching to a monolingual one can help you to stop translating in your head when you are speaking or listening, and other useful English vocabulary can come up while you are using the dictionary. Also try the next six ways, which sounds right to me 23. Have English radio on in the background while you are doing your housework . Even if you are not listening carefully, it will help you get a feel for natural English rhythm and intonation. 47. Read an English language newspaper . Freebie newspapers like Metro in London are usually the easiest to understand, followed by mid-brow titles like The Daily Express or The Daily Mail in English. Popular newspapers like The Sun are more difficult because of the idiomatic, slangy use of language and the number of jokes in the headlines and articles. 60. Find a foreign boyfriend or girlfriend . No tips on how to do this here, but everyone agrees that getting or even just looking for a date in English can be a great motivator to improve your language skills. 61. Arrange a conversation exchange . Swapping lessons and conversation with someone who wants to learn your language can be a good alternative for those who aren't looking for romance, or can sometimes lead onto dating for those who are! 65. Occasionally talk to or e-mail your friends in English . Many people find this a bit false or embarrassing, but if you think of it as a study club and set a particular time and/ or place, it is no different from studying math together. 67. Buy a speaking electronic dictionary . Although most electronic dictionaries are not as good as paper ones for the amount of information they give you about each word, some of them have the very useful function of saying the word with the correct pronunciation.
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