大家目前普遍的认知是第一人称尽量少用在学术写作中，但事实上，“我”和“我们”不建议使用是因为一些旧习。现在，主流又渐渐转移到比较积极，有吸引力的 写作风格上并允许第一人称。但是，“我”跟“我们”的使用上还是有些普遍的限制，例如，第一人称较常使用在摘要，绪论，讨论和结论中，而第三人称跟被动语态则较常在方法与结果中使用。 什么时候使用第一人称也没关系? 利用消除被动语态来澄清意义 建立权威和信誉 表达对议题的兴趣 与读者建立个人关系，特别是关于轶事或假想情 (在哲学，宗教和类似领域中常见，特别是探讨某些概念如何影响个人生活。此外，艺术学科也可能鼓励个人观点超过其他科目); 在讨论现有文献时强调或区分你的观点 营造一种对话感觉(少见于学术写作) 什么时候不该用第一人称? 这样做会失去客观性，并给人的印象是结果或观察对作者来说是独一无二的。 要保持客观的语气，表明你的研究已经尽量减少偏见。 表达自己的观点，像是”I think”都是不必要的，因为没有文献可参考的其他句子都应该必须是你的。 范例使用 以下例子比较了使用和避免第一人称代词。 范例一(建议第一人称): To understand the effects of global warming on coastal regions, changes in sea levels, storm surge occurrences and precipitation amounts were examined. We examined changes in sea levels, storm surge occurrences, and precipitation amounts to understand how global warming impacts coastal regions. 范例二 (不建议第一人称): From the various data points we have received , we observed that higher frequencies of runoffs from heavy rainfall have occurred in coastal regions where temperatures have increased by at least 0.9°C. Coastal regions with temperature increases averaging more than 0.9°C experienced higher frequencies of runoffs from heavy rainfall. 范例三 (First Person Preferred): In contrast to the study by Jones et al. (2001), which suggests that milk consumption is safe for adults, the Miller study (2005) revealed the potential hazards of ingesting milk . The authors confirm this latter finding. In contrast to the study by Jones et al. (2001), which suggests that milk consumption is safe for adults, the Miller study (2005) revealed the potential hazards of ingesting milk . We confirm this latter finding. 使用人称代词的其他重点 避免在句子的开头使用人称代词，因为句首是一个很容易引起注意的地方，因此可能会让读者失焦于其他重点(除非本来意旨就是要引起读者注意) 小心we的定义。 “We” 应该只能是作者们，而不会是读者，除非你就是要写会话文而不是学术文件。毕竟参与整个研究与分析结果的都只有作者，但这也不是亘古不变的规定。如果想用 “we” 来指示大群体的人，务必在前句先定义好，例如 As researchers, we frequently question…” 第一人称在现代英文使用法中，虽然逐渐被接受了，但是第二人称you依旧是不可使用的。 对于以上的重点必须要保留怀疑的态度。 再次检查你的投稿期刊或组织的作者须知 ，有些期刊可能会禁止使用人称代名词。 投稿额外加分小技巧就是在投稿之前，先看过该期刊最近发表的文章来了解最近期刊编辑最近偏好的风格与习惯。 额外阅读材料 The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill, “ Should I Use ‘I’? “ Writing Commons, “ Using First Person in an Academic Essay: When is It Okay? “ APA Style Blog, “ Use of First Person in APA Style .” Duke Graduate School’s scientific writing resource, “ Passive Voice in Scientific Writing .” American Chemical Society webinar, “ Active vs. passive voice in Scientific Writing .” Nature Education’s Scitable , “ Effective Writing .”
我们曾经分析并整理出了非英文母语者常见的五大写作误区。在这篇文章里，我们将详细介绍分析报告中发现的风格规范方面的写作错误，并列出一些可以帮助你改善和避免错误的方法。 有哪些风格规范错误 ? 我们发现的内容包括以下: · 被 动语态 : 使用「 to be + past participle 」 来呈现名词接受来自另一个名词的某个动作 。 · 赘字 : 可用几个单字来取代的超级长句(超过20-30字)或不必要的短语。 · 代名 词指示不清 : 当所有代名词或指示代名词(例：“this”和“that”)指示得不清楚的时候，例：“Joe gave Mark his book.”这里的“His”可以是Joe的或是Mark的。 · 政治不正确或冒犯用 词 : 性别指向用词或有关种族、宗教、性别或性向等的贬义词。 · 非正式用 语 : 非正式的用词或片语不适合用于正式或学术写作。 以上五大 类各占比例如下 : 其中被 动语态占了 67% ，再 进一步分析后我们发现所有研究论文的 29.5% 过度使用被动语态，而留学申请文件更高达 56.4% ! 但研究写作不可能完全摆脱被动语态吧？ 研究论文与学术写作的确定需要适用使用被动语态，但建议尽量减少使用。因为主动语态能帮助读者轻易了解哪个主词做了哪个动作，所以主动语态较能引领出清晰的写作。 使用了 许多包含复杂还艰苦深度用语的长句，我们应该要增进易读性，不需要再多写入被动语态混杂读者 。 再者， 被 动语态通常带来另一个问题：赘词 。 所以当你降低被动语态的使用比例时，你可以发现赘词问题与字数都大幅减少! 那在留学申请文书中使用被动语态有什么问题吗 ? 在留学文书中应尽所有方法避免使用被动语态，为什么？答案很简单，你的个人陈述(statementof purpose)唯一功能就是介绍你是谁，可想而知里面的主角就是你并且强调你的决策能力与在不同状况中你的处理动作。如果你使用被动语态，个人陈述会透出一种「我让事情就这样发生了」的氛围。我想应该没有学校想要录取一位不积极或被动等待事情发生的人吧？ 那该怎么改善写作风格呢 ? 1. 被动语态 · 修改被动语态： 找出句子的真正主词并重新排列成主动语态的典型句型「主词 + 动词 + 受 词」，来看看以下范文 ： § ✗ The speech was given bythe mayor. → ✓ The mayor gave the speech. § ✗ Noun2 + “be” + past participle of Verb + by + Noun1 → ✓ Noun1 + Verb + Noun2 · 想参考其他资讯，可参考以下链接: § Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): https://owl.english.purdue.edu/ owl/resource/539/05/ § Daily Writing Tips: http://www.dailywritingtips.com/7-examples-of-passive-voice/ § Grammar Girl: http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/active-voice-versus-passive-voice 2. 赘词 · 赘词的原因有很多，例如：过多的介词子句、填充词和动词名词形。我们针对各个问题都有提供文章说明 : § 超过论文字数限制，我能怎么改?消除介词 § ✗ inaddition to → ✓ also § ✗ take into consideration → ✓ consider § 英文写作时别再使用这24个填充字(Filler Words)跟短语! § ✗ This is actually good → ✓ This is good. § ✗ I just want to say I like this song. → ✓ I like this song. § 论文字数超过限制时，该如何缩减?修改动词名词形 § ✗ He must make a decision about his future. → ✓ He must decide his future. § ✗ This study takes many factors into consideration. → ✓ This study considers many factors. OR This study contemplates many factors. · 赘词常伴随另一个问题，就是 重 复性 。 § 除非是使用专业术语，否则应该要尽量避免在短短几行内就重复使用同样的字 。 § 使用同 义字 或考 虑使用不同句型，例如复合句 。 § 当使用同义字时，记得要考量写作风格与内容 。 § ✗ I like the house. The house is on a hill. → ✓ I like the house on the hill. · 想 参考其他资讯 ，可 参考以下链接 : § Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): https://owl.english.purdue.edu/ owl/resource/572/01/ § Daily Writing Tips: http://www.dailywritingtips.com/50plain-language-substitutions-for-wordy-phrases/ § Grammarly: https://www.grammarly.com/handbook/sentences/sentence-style/3/wordiness/ 3. 代名词指示不清 · 当使用所有代名词或指示代名词时，尽量让代名词离它指称的名词越近越好 。 · 一般来说，把代名词跟其所代称的名词分开会容易让人混淆，尤其是中间还有夹入另一个类似的名词时。 例如：his在Joe gave Mark his book.句中容易让人搞不清楚Joe给的书到底是Joe的还是Mark的。 想避免这个问题可以 1)重复使用名词而非代名词(但这方法会造成重复性)或 2)重新排列句型，如以下范文: § ✗ Joe gave Mark his book. → ✗ Joe gave Mark Joe's book (awkward repetition!) → ✓ Joe gave his book to Mark. OR Joe returned Mark's book to him. · 想 参考其他信息，可参考以下链接 : § Emory College of Arts and Sciences: http://ila.emory.edu/home/undergraduate/writing/pronounref.html § Bethune College, York University: http://bethune.yorku.ca/writing/pronoun/ § Grammar Bytes: http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/pronounreference.htm 4. 政治不正确或冒犯用词 · 虽然此类错误的占比不高，但还是有提出来讨论的价值 。 · 在这个来 自于不同背景与国家的人每天互动频繁的时代，我们应该要意识到自己的言语将如何影响他人。其中，我们更应该要注意不要随意发表任何可能冒犯他人的评论。在这样的前提之下，研究写作面临巨大的考验，因为研究时常涉及不同种族。当描述临床实验中的参与者或社会中的群体时，应该小心避免使用到贬低特定族群的用语 。 · 当提到人群时，尽量使用概括性的用词以及非歧视性的客观描述。 但不需要为了追求100%的政治 正确而压 力过大。以下范文提供参 考 : § ✗ Each man must fend for himself. → ✓ People should fend for themselves. § ✗ The trauma victim... → ✓ The person who experienced trauma... · 想参考其他信息，可参考以下链接: § UK Governmentguide on inclusive language: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/inclusive-communication/inclusive-language-words-to-use-and-avoid-when-writing-about-disability § The Economist on political correctness: http://www.economist.com/style-guide/political-correctness § University of Leicester on inclusive writing: http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/inclusive 5. 使用俗语 (非正式用语) · 俗 语就是日常生活中使用的非正式用语。 一般 来说，学术、商业与留学申请文书都应该要使用正式用法，这代表不可以使用缩写 ( 例如 : don't, can't, won't, 等 ) 和俚 语。大部分的惯用语都为俗语，所以如果不知道是否可以使用此类惯用语时，可以在 Collin's English Dictionary 等字典中 查询。 · 想 参考其他资讯，可参考以下链接 : § Purdue OnlineWriting Lab (OWL): https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ owlprint/608/ § Walden University: http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/scholarlyvoice/academicdiction 我们希望以上信息能够帮助你大致了解并改善风格规范的问题，在写作时，时刻谨慎规则能够起到一定作用的，但修改时建议一次只专注在完善一个面向我们也欢迎你随时查看与使用我们的英语润色服务。
过渡词的功能 ? 文章中用一文章中用一定词或词组，提示前后意思之间的联系，将他们有机联系起来，自然而然的由上文转入下文，这就是过渡词；用于两句或两段间的连接。过渡是一个主题换到另一个主题之间的转变，可以藉由词或短语来表现。过渡部分时常放在句首、独立子句和段落里，因此为不同的主题和想法之间建立连结。过渡词也是用来建立论文的「脉络」，并使各部分有逻辑地相互连接，进而让文章清楚易懂。 过渡用法的分类 我们可以将所有的转折用法分成四类: Additive transitions 提醒读者你要新增或参照其他信息 Adversative transitions 指出信息之间的冲突或不一致 Causal transitions 指出后果和因果关系 Sequential transitions 澄清顺序和信息的序列和论文的整体架构 Additive Transitions 这一类的过渡皆表示在句子和段落之间有新信息加入，功能包含介绍或强调重点、参照先前提到的信息、加上新的状况或指名某一部分的信息是相当重要的。 Adversative Transitions 这些表达用来区分事实、论点和其他信息，可利用比对以展现相异处或提供反对论点、质疑某个事实或论点的重要性或替换并提供其他替换。 Causal Transitions 以下这些过渡词指出原因、条件、目的、前提和因果关系，通常出现于论文中的一个重要观点被建立之后或为了讨论假设性的关系或情况。 Sequential Transitions 这些词组将论文按照连续性或动作顺序组织架构，像是以参照先前提到的信息，以标示出额外插入的信息和以总结论文的方式。一连串的过渡词是建构架构的必经过程，帮助读者理解整个过程。 如何挑 选正确的转折用 法 过渡表达是写作中相当普遍的用法，但也应为很好用所以容易被误用或滥用，导致写作质量不佳。以下提供一些技巧帮助你挑选出最适当的转折用法: Check for overused, awkward, or absent transitions when you are reading through and/or editing your paper. Don't spend too much time trying to find the “perfect” transition while writing the paper. When you a place where a transition could connect ideas, establish relationships, and make it easier for the reader to understand your point, use the list to find a suitable transition term or phrase. Similarly, if you have repeat some terms again and again, find a substitute transition from the list and use that instead. This will help vary your writing and enhance communication of ideas. Read the beginning of each paragraph. Did you include a transition? If not, look at the information in that paragraph and of the preceding paragraph and askyourself: “How does this information connect?” Then locate the best transition from the list. Check the structure of your paper—are your ideas clearly laid out in order? You should be able to locate sequence terms such as “first,” “second,”“following this,” “another,” “in addition,” “finally,” “in conclusion,” etc. These terms will help outline your paper for the reader.
英文 写 作中如何使用破折 号 (Dashes) 破折 号应可被视为用途最多样的标点符号，但是，如同分号，破折号在很多文章中都并未被适当活用。在许多情况下，破折号可以被当作逗号、括号或是冒号使用，但却可以带来细微的差异 。 使用破折 号替代逗号 当写到插入语时，前后各使用一个破折号可以代替逗号，破折号更有 强 调 之意， 让读者能更加集中在破折号中提到的讯息 。 使用逗 号导入插入语 : And so, when the baby was born in June, nearly two months premature, the parents were happy but quite nervous, and they still had to buy all of the baby supplies . 使用破折 号导入插入语 : And so, when the baby was born in June—nearly two months premature—the parents were happy but quite nervous, and they still had to buy all of the baby supplies . (* 破折 号强调 ” baby was premature” 的重点，表 现出此内容在句中的重要性 ) 使用破折 号替代括号 前后各使用一 个破折号可代替括号， 因为破折号较为非正式，因此在学术英文中较少出现 。但是，使用破折号可较明显的将句子中断，因此也更能强调内容 。 当使用破折号代替括号时，原来接在括号后的标点符号应删除 ： 使用括 号 : After taking all of his final exams (including seven essays and three multiple choice tests), David just wanted to sleep. 使用破折 号 : After taking all of his final exams—including seven essays and three multiple choice tests—David just wanted to sleep. * 破折 号较为显而易见，因此较能有效地中断句子并吸引读者注意 。 若 为在句子的最后选择使用破折号代替括号，则只需要使用一个破折号 ( 而非前后各一 ) 使用括弧 : That coffee shop offers a selection of exotic gourmet coffee (or at least that is how they describe it). 使用破折 号 : That coffee shop offers a selection of exotic gourmet coffee—or at least that is how they describe it. *The dash seems to work especially well when placed at the end of a sentence—it extends the sentence like an addendum (补充说明) . 使用破折 号替代冒号 当在 强调句子的结论 时，使用破折号代替冒号可以带出不一样的意义：破折号可导出附加的内容，且使用方式更为弹性；破折号和冒号相比较为非正式 。 冒 号 : T he executives finally decided what they would do with the company: sell it at a loss. 单一破折号 : The executives finally decided what they would do with the company—sell it at a loss. 冒 号 : Let’s go where we went last year: Disneyland! 单一破折号 : Let’s go where we went last year—Disneyland! * 这里使用破折号可以传达出一种期待感（或不可避性） , 也 会让文章带有社论色彩 。 在使用符 号时 ，要考 虑 到上下文 内 容及 读 者 在 撰 写文章并选用标点符号时，应考虑书写的内容为何、读者为谁。举例而言，研究者若想在期刊上发表论文，应该先了解该期刊大部分的作者如何使用标点符号。在撰写新闻、杂志等英文文章内容时，也是采取同样的原则 。 到今天为止，在英文写作中，大家在标点符号使用方面需要知道的注意点，已经全部介绍完了，可能也还不够全面，欢迎大家讨论补充。
在英文写作时，标点符号该如何正确使用，许多人对此可能没有真正注意过。其实在进行学术论文写作时，遵循标点符号的使用准则也是非常重要的。举个简单的例子，如果用逗号分隔两个独立不相关的句子，这定会让读者感到困惑而影响表达力。若适当地使用分号来分隔，则可使文章更加通顺易懂。 因此，在进行英文写作的过程中，使用标点符号，如逗号comma (,), 冒号colon (:), 分号semicolon (;), 或破折号dash (—)时，有哪些准则需要被遵守呢？ 本篇会介绍一下关于“分号”的使用的方法。 英文 写 作中如何使用分 号 (Semicolon) 在分隔两个独立的概念 ( 两个独立的从句 )时 ，我们使用分号，但前提是 这两个句子是有相关性的。当陈列复杂的概念或短语，并且句中包含逗号时，适合使用分号来分隔。分号拥有逗号的功能，但包含更多意思，亦有冒号的功能， 但在使用起来更加灵活。 在句中加入 两个或多个概念，而这些概念互为平等时 ： The universe has always called to human beings; there could be no more final frontier than space. 加入 两个用连接副词或转折片语连接的独立从句 ： Sam thought David was inviting him to the picnic to enjoy a nice day out; as it turned out, David was planning a surprise birthday party. 表达许多或一系列不同项，每项中包含逗号时，或者每项相对长且性质较复杂： Our family members came all the way from Denver, Colorado; Rochester, Minnesota; and even Paris, France. 使用 对等连接词连接两个独立从句 ( 若 两个从句已使用逗号分隔 ) ，或者 当两个从句较长时 ： My main research objective is to isolate the cause of the disease, as well as to contribute to the existing literature; for this will bring an end to starvation across the continent, create new study designs related to epidemiology, and change the very paradigm of my research field. 应使用分号而非逗号的情况 错误范例 : The specimens were treated properly, however, they were not stored properly. 正确范例 : The specimens were treated properly; however, they were not stored properly. * 副 词 “ however ” 表示的是 连接两个独立的从句； 不要用逗 号去连接两个不包含并列连词 (and, but, or, nor 等等 ) 的 独立从句 。 错误范例 : The sun is wonderful: it produces light, which plants need to survive, it gives us warmth, which is useful for most life, and it makes a sad day happier, which is obviously a positive trait! 正确范例 : The sun is wonderful: it produces light, which plants need to survive; it gives us warmth, which is useful for most life; and it makes a sad day happier, which is obviously a positive trait! * 若只使用逗 号，则无法清楚的表明陈列的项目是什么。因此，要善用冒号用来分开包含逗号的项目 。
在英文写作时，标点符号该如何正确使用，许多人对此可能没有真正注意过。其实在进行学术论文写作时，遵循标点符号的使用准则也是非常重要的。举个简单的例子，如果用逗号分隔两个独立不相关的句子，这定会让读者感到困惑而影响表达力。若适当地使用分号来分隔，则可使文章更加通顺易懂。 因此，在进行英文写作的过程中，使用标点符号，如逗号comma (,), 冒号colon (:), 分号semicolon (;), 或破折号dash (—)时，有哪些准则需要被遵守呢？ 本篇会介绍一下关于“冒号”的使用的方法。 英文 写作中如何使用冒号 (Colon) 冒 号来条列下文，并告诉读者 “ Here ’ s what I mean. ” 。通常在英文 写作中，冒号不常被使 用，除非 您有许多内容需要列举，冒号的使用准则较为严谨，但也相对容易被记住 。 介 绍一个或多个项目 ： Humans use five major senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. 分隔 两个独立从句，第二个从句用来叙述、 说明、改写 或延伸第一个从句 ： Martha realized that her worst fear was coming true: her son was being sent to war. (* 冒 号后用独立的从句解释 Martha ’ s fear ) 商 业书信或正式信件开头问候语 ： To the Central Valley Committee Chairman: 其他冒 号使用准则 冒号后的第一个字母不要大写。但在 3种情况下例外 ： 1，当其是专有名词时；2，当其为引述句时；3，当其是若干句子的首句时。 错误范例 : I have three desires: To eat, sleep, and work. 正确范例 : I have three desires: to eat, sleep, and work. 当引号内包含多个句子，许多作者会倾向使用冒号而非逗号来引出内容 ： In Chapter 3, the author explains his theory: “Dogs have dreams, but they don't dream as humans do. Their dreams reflect a primal desire for pleasure, whereas humans are preoccupied with the ego and self-image. This is equally true in wakefulness and sleep.” 接在冒 号之后的内容不一定要是完整的句子，可以是单词或短语 ： There is one mantra that can sum up our position towards climate change: urgent action. 常 见冒号错误 分隔平等 并且无相关的两个从句 ： 错误范例 : Sarah and her friends loved spending time on the mountain: nature always held a special meaning for them. 正确范例 : Sarah and her friends loved spending time on the mountain; nature always held a special meaning for them. (* 若 两个从句完全无相关，则应使用句号；若第二个从句和第一个从句有某种程度相关，并且并非用来陈述、说明或改写第一个子句，则使用分号分隔 ) 过度使用冒号 : 冒 号属于强调性质的标点符号，要避免过多使用。请将冒号想像为暂停标志，用来引起读者注意 “Hey! Pay attention to this. This is important.” 如果路上有 过多的暂停标志，则无法顺利并快速的前进，同样的道理，若文章中包含过多的冒号，读者也无法顺利阅读。 冒号主要用来吸引读者注意力并清楚的指出重要信息，因此，许多作者会使用冒号来导出他们的重要论点或科学论据。
许多人不清楚在英文写作时标点符号该如何使用，但在写作学术论文时，遵循标点符号的使用准则是非常重要的。举个简单的例子，如果用逗号分隔两个独立不相关的句子会让读者感到困惑，但若适当的使用分号分隔则可使文章更加通顺易懂。因此，当在英文论文或文章中使用标点符号，如逗号 comma (,), 冒 号 colon (:), 分 号 semicolon (;), 或破折 号 dash ( — ) 时，请注意以下使用准则。 本篇详细介绍逗号的使用规则。 英文 写作中如何使用逗号 (Comma) 在大部分的 写作中，逗号是最常被使用的标点符号。但因为逗号的使用场景和使用要求最多，因此许多人会对如何正确使用感到困惑，以下是逗号的几点重要功能，及其适当的使用时机 。 罗列事物或短语时 : I bought bread, cheese, and pickles at the grocery store. 需要分隔 两个独立的较长从句，并使用连接词连接时 ： Astronomers have known about the positions of stars for centuries , but they didn’t understand that the earth revolves around the sun. 在介 绍性短句的后面 : In preparation for the next convention , the representatives studied up on the most important issues. 当需要区分附加说明部分的句子 (parenthetical phrase) ，或要分隔 插入语 (interrupter) 时 : All doctors , if they care about their patients , are concerned with good office hygiene. 逗 号的常见错误使用案 例 Comma splice . 不要在未使用 连接词的情况下，使用逗号分隔两个独立的从 句。 错误范例 : Thousands of protesters showed up on the streets , they were shouting and carrying large posters. 正确范例 : Thousands of protesters showed up on the streets ; they were shouting and carrying large posters. Combining lengthy phrases . 在 复合句中使用逗号或用逗号来分隔短句会造成读者的困惑，这种情况应使用分号 。 错误范例 : Some useful subjects are English , which is an international language , math , which is used in all domains of sciences and social sciences , and philosophy , which underpins many other areas of study. 正确范例 : Some useful subjects are English, which is an international language ; math, which is used in all sciences and social sciences; and philosophy, which underpins many other areas of study.
上一篇 文章 中，我们讲解了冠词相关的常见英文写作错误，本章中将继续对常见英语语法写作错误进行分析。 . 用错介词 介词是个比较棘手的文法，好消息是通常你可以用动词来替换掉介词短语! 当你需要使用建立关系的单词时，这里有几个技巧: 惯用语中的介词是固定的: 这一类都没有遵循介系词的规则，如果不太确定的话，可以利用 Merriam-Webster’s 来检查 不要连续用两个介词: 口语上常这样没有关系，但在写作上必需要避免。例如: “I had to get off of the train.” → “ I got off the train.” 点击右侧的附档可以查看 常用介词列表 (包含一般常见意义与句子) List-of-Common-English-Prepositions1.pdf 以下是由Grammar.net制作的图片，介绍了 14对容易混淆的介词差异 也可以使用像Google Book’s N-gram Viewer ，其涵盖了1800年到2000年的所有书本内容，并计算各词语发生的频率。如果你对于介词的使用有疑虑，输入该短语的不同变形(用逗号分开)后点击”enter.” 该短语的使用频率就会以图表呈现，而应该要选择2000年最常被使用的片语(除非你想使用特定年代的语言)。下列是范例”to conduct research on,” 来搜索动词介词。 想参考其他资源，可以点击以下链接: Englishgrammar.org: https://www.englishgrammar.org/commonly-confused-prepositions/ Grammar.net: http://www.grammar.net/wp-content /uploads/2011/03/Prepositions700x1150.png Google Book’s N-gram Viewer: N-gram Viewer 主语动词一致性 也就是动词必须与主语的单复数一致。问题常发生于主语有介词短语的时候，记得动词必须与 介词前的名词单复数一致。 ✓ Noun1 + Preposition + Noun2 + Verb that agrees with Noun1 ✗ The way in which we communicate with others have changed dramatically.→ ✓The way in which we communicate with others has changed dramatically. 想 参考其他资源，可以点击以下链接: Purdue’s Online Writing Lab (OWL): https://owl.english.purdue.edu/ owl/resource/599/01/ Grammarbook.com: http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp 动词型态: 两个最常发生的错误是使用错误分词与过度使用现在分词。 错误分词 留意不规则动词，有任何疑问可以利用 Merriam-Webster 来确认是否拼写正确。 美式英语与英式英语在特定动词分词的拼写上不太一样，例如:美国使用”learned”而英国则使用”learned”和”learnt” 。 过度使用现在分词 使用现在简单式来描述一般事实、习惯和某物的状态。 ✗ The sun is always rising in the east.→ ✓ The sun always rises in the east. 现在进行式 (verb+ing)用来描述 暂时性 动作和表示等等想要做的事。当你想要说明在某个动作的进行过程中也发生另一件事情时，可以使用现在进行式。 ✗ I visit my sister this week. → ✓ I am visiting my sister this week. 想参考其他资源，可以点击以下链接: Grammarly verb tense review: https://www.grammarly.com/blog/verb-tenses/ Grammarly verb forms: https://www.grammarly.com/blog/verb-forms/ EF Education First verb tense review: http://www.ef.com/english-resources /english-grammar/verbs/ John Jay College, CUNY’s overview of English verb tenses: http://resources.jjay. cuny.edu/erc/tutoring/pdfs/27.pdf University of Victoria’s guide to simple present vs. present continuous: http://web2 .uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/grammar/simcon.htm Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) verb tense overview: https://owl.english.purdue .edu/owl/resource/601/01/ 动词时态转换： 在同一子句中的动词必须使用同样的时态， 如果混用动词时态则可能让读者感到疑惑。 ✗ Joe watched the movie and laughs out loud. → ✓ “Joe watched the movie and laughed out loud,” or “Joe is watching the movie and is laughing out loud” . 谈到特定主题 ，重复确认副词子句或句子的动词时态。 ✗ Joe eats chocolate whenever he got upset. → ✓ “Joe eats chocolate whenever he gets upset,” or “Joe ate chocolate whenever he got upset” . 有时候混用时态也是合理的，例如你在表示一个动作的发展时。 ✓ I am editing the book that I wrote . [Naturally, to edit a book, it must already be written. 想参考其他资源，可以点击以下链接: Grammarly : https://www.grammarly.com/blog/verb-tense-consistency/ Daily Writing Tips: http://www.dailywritingtips.com/beware-the-shifting-tense/ | 英语博客 | 论文润色 | 留学文书批改 | 托福写作修改 | 服务费用 | FAQ | 关于Wordvice |
很多人花了很多时间做研究，想发表论文还得先通过一连串投稿考验，却常常很难如期和如愿。这时候，可能有人会想那就一次投个八九家期刊，总会中一个吧? 这就中了投稿大忌了，投稿的黄金原则就是绝对不能一稿多投。 在这篇文章中，我们将会说明同时投稿到一家以上的期刊会有什么后果、该怎么避免陷阱，以及什么时候可以再投稿论文。 为什么不能“一稿多投” 不能同时投稿的原因有多个，如道德规范、法律问题、现实商业因素，甚至是名誉上的考量。 名誉考量 期刊备受尊敬是因为他们发表的是受同行审核过的高品质研究成果，期刊以能为读者挑选出最新颖与值得注目的研究为傲，所以读者从而也非常相信期刊。如果读者发现期刊竟然发表一些其他期刊已经发布的内容，读者会进而怀疑其他期刊发表内容是不是也是旧资讯。再来，不同期刊同时刊登相同研究的话，可能会无意间夸大其议题的重要性。读者可能会误以为有很多研究同时针对同一议题进行，且刚好每一个都获得了同样的结果。判断不同期刊刊登的研究是不是由同一组研究人员所做或是否为重复的文章，不应该是读者的责任。 法律因素 在投稿时，大部分的情况作者可以保有著作权，但必须独家授发表权给这个期刊，否则期刊不会审核论文。因此，从法律的角度来看，该期刊拥有该论文的唯一发表权 (除了一些例外，通常不涉及授予其他出版商类似的权利)。想想看要是你独家授权给两间期刊，结果幸运的他们都接受你的论文了，这个幸运就是你的不幸。期刊必须浪费时间与精力去解决这个授权冲突，最后可能导致论文先后被拒稿的情况。如果论文已经被刊登了，就会发生公开撤稿的情形。 现实商业考量 作者不是唯一一个担心自己浪费时间在投稿上的人，其他人也是一样的。高影响因子期刊的审稿时间大约是几个月起跳，这是因为期刊的编辑、审稿者与其他的员工需要投注大量时间和资源来审核上千份的论文。你担心无法投稿成功，期刊则担心无法筛选出最相关与创新的研究结果。因此，期刊无法承担在最后一刻撤回稿件的巨大成本与风险，所以期刊的常见要求是作者一次只能投一所。 最后，限制作者一次只能投一间大幅降低了编辑审核的作业量，代表编辑有更多时间能用于审核其他的论文。如果大家都能一稿多投，期刊编辑将会收到比现在还要更多的量，则可能导致审稿期间拉更长。 一稿多投的后果 如上所述，其中一个后果就是期刊出于种种考量可能拒绝你的稿件，或撤稿已刊登的稿件。另外一种期刊可能采取的作法是要求你将长篇论文改写成短文，并保留对期刊读者来说有用的资讯。 最后，如果你被发现违反期刊的投稿规定，你可能会失去期刊的信任。后果就是期刊会更加仔细检查你之后的投稿文章来确保没有任何的道德议题。 一稿多投的其他问题 一稿多投是投稿过程中你可能会面临到的其中一个问题，重叠性高的研究也可能让编辑有警戒心。举例来说，把自己的研究结果分成好几份论文 (又称萨拉米香肠战术,salami slicing)发表的可能性。但是拆分研究来写论文不代表会被拒绝，只要分出来的每一份论文都有点(论文呈现不同的研究结果)，使其不重复，期刊还是有可能接收你的文章。 虽然普遍不鼓励萨拉米香肠战术，你还是可以根据一个大型的实验来撰写多份论文并投稿，多份论文使用共同的研究数据但聚焦在尚未被其他论文讨论过的议题就可以。 什么情况下可以一稿多投 投稿前提问(Pre-submission queries) 投稿之前都可以询问期刊编辑，这样一来可以先排除掉不适合你论文的期刊。这些询问信件(query letters)要简明扼要的介绍自己的论文内容，可以同时寄给多个期刊，如果收到期刊的正面回复，那你就可以决定是否要正式投给这个期刊开启投稿程序。从很多方面来看，投稿前提问可以节省彼此时间和资源。 出版前或未出版之文章(Pre-printing) 在正式发表之前，Pre-printing是另一个方法可以先占有该研究的发表优先权。本着开放获取的精神，pre-printing是一个与科学界分享数据权限来介绍自己研究结果。举例来说，physical sciences database arXiv就是最早创立electronic pre-print的平台之一。 因为pre-prints不是同行审稿过的，因此作者不应该把这个当成替代实际投稿期刊发表的手段。但是 pre-printing的其中一个好处是你在发表pre-print的日期时就已经拥有该研究议题的优先发表权，而不是之后正式论文发表的日期。 所以，如果你担心某个研究议题的第一个发表地位会先被其他人抢走， pre-prints是一个不错的方法。 另外需要注意的是 假设你打算投稿到双盲审查的期刊，你就不可以使用这个方法。 双盲审查的目的就是为了排除所有作者相关信息所造成的偏见。然而，Pre-printing可能会影响到双盲审查的目的，因为论文内容可能已经在数据库中被审查编辑看过了。因此，期刊编辑就得花更多时间来找其他还没看过pre-print内容的编辑来审查论文。编辑如果需要花更多的时间来帮你找审查编辑，那么论文被接收的可能性就会小很多。 额外信息 想参考额外关于同时投稿多间期刊的道德议题，请参考以下: Elsevier Factsheet, “ Simultaneous Submission/ Multiple, Duplicate Publication .” International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), “ Overlapping Publications .” Elizabeth Wager, “ Why You Should not Submit Your Work to More than One Journal at a Time .” Elsevier’s case studies regarding multiple publications: Case Study 1 , Case Study 2 , and Case Study 3 . Committee on Publication Ethics, “ What to Do If You Suspect Redundant (Duplicate) Publication (A) .” Committee on Publication Ethics, “ What to Do If You Suspect Redundant (Duplicate) Publication (B) .” | 英语博客 | 论文润色 | 学术论文翻译 | 学科母语编辑 | 关于我们 |
许多大学老师都曾被有意向到海外留学的学生邀请写一封推荐信。申请国外研究生时，大多学校通常会要求学生提供两至三封的推荐信，而一封好的推荐信能够增加被推荐人成功录取的几率，其重要性无需多言。本篇文章里Wordvice会向大家说明，老师应当给怎样的同学做推荐，以及推荐信应包含哪些内容，在文章最后我们将提供推荐信范文供参考。 英文推荐信撰写技巧 当学生找来写推荐信时，请记住一个基本准则：你应该是对这个学生有充分了解的。作为推荐人，最好了解申请者的优点且需熟悉申请者学习情况、学习目的是否明确、适应能力、创造能力、性格和特长等。许多学生在寻找推荐人时，往往第一看重的是推荐人的名气，如果遇到这样的同学，大可以建议他去找更熟悉他的老师来写推荐信。 在写推荐信时，要包含以下几个重点和方向： 推荐人的全名与申请人的基本情况介绍 交待推荐人与申请者的关系（如何认识、了解程度、关系) 对申请者的基本评价（如：专业基础、个性、人品、特点、工作态度、发展潜力和实例）要注意相对于强调实务应变能力的公司，学校更看重的是学生的学术潜能； 推荐人可以介绍申请人曾获得奖励、发表的论文、参加过的重要学术会议、其曾在学生组织或学术团体中的任职来支撑自己对申请人的正面评价 推荐人必须清楚地表明被推荐人留学的身份是研究生还是访问学者，专业领域及研究方向 必须表明推荐人的态度是极力推荐还是保留推荐 如果对学生足够了解，那么可以在信中描述被推荐人的人格特质，甚至如何克服挫折或压力 量化表现：提供资料给推荐者时，尽量以「他的成绩排在全系的10%-15%」，或「他在哪些课程里表现很好，而这个课程需要良好的C++编程设计能力以及Matlab的某某应用」。换言之，让你的表现是具有参考指标的 英文推荐信范文 以下提供英文推荐信模板： To the Graduate Admissions Department at : (OR) To the Graduate Admissions Department at : (第一段说明推荐者的职位、与申请者之间的关系，以及对申请者的整体评价) It is my pleasure to recommend Jane Doe for admission to at . I am an associate professor of at . I came to know Jane while teaching her in . The course comprised . Jane distinguished herself by submitting an exceptionally well researched and interesting project on . She is one of the very best students that I have taught in the past five years in respect of her writing ability and research skills. (第二段具体说明申请者的特质和技能，并提供具体事例证明申请者的能力) Overall, Jane is highly intelligent and has good problem-solving skills. Her demonstrated her ability to come a detailed understanding of the lifestyles of pre-historic hominids, and to analyze the consequences of those practices on evolution. She gave a particularly interesting discussion of the difficult practice of tool-shaping and a profound engagement with the use and the implications of these tools. Her overall intelligence is also reflected in her grades for the course, which were among the highest in the class. (第三段说明更多的特质、技能以及事例说明) Jane has excellent communication skills. Her written work is both clear and concise, as well as interesting to read. She demonstrated her oral articulateness in the discussion sections that were an integral part of the course. Each discussion section focused on a particular aspect of Olduvian Gorge hominids. Students were required analyze unsolved questions and to develop and defend their own theories. Jane was highly proficient in applying the course material in analyzing these “puzzles.” She always explained her views very concisely and gave supporting arguments that were both clear and persuasive. Jane also demonstrated good teamwork skills in group assignments. (第四段说明更多的特质、技能以及事例说明) At a personal level, Jane is a well-disciplined, industrious student with a pleasant personality. Throughout the course, Jane demonstrated great perseverance and initiative. Not only was she interested in and motivated to learn the material, but she also put great work into assimilating it to her own experience and developing her own ideas about each topic that we discussed. (第五段说明为何推荐申请者，以及申请者为什么适合该专业或学校) Jane is unquestionably an exceptional candidate for graduate study in . Jane’s work in suggests that she would greatly benefit from the opportunities for intellectual development provided by a sustained period of graduate study. She has proven herself to have the perseverance, initiative, and intellectual creativity necessary to complete an advanced graduate degree. I would therefore highly recommend Jane Doe. If her performance in my class is a good indication of how she would perform as a graduate student, she would be an extremely positive asset to your program. (第六段：礼貌性地表示可以协助提供更多信息) If I can be of any further assistance, or provide you with any further information, please do not hesitate to contact me. Sincerely, 撰写推荐信时，非常容易出现的问题就是用词等英文表现不够正式formal。这时，则需要注意将撰写好的推荐信再交给专业的英语母语润色专家来进行润稿，让推荐信更加具有可读性和说服力，也体现了推荐人本身良好的英文素养和专业形象。 | 英语博客 | 论文润色 | 学术论文翻译 | 学科母语编辑 | 关于我们 |
No. 8 连续逗号与连续分号的使用 (一个句子中) a. 连续逗号：用于分割一系列超过2个的单词、词组和从句， 最后一项用and或or连接。 常规使用系列逗号有助于避免歧义。 例子： 1. The patient can be given penicillin , ampicillin , or erythromycin. 2. The tumor was bloody , necrotic , and malodorous. 3. The mice ate the food , drank the water , and then slept for an average of three hours. *注意：有的文体指导里介绍在最后一项的 and或者 or之前不使用逗号，但是如果用逗号的话句子含义会更清晰。 b. 连续分号（复杂情况下）：用于分割一系列超过2个的较大、较复杂的词组和从句，最后一项用and或or连接。 常规使用系列分号有助于避免歧义。 例子： 1. In the morning, the animals should be given water, feed, and medication ; in the afternoon, only water and feed ; and in the evening, water, feed, and medication. 2. The rates of specimens with no change in size were 30-35% for Groups 1, 2, and 3 ; 40-45% for Groups 4, 5, and 6 ; and 50-55% for Groups 7, 8, and 9. 3. The findings were: 1) Some patients (42%) had normal sleep patterns ; 2) Some patients (23%) had erratic sleep patterns, but with normal total amounts of sleep ; and 3) Some patients (35%) suffered from sleep apnea. No. 9 连字符 Hyphen ，短破折号 En dash ，长破折号 Em dash a. 连字符Hyphen: Used as a connector 例子： 1. 把前缀或者后缀和词干连接起来： ex-husband, self-inflicted, meta-analysis, etc. 2. 连接复合词： light-year, cure-all 3. 连接第二个元素是过去或现在分词的复合修饰语 ： seizure-inducing drugs, well-known physicist, well-established rules 4. 当不使用连字符时可能不明确时连接复合修饰语： low-frequency amplitudes, a large-bowel obstruction 5. 连接修饰语与数值和单位。年龄术语采用双连字符： a 5-g dose, 50-km radius, a 3-year-old child 6. 连接拼写的分数： one-third of the population, thirty-two hundredths 7. 当拼写出来时，将从 21到99的复合 基数词 和复合序数词连接起来： Eighty-five samples were collected. He pointed to the Sixty-Sixth Congress. 8. 连接需要连字符的才能得到 正确含义的 动词： a) He re-covered the explored well. ...BUT He recovered quickly from the operation. b) Such patients are usually re-treated. ...BUT The water retreated from the structures. 9. 在引用中连接页码范围： 454-455, 35-37. 10. 连接所谓的“电子术语”，其中“e”代表“电子”： e-mail, e-commerce, e-business b. 短破折号En dash： 大写字母N.的长度，主要用于连接，在大多数情况下意味着“through”。 例子： 1. link 2 words representing items of equal rank, including compound modifiers. In this case, the en dash means and or to: north–south avenues, cost–benefit analysis, hexane–benzene solvent, author–editor relationship 2. 以齐名的方式连接2个人的姓名： Mann–Whitney U test, Michaelis–Menten kinetics 3. 连接包含连字符元素的词语： sugarmaple– dominated forest c. 长破折号Em dash： 大写字母M.的长度， 用作分隔符，用于在句子中强烈的中断。 例子： 1. 像逗号和括号一样使用：Cancer—the major cause of death in this population—is often difficult to detect in the early stages. No. 10 动词时态 a. 撰写文章时， 一般* 参照 使用以下动词时态指南： 1. Introduction - Present tense and past tense (e.g. when discussing previous literature) 2. Methods - Past tense 3. Results - Past tense 4. Discussion - Present tense (except when referring back to the results of the present study) * 在这里使用 一般 ，是因为总是有例外。在写论文时，请参考特定期刊的写作指南。 b. As editors, sometimes we find text in which the tense is used incorrectly, or that goes contrary to what we are generally see. 作为编辑，有时候我们会发现论文稿件中的时态不正确，或者与我们“常见”的相反。 在这种情况下，如果稿件的英文看起来不错，而且如果改变时态对论文的影响较大的话，那么有时可以无需修改。记住，比起正确的动词时态，清晰明确的科学写作是最重要的。 * No. 8 – No. 10: Reference: Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee. Scientific style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers. 7th ed. Reston (VA): The Council; 2006. 英文写作小贴士【上】 英文写作小贴士【中】 100 / 200 / 300元优惠券等你拿 脑力劳动节 多劳多得 分享光荣
No.6 词首字母大小写问题 有客户最近向理文编辑咨询关于地名和地理学术语如何正确大写的问题。因为中文不牵涉大写问题，所以中文词语的作者可能会有点迷惑。其实大写问题对于英语词语的作者而言也不太容 易理顺。大写问题虽然棘手，但是下面的小贴士会对您有所帮助。 一般而言定义明确的地区的首写词要大写，以下是 The Economist Style Guide 的建议： “Use upper case for definite geographical places, regions, areas and countries, and for vague but recognised political or geographical areas…lower case for east, west, north, south except when part of a name.” （大写用于明确的地理学位置、地区、区域、国家以及模糊但是被认可的行政或地理区域 east, west, north, south 等用小写，但当他们是名称一部分的时候除外。） 这条通用法则也适用于地球表面的地带，如North Temperate Zone, the Equator 等。 以下是更多法则： - 通常而言，指南针上的方位（如north, southeast 等）和形容词（如western, central, upper, lower等）不需要大写 - 专有名词中的一般地理学名词需要首字母大写，如Atlantic Ocean, Mt. Muztagata 等 - 首字母大写的地理学名词之后的一般术语不需要大写，如Yangtze River valley - 名词复数要小写，如Gobi and Taklamakan deserts - “the”只有在其为正式地名一部分的时候才大写，如The Bahamas, the Netherlands 关于某个地名如果你不清楚正确的大写方法，你可以在Google Scholar上搜索一下 (http://scholar.google.com/)。多数人的意见不见得就是正确的，但是可以给你一些关于正确大 写的线索。请记住，你写作的目的是要清楚地表述你的科研成果。注意正确的大写不仅仅是为了 遵守某些专断的规则，你的论文需要正确运用大写的原因是，给读者一个关于你的采集地的更精 确的概念，特别是当他们还不熟悉你的研究领域的时候。 以下是一些地理学术语例子，告诉你哪些需要大写而哪些不需要： Upper case（大写） - East Asia - South-East Asia - Central Asia - Central America - North Korea - South Africa - the North Atlantic - the Middle East - The Arctic - The Hague - The Gambia Lower case （小写） - central Europe - western China - southern Beijing - western Mongolia - eastern Africa - northern North Korea - the central Gobi - the lower Yangtze River - the Philippines 购买 The Columbia Gazetteer of the World ( http://www.columbiagazetteer.org/ ，此链 接可免费试用)，或者 Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary 可能会对你有所帮助。 参考书目： The Economist Style Guide, Capitalization - Places (http://www.economist.com/research/styleGuide/index.cfm?page=805663) Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee. Scientific Style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers , 7th ed. Reston (VA): The Council; 2006. Section 9.7.3, Pg. 120 No.7 常见易混单词 英语中有许多对单词很容易混淆。此贴士主要讨论拼写相近而意义不同单词，或者充当不同 词性的单词。 在看常用易混单词的释义之前，请先做以下小测试检验一下自己的知识。答案解答在文末。 affect = A, effect = B, capability = C, capacity = D, continually = E, continuous = F, adverse = G, aversion = H 1. The _______ conditions caused by the hurricane prevented the plane from taking off. 2. Despite the skill of its employees, the small factory did not have the ________ to produce large amounts of goods. 3. The _________ noise of the waves crashing on the beach was very relaxing. 4. Luckily, the medicine did not adversely ______ the patient. 5. Because he had not received any training, John did not have the __________ to repair the complicated machinery. 6. Many scientists believe that global warming is the ______ of greenhouse-gas emissions. 7. Because of she is a vegetarian, Susan had an ________ to the idea of going to the Korean Barbeque restaurant. 8. The website is ___________ updated. 常见易混单词列表 1. capability/capacity capability: a certain ability, the quality of being capable, a potential aptitude. capacity: the ability to contain; the volume or amount that fits in a certain container. 2. compliment/complement complement: a worthy addition (n.) (e.g., The girl’s pink cheeks were the perfect complement to her dark eyes.) compliment: to praise (v.); a piece of praise (n.) (e.g., The girl accepted the compliment with a shy blush.) 3. trial/trail This is often the result of a simple typing error. trial: a tryout or experiment to test quality, value, or usefulness of something (e.g., clinical trial). It also refers to the number of repetitions of an experiment. trail: a marked or established path or route, or a course followed or to be followed (e.g., mountain trail). 4. intercellular/intracellular intercellular: located between cells intracellular: occurring or situated within a cell or cells (e.g., intracellular fluid). 5. principal/principle principal (adjective): chief, main, leading, most important. principal (noun): the most important person or group of people (After much debate, the two principals reached an agreement); the head of a school (the principal person in the administration); borrowed money (as distinct from interest). principle (always a noun): a rule, standard, law, guideline, or doctrine. 6. adverse/averse adverse: bad, opposed (e.g., Benjamin ate zongzi every day for lunch and suffered no adverse effects.) averse: feeling unwilling; experiencing distaste (e.g., Benjamin’s mother was averse to the idea of an all-zongzi lunch.) 7. affect/effect affect (verb): “to influence” (e.g., Xiao Wang’s wild partying on Thursday night affected his performance on the history test.) effect (noun): “result” (e.g., Xiao Wang’s wild partying on Thursday night had a terrible effect on his performance on the history test.) 8. continually/continuously continual: repeatedly (e.g., For two weeks, the travelers continually went on trips to the Great Wall.) continuous: without interruption (e.g., The flow of water is continuous.) 9. criterion/criteria criterion: singular form (e.g., one criterion) criteria: plural form (e.g., some criteria) 10. ensure/insure ensure: “to make sure or certain” insure: “to guarantee with insurance against risk or loss of life” *However, in American English, “insure” can be used for both of these meanings. References: http://cgi.sparknotes.com/ http://forum.wordreference.com/ http://www.m-w.com/ http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ 参考答案: 1) G 2) D 3)F 4) A 5) C 6) B 7) H 8) E
No. 1 句子结句——短句是准则 用清楚的英语书写的文章更容易被发表，这一点需要牢记。 据统计，1600 年，平均每个英文句子有40 到60 个单词；1900 年，平均每个英文句子有 21 个单词；1970 年，平均每个句子有17 个单词；而现在，平均每个英语句子只有12 到17 个 单词。由此可见，现代英语的发展趋势是由繁至简的。 中文写作惯用长句，而英语，特别是科技英语，通常使用非常精炼的句子。短句是准则，使 用简短而表意清楚的句子并不显得幼稚。 专业的英语作者使用短句。 No. 2 可数名词和不可数（物质）名词 单数可数名词（可以计数的事物）通常用冠词修饰；复数可数名词有时用冠词修饰。 不可数名词（难以计数的事物；也称物质名词）没有复数形式；不可数名词有时也用冠词修 饰。 首先要确定该名词是可数名词还是不可数名词，然后问自己如何对这个名词计数： 名词： - sensor one sensor, two sensors, three sensors - mice one mouse, two mice, three mice - fish one fish, two fish, three fish - water one drop of water, two liters of water, three flasks of water 更多用法示例请参考词典： http://www.ldoceonline.com No. 3 逗号的正确使用方法 逗号是最难掌握的标点符号类型，逗号使用不当会改变句子的意思。在表示重要的和非重要 的信息时，请多留意逗号的用法。 推荐用法： The equipment that we used was made by the XX Company. 可行用法： The equipment which we used was made by the XX Company. 错误用法： The equipment, which we used, was made by the XX Company. 正确用法： The equipment, which was made in Shanghai, was very expensive. 当你校对标点符号的使用时，要特别注意以下单词：that、which 和who；此时应再次确 认，此信息是重要信息还是是可以省略的多余信息。 - 如果此信息是 重要的，切勿 使用逗号。 - 如果此信息是 附加的、不重要的，必须 使用逗号。 No. 4 动词时态 一般过去时 用于表示你所做过的事： In this study, a number of functional and structural properties of sodium were compared to determine the underlying reason for the observed functional changes. 过去时 通常用于描述研究的结果： Assessment of size using standard denaturing gel conditions showed multiple bands whose size was consistent with discrete oligomeric forms of A. 一般现在时 用于陈述事实： Alzheimer's disease is a fatal progressive dementia. 一般现在时 用于指代图表内容： The amino acid sequence of the synthetic Vpu (1-40) peptides used in this study is shown in Figure 1A. 现在完成时 用于指代持续有效的已经进行过的研究或过去开始的现正正在进行的动作： The current state of GPCR research has evolved in large measure from observations made in two parallel systems. Jones et al have shown that … 检查文章是否使用了正确的动词时态： - 介绍性的语言的时态应该主要使用现在时和现在完成时。 - 描述材料和方法的语言的时态应该主要使用一般过去时。 - 对于结果和讨论的描述，结果应该主要使用过去时；而对于其他研究的观察一般使用现 在时或现在完成时。 No. 5 冠词使用规则 定冠词 “the”指代当前情况：We began the experiment； “the”指代常识： The situation in Iraq is deteriorating； “the”指代之前提到的名词：We tested a new measuring device and a new mixer. The new mixer worked well. 不定冠词 “A/an”指代在前面没有提到的名词： We planned a new experiment. The fluid was separated with a centrifuge. 冠词的使用取决于冠词出现的上下文以及冠词之后名词的类型。什么时候使用“a/an”或者 “the”（所有例句选自最近的ACS Chemical Biology）： The emergence of antibiotic resistance poses a major threat to human health, prompting interest in the exploration of new antibiotic targets. Zinc is the second most abundant “trace” element in the body. This metal ion is vital for normal cellular function as a cofactor in numerous enzymes, in transcription factors, in the immune system, and in the reproductive system. These data provided solid evidence that the observed IgG antibody response is T-cell dependent. 未完 待续 理文编辑优惠活动： 300元润色优惠 三月女神节下单送京东卡
怎么使用数字是我们英文写作中经常遇到的问题，虽然无伤大雅，但细节处见功夫。在此小编将梳理一下如何在英文写作中使用数字，以飨读者。 首先，除了几个基本的规则外，究竟将数字拼写出来还是使用阿拉伯数字基本上决定于作者的偏好，但是，请在通篇文章中保持一致，这一点和参考文献的格式要求类似。 不同的媒体可能使用不同的策略。在美国，有两个影响最大的文献格式，即The Associated Press Stylebook （AP）和The Chicago Manual of Style （CM），它们在数字的使用上略有差异。比如，AP格式推荐将0到9之间的数字拼写出来，以后都使用数字，直到数字100万。下面是四个超过999,999的数字的写法，1 million; 20 million; 20,040,086和2.7 trillion。 CM格式推荐将0到100之间的数字拼写出来，以后都使用数字，但是整数，例如百（hundred）、千（thousand）、十万（hundred thousand）、百万（million）、十亿都拼写出来。和AP格式不同的是，使用CM格式，我们应该将以下整数拼写出来，比如 four hundred，eight thousand, 和twenty million；但是和AP格式一样，CM格式中的401、8,012和20,040,087应写成阿拉伯数字。 总而言之，这是一个复杂的话题，有很多例外。在不同的博客、书籍、报纸和杂志上并不一致。下面列举一些几乎所有媒体都会遵守的规则： 1，句子开头的数字要拼写出来 例子：Twenty-three hundred sixty-two victims were injured. Nineteen fifty-six was quite a year. 备注：AP格式中的年份写成数字。1956 was quite a year. 2a，数字21到99之间的数字，应该用连接号（hyphenate）连接起来 例子：Thirty-three people were injured in the train wreck. Twenty-nine of them werehospitalized. 2b，分数应该拼写出来，并且用连接号（hyphenate）连接起来 例子：We recovered about one-thirds of the stolen cash. One-half is slightly less thanfive-ninths. 备注：有些不需要连接号，比如a third或者 a half 3a，四位或者以上数字，使用逗号。每3位数字使用一个逗号，但小数点以后的数字不包括在内。 例子： 1,054 people $2,417,592.22 3b，小于1美元的金额，最好使用分这个计量单位，而不是使用小数。 例子： She had only sixty cents. 或者 She had only 60 cents. (Better) She had only $0.60. (Not advised) 3c，不要重复使用$和dollars 例子： I have $1,255 in my checking account. (Correct) I have $1,255 dollars in my checking account. (Incorrect) 4a，为了不引起歧义，请使用noon和midnight来表示 12:00 PM 和12:00 AM AM和PM也可以写作 A.M.和P.M.，或者a.m.和p.m.，或者am和pm。 例子： 8 AM 3:09 P.M. 11:20 p.m. 也有人在时间和 AM或PM之间不用空格 例子： 8AM 3:09P.M. 11:20p.m. 对于整点时间，有的人写作 9:00 PM，但是也有人写作 9 PM或者9 p.m.或9pm。 4b，时间用数字来表示被越来越多的人接受 例子： The flight leaves at 6:22 a.m. Please arrive by 12:30 sharp. 但是也有一些人倾向于将时间拼写出来，尤其是整点时间 例子： He takes the four thirty-five train. The baby wakes up at six o’clock in the morning. 5，整数和分数往往用数字来表示，除非位于句子的开头 例子： We expect a 4 ½ percent wage increase. Five and one-half percent was the expected wage increase. 6，大数字的最好表达原则是越简单越好 例子： twenty-three hundred (simpler than two thousand three hundred) 对于表示范围的数字，倾向于拼出来，但在同一个句子中请保持一致。 Consistent : We can earn from one million to five million dollars. Inconsistent : We can earn from one million to 5 million dollars. Inconsistent : We can earn from $1 million to five million dollars. 7，小数写成数字 例子： The plant grew 0.91 inches last year. The plant grew only 0.07 inches this year. 8a，三个或者三个以上的数字，没有必要拼出来。但是，如果有小数时，最好拼写出来。 例子： one thousand one hundred fifty-four dollars one thousand one hundred fifty-four dollars and sixty-one cents 可以简化为 eleven hundred fifty-four dollars and sixty-one cents 8b，999以上的数字拼写时，不要使用逗号 错误用法： one thousand, one hundred fifty-four dollars, and sixty-one cents 正确用法： one thousand one hundred fifty-four dollars and sixty-one cents 9，当用数字表示日期时，应该这么写 例子： the 30 th of June, 1934 或者： June 30, 1934 (这里不需要加th) 10，当把年代拼写出来的时候，不需要大写 例子： During the eighties and nineties, the U. S. economy grew. 11, 当用数字表达年代时，可以将撇号放在数字前面，也可以放在数字和s之间 例子： During the ‘80s and ‘90s, the U.S. economy grew. 或者： During the 80’s and 90’s, the U.S. economy grew. 不正确： During the ’80’s and ‘90’s, the U.S. economy grew. 12，也可以用完整的数字来表示十年，在这里为了简介，就不用撇号了。 例子： During the 1980s and 1990s, the U.S economy grew. 其实还有其他一些注意事项，小编以后慢慢和您道来。
分享自小木虫 本文提供的十大句式主要包括“ 否定句、非限制性定语从句、让步状语从句、 It 引导的从句、假设句、倒装句、强调句、比较句、插入语、原因句 ”。这“十大句式”具有一定的普遍性。事实上，“十大句式”在阅读论文和论文写作中出现的频率相当高，也是广大科研人员非常熟悉的句式。一旦科研人员熟练地掌握了它们的用法，就能根据内容表达的需要，随时派上用场。 对科研人员来讲，用英文进行科技论文的写作只是一种表达的方式，英文只是一种表达的工具，平时较少关注如何运用多种句式的意识，因此多数科研人员以自己头脑中拼凑的中式英语取而代之，往往想不到运用这些句式。哪些感觉句子写起来挥洒自如的科研人员，其中或多或少地在使用十大句式，在一定程度上说明他们头脑中已经培养起句式写作潜意识。这“十大句式”中除了否定句、倒装句、插入语一般可以写成简单句以外，其它 6 到 7 句都属于复合句，占到总数的三分之二以上。换句话说，如果科研人员能运用十大句式正确地写出句子，那么不仅复杂句的数量就可以达到 6 到 7 分规定的要求，而且句式呈现多样化，复合句和简单句交错使用，大大增强文章表达效果。 一、 否定句 许多否定句中并不含有 not 的否定结构。如果作者能在论文中正确使用他们，就会增加写作的闪光点，使文章显得生动活泼。 1 、 Instead of indulging in playing computer games, children should be taught how to benefit from useful information on the internet.(Instead of 介词短语，副词 ) 2 、 On no account (Under no circumstances) can we ignore the immense value of knowledge.( 绝不 —— in no way, by no means, in no case) 3 、 College students take part-time jobs not for more money but for a better understanding of societies. 4 、 One’s salary does not depend so much on his educational background as on hisability and contribution to the society. 5 、 In terms of nutrition, fast foodies far from satisfactory. 6 、 Parents would not expect their children to become useful persons without working hard. 二、 非限制性定语从句 如果需要对前述的整个句子内容进行解释或说明，就可以用到非限制性定语从句。 1 、 Undoubtedly, practical courses can be used to the reality , which is of vital importance to their development in the future. 2 、 Children tend to imitate what they have seen and heard on mass media , which is sometimes dangerous and harmful. 3 、 The majority of students believe that part-time jobs will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets. 三、 让步句 让步句是写论文最常用的句式之一，作者务必掌握以下 4 种用法，可以使英文句子起伏跌宕，富于变化。 1 、 This view is widely acknowledged ； however ， there is little evidence that smoking is beneficial to people’s health. 2 、 Although(While) the computer has been widely used inclass, it cannot replace the role of teachers. 3 、 Reasonable as the opinion sounds, itcannot bear much analysis. 4 、 In spite of a lot of conveniences that cars bring to people’slife, it can create a series of serious problems. 四、 It 引导的句子 It 引导的句子是写作中使用频率最高的句式。作者应熟练掌握其用法，并能灵活运用到文章的开篇、主体段和结尾段中。 1 、 It is hard to imagine what our life would look like without computers in modern society. 2 、 It is conceivable that being physically active does good to health. 3 、 It is a highly controversial issue whether women should join the armed forces or not. 4 、 It is universally acknowledged that water and air are indispensable to human beings. 5 、 It is essential that endangered species ofanimals be protected against being killed. 6 、 It is high time that the government took effective measures to solve these problems. 7 、 It has been made easier for modern people to communicate with each other by the internet in a few seconds. 8 、 It is worth caring about the way a child behaves. 9 、 It is no use crying over the spilt milk. 10 、 It has been a few decades since the computer came into being. 五、 假设句 假设句可分为 真实假设句 和 非真实假设句 两种。常用在主体段落表示正、反论证。 1 、 If we destroy old buildings, then we will ruin the traditional culture and heritage.( 条件假设 ) 2 、 You would miss the chance to interact with other students if you used internet at home. 3 、 Once you change your present job, you will be faced with the danger of being unemployed. 六、 倒装句 在写作中恰当和准确地使用倒装句，有助于句子表达形式的多样化，使语言更加生动有力。 1 、 Only in this way can the problem be tackled properly.( 部分倒装——助动词或情态动词提到主语前 ) 2 、 Only when children take arduous efforts can they become successful.( 部分倒装 ) 3 、 Not only does studying in school serve academic purpose, but students learn how to handle interpersonal relations. ( 部分倒装——助动词或情态动词提到主语前，形成助动词 + 主语 + 谓语动词 ) 4 、 Under no circumstances should youngsters follow negative information on mass media blindly. 5 、 So valuable is water that we cannot afford to waste it.(So that 语句中， so+ 完全倒装 +that ，或主谓倒装 ) 6 、 Nowadays, most dangerous for youngsters is the tendency to indulge in playing PC games. 七、 强调句 写作时为了突出句子的某一成分，常常使用强调句。 1 、 It is for the benefit of maintaining the ecological balance that human beings ought to protect the endangered animal species. 2 、 It is not until people suffer from some fatal diseases such as SARS and AIDS that they are becoming aware of how significant it is for the government to invest more money in medical care. 3 、 Nothing in the world is more valuable than health . 八、 比较句 正确地使用比较结构可以使文章的句式增加变化，有利于提高写作成绩。 1 、 Studies show that juvenile delinquency rates are twice as high for youngsters from single-parent families as for those in traditional households . （同级比较）研究表明来自单亲家庭的青少年犯罪率是来自传统家庭的两倍。 2 、 Generally speaking, people in moderntimes enjoy less leisure time than they did previously. （比较级）一般说来，现代人比过去享有更少的休闲时间。 3 、 Compared with those with different abilities, children with intelligence do more well in their school work and intelligence tests. 与不同能力的孩子相比，聪明的孩子在学业和智力测验方面表现更加突出。 4 、 Contrary to pop stars, other professionals like doctors and teachers create the true value for their society. 与明星不同，其他专业人员如医生和教师为社会创造了真正的价值。 5 、 Air is to human what (as) water is to fish. 空气对人类就如同水对鱼一样。 九、 插入语 插入语是对一句话做一些附加说明或解释。最常见的位置于句中 , 一般用逗号或破折号与句子隔开。用得恰当，不仅可以增加字数，而且使文章更显地道和精彩。 1 、 Computers , most important of all, create wide communication around the world. 2 、 Providing more parking areas , in the long run, has proved to be a practical way out in many large cities in the world. 3 、 Observing local culture , consciously and unconsciously, can reduce the chance of offending the locals, or it will lead to the embarrassment and even conflict. 4 、 Space exploration , some people believe, will bring some unexpected discoveries. 十、 原因句 几乎所有的写作试题都要求写原因或者可以写原因。议论文的讲道理实际就是说明原因。因此，掌握好表达原因的结构是十分重要的。 1 、 Violent films can do harm to youngpeople, because they contains numerous negative information. 2 、 Human beings are chiefly responsible for wild animal extinction. 3 、 We should attribute(ascribe) medical advances to the animals which do substantial contributions to the experiment. 4 、 Because of overpopulation, water shortage has become one ofthe most serious problems. 5 、 Owing to the fierce competition in today’s world, a great many young people find themselves under great pressure. 结语： 句式变换直接影响到论文写作的成败。在此，衷心希望“十大句式”能为广大科技论文科研人员提供一条快速、高效的提高句式写作的途径，真正做到学以致用，“以不变应万变”。
最近写文章发现word插入符号时选择Times New Roman字体时没有°C这一符号，倒是中文字体一般都有℃这一符号，如果用搜狗输入法，还可以输入sheshidu，第五个一般就是℃。以前写英文文章时也没仔细注意，于是好奇查了下资料。 由来 才发现原来英文的°C是两个字符，前面一个表示英文中的度，后面一个表示摄氏（Celsius），是为了纪念摄氏度单位的发明者——18世纪瑞典天文学家安德斯·摄尔修斯(Anders Celsius，1701~1744)。而不能写成一个字符，或者用中文符号代替。 部分同学一般是去别人的文献里或者网上搜索后直接复制Times New Roman字体的°C符号，也有直接在word里完成输入的方法。 具体输入方法 word里插入“符号”里的上面“字体”栏选择“Times New Roman”（可以直接输入Times New Roman以迅速定位），然后再下面“字符代码”栏输入00B0（都是数字0，不是字母O），就会定位到符号“°”，此时，你就会发现“字符代码”栏前面的注释显示“degree sign”或是“度标记”，点击插入后，回到word编辑页面在后面打个大写C就可以了，字体当然也是Times New Roman。这样Times New Roman字体的°C就出来了。 下次大家写文章，记得别用中文的℃了，而且记得°C前面的符号°也不是O或0上标形成的，是直接的一个符号 。 原文地址： http://paper.dxy.cn/article/56501
学术文章的英文摘要焉能不好好写？ 先放2张哈佛大学校园今秋的红叶照片， 有点喜气 宁静的哈佛校园 一篇文章的摘要很重要，一定要好好写。 摘要写的怎样是作者学术水平与科学态度的直接反映。如果短短的摘要内部 出现 一些语法、词法、表达等错误，读者就不想往下看了，如同菜中吃到虫子，恶心。 中国学术期刊的英文摘要中闹过许多丢脸的笑话，据说英文摘要不是人写的，而是由某翻译软件翻译的， 翻译后没有读过就直接出版了。 科学网名博李世春教授的博客里就反映过这个问题（ http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=2321do=blogid=50527from=space ）， 例如： ： http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-gssjjglgbxyxb200302001.html 开拓进取真抓实干，不断开创西部大开发的新局面 Expand Enterprising and Really Grasp Solid Fuck and Continuously Expand and Great the New Situation of Buildings of Western Region 甘肃省经济管理干部学院学报 2003 年 02 期 宋照肃 , Song Zhaosu 控制影响干化学尿液分析的异常结果因素 Control Influence Factors for Abnormal Result of Urine Liquid Analysis with Fuck Chemistry Methods 实用医技杂志 2003 年 02 期 何锦华 粉煤灰山砂路面砼的技术经济性研究 重庆交通学院学报 2006/06 fuck the shrinkage properties 干缩特性 导流筒在粉浆罐中的应用 酿酒 2006/04 fuck alcohol that method smash produce 干法粉碎工艺的酒精生产 体积膨胀率作为干红葡萄酒发酵过程参数可行性研究 中国生物工程杂志 2005/S1 The grape wine that fuck 出现了 2 次，干红葡萄酒？（没看懂） 手术后患者随访工作重点的探讨 国际医药卫生导报 2005/06 Practice the duty pack fuck the system 实行责任包干制 坚持理论与实践相结合提高《化工原理》教学质量 广东化工 2005/02 close by profession to fuck the lesson 相近专业的课程 干旱对甜、糯玉米幼苗生长和生理指标的影响研究 玉米科学 2005/01 fuck the material backlog the speed 干物质积累速度 祝京水库病坝稳定计算基本参数确定 水力发电 2005/02 the density of fuck 干密度 建筑学科教学改革的思索与实践 高等建筑教育 2004/03 the lord fuck the curricular 主干课程 玉米早期及吐丝期去叶对生长发育的影响 玉米科学 2004/02 摘要关键词共出现 4 次 fuck ，如 to fuck the material kacklog 干物质积累 利用双酶玉米淀粉糖浆研制超干基酒 食品科学 2004/06 to fuck the spirit 干酒 浓相气力除灰系统在火力发电厂中的应用 山东电力高等专科学校学 报 2003/06 to fuck the ash （干灰） 所有这些不仅反映文章作者的英文水平与科学态度，而且反映部分中文期刊编辑的职业素质。 最近，科学网上一位地震预报 “ 大师 ” 强力推荐读者学习他的新出炉的 “ 大作 ”—— 国外某些地震区大地震孕育过程分析， 该文发表在其研究所办的刊物《 地球物理学进展》 2014 , Vol.29， Issue(4) : 1541-1554 doi :10.6038/pg20140408 ）： http://manu16.magtech.com.cn/geoprog/CN/abstract/abstract10598.shtml 他的英文摘要是这么写的： Abstract ： With the absence of fault information, the recognition principle for the rationaldivision of seismic zone and the division method of the optimal seismic zone were proposed by us . Meanwhile, through the new insights into the definition of seismogenic period and the recognition of the main shock event, the seismogenic processes of seven seismic zones abroad were analyzed in order to demonstrate the practical steps of the method above. The results suggest that strong earthquakes will occur in the central Italy seismic zone and the Thailand-Burma border seismic zone respectively , a major earthquakewill occur in the Haiti-Dominican republic-Puerto Rico seismic zone and an earthquake of M S 7.9~8.1 will occur in the Pakistan-Afghanistan-Iran border seismic zone. For the other three seismic zones involving the deep focus earthquakes, the seismogenic processes were analyzed with considering the deep focus earthquake or not. The results indicate that major or great earthquakes will occur in the Kamchatka seismic zone, the western South America seismic zone and the Japan seismic zone respectively . Meanwhile the prediction results of the future great earthquakes in the three seismic zones above, including the magnitude, place, critical strain, and hypocentral depth,are also presented.Moreover, it was found that deep focus earthquakes havea great influence on the choices of the starting point and endpoint of these sismogenic period, the identifications of the symbolic earthquake magnitude at the volume expansion point and peak strength point of the locked patches,the calculation of critical accumulative Benioff strain(CBS) and the judgment of future earthquake situation. Therefore, the further study on the mechanism of deep focusearthquake was still needed in order to reveal the effect of the deep focus earthquake in the process of seismogenic process. 简直不知所云，这样摘要能给读者什么有用的信息？可悲的是，中科院的资深研究员竟然连最常见的单词 “respectively” 都不会用，时态也不会用。 Respectively means in the order described. For example, I have a daughter and a son, aged 22 and 16, respectively. That means that the daughter is 22 and the son is 16. 做科学的人需要经过严格的基本训练，对自己文章的摘要都这么马马虎虎，何谈对科学的严肃认真？这样稿子又是如何通过学术评审的，这样的稿件若投到国际地球物理的学术期刊（例如， JGR）肯定发表不了。 这样水平的人还自吹地球上独一无二，“困惑人类几万年的地震预报问题被他轻易的解决了”，就等诺奖送上祁家豁子，这等“树新蜂”（Tree New Bee）的即使“是骡是马”，还服了“治疗脑瘫的特效药”，也没人愿意骑上去“溜”着玩， 自娱自乐去吧。 国外某些地震区大地震孕育过程分析（ I ） 秦四清 , 薛雷 , 李培 , 李国梁 中国科学院地质与地球物理研究所 中国科学院页岩气与地质工程重点实验室 北京 100029 Analysis on the seismogenic processes of large or great earthquakes for some seismic zones abroad based on the brittle failure theory of multiple locked patches(I) QIN Si-qing, XUE Lei, LI Pei, LI Guo-liang Key Laboratory of Shale Gas and Geoengineering, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China 摘要 在缺失断层资料、无法准确厘定地震区边界的情况下，本文提出了地震区划分的合理性判别原则与 “ 最优地震区 ” 确定方法 . 从孕育周期界定与主震事件判识角度，分析了 7 个国外地震区强（大、巨）震孕育过程，阐述了该方法的实际操作步骤 . 震情分析表明：意大利中部地震区和泰缅边境地震区未来有强震发生；海地 - 多米尼加 - 波多黎各地震区未来有大震发生；巴基斯坦 - 阿富汗 - 伊朗地震区未来将发生 M W 7.9~8.1 级地震；对涉及深源地震的堪察加地震区、南美洲西部地震区和日本地震区，分考虑和不考虑深源地震两种情况，分析了上述三个地震区大（巨）震事件的孕育过程，给出了其未来巨震事件的四要素预测结果 . 研究表明：考虑深源地震与否，对于孕育周期起点与终点、膨胀点与峰值强度点标志性地震事件的选择、预测临界 CBS 值以及未来震情的判断都有一定影响，特别是在深源地震本身就是膨胀点或峰值强度点标志性事件的情况下其影响更加显著 . 因此，对深源地震成因机制的研究有待进一步深入，以期给出其是否参与孕震过程的明确依据 . 关键词 ： 最优地震区 , 地震孕育周期 , 深源地震 , 锁固段 Key words ： Optimal seismic zone Seismogenic period Deep focus earthquake Locked patch 收稿日期 : 2014-06-30 PACS: P315 基金资助 : 国家自然科学基金委重点项目（ 41030750 ）资助 . 作者简介 : 秦四清， 1964 年生，河北行唐人，中国科学院地质与地球物理研究所研究员，主要从事工程地质、非线性岩土力学与岩土工程类研究 . （ E-mail ： qsqhope@mail.iggcas.ac.cn ） 下面是加拿大蒙特利尔我的社区的照片
1. Since gradient may be the computationally most intensive operation, for fair comparison, we compare SGD to SVRG based on the number of gradient computations. 2. For simplicity we will only consider the case that each... 3. When the number of components n is very large, each iteration of (5) can be very expensive since it requires computing the gradients for all the n component functions fi , and also their average 4. The strong convexity of P(x) may come from either F(x) or R(x) or both. 5. Combining with the definition of... 6. This complexity scales poorly in 7. On the other hand, Prox-SG can be applied for more general stochastic optimization problems, and it does not exploit the fact that the objective function in (1) is actually a deterministic function. Such inefficiencies in exploiting problem structure leave much room for further improvements. 8. Moreover, it avoids storage of past gradients 9. Bounding the variance 10. avoids the potentially harmful effects of differencing noisy gradients 11. we rearrange and the simplify 12. a near identical proof should hold for a simplified version 13. This paper connects two algorithms which until now have remained remarkably disjoint in the literature 14. turns out to be equivelent to another idea 15. seems much more nature 16. supose that 17. Before continuoing our study 18. Of course sometimes one can be lucky and 19. All the terms cancel out 20. If Then one can check directly that 21. It is also easy if tedious to verify 22. For the purpose of play an important role 23. Are the main concern of 24. Make a precise definition 25. Use ... instead of ... 26. Derives from the fact that 27. These observation motivate a definition 28. In other words 29. Treat in great generality 30. It is worth noting that 31. By dealing with 32. The payoff for this defonition 33. The point of the following proof is to reduce 34. The goal of our work so far 35. Rather than 36. and we will also find it convenient to use 37. We will use the notation 38. define the function as 39. by convexity we have 40. substituting the definition of ... and ..., and simplifying terms gives the result 41. apply the standard inequality , with and , for each , and sum 42. we follow a similar arguments as occurs in the SVRG proof for this term, but with a tighter argument 43. the other key trick is the use of the standard variance decomposition 44. take 45. and for reasons that will become clear later
Based on these superior properties and a combinative requirement for reducing environmental burdens by using lightweighted structures, the research and development of magnesium alloys for practical industrial application have overwhelmingly increased worldwide during the past decade. 2008 年一篇文献综述的第二句。 这个句子犯了多少忌讳，因人而异，但若问这个句子给出了多少写作中需要躲开的陷阱，很多。 1. 先看句子核心。 主语： theresearch and development of magnesium alloys for practical industrialapplication 谓语： haveincreased 主语短语过长，首要伤害为主语形象模糊。直接导致读者对叙述主体是什么不清楚，可以是 RD ，也可以是 RDof Mg, 也可以是整个短语。当然，语法上讲，整个短语是主语，于是在究极语法的人来看，皱眉头就在所难免了。想想电影三傻中 book 的定义，你也许就能明白，这种句子让他们读起来会是什么感觉了。 谓语 increased ，不及物动词，后面什么都没有，配合上一个超长的主语。又好像一个 300 公里速度奔驰的布加迪跑着跑着，启动尾翼急刹车。当然，谓语本身问题不大，主要是给主语衬托的。 合起来看下这个句子中的 RD have increased 。如果分离核心成分，这个 37 个字组成的句子剩余部分都是，形容词，副词，时间状语，方式状语等等。 2 ．看看有哪些非核心成分。 Based on these superior properties and a combinative requirement for reducing environmental burdens by using light-weighted structures 这个占据了句子一半字数的 introductoryclause ，让观众足足等了两行字的时间。什么考量？ 如果仔细看， basedon 这个级别不高的成分中还有细分的两个成分： thesesuperior properties 和 acombinative requirement 。再细看， requirement 还有细节，通过 usinglight-weighted structures 达到 reducing environmental burdens ，这样算下来， based on 附属结构层层排列，甚是复杂 。 overwhelmingly increased worldwide during the past decade 仔细看这四个部分。 overwhelmingly ，修饰 increase 。当作者选中 increase 这个词的时候，心中就已经百搭了 over 这个副词。一个平庸的动词只能靠副词往其身上浇油，才能表达出作者心中想要传达的“如火如荼”的情感。 Worldwide ，这年头，做科研，你不在嘴边挂着国际化你都不好意思不是，但提这个概念的作用？ During the past decade, 为什么会想起说这个呢，你的综述是圈定，或者主要讨论点在这十年？ 08 年的文章，过去的十年倒推才 98 年，镁合金复兴研究在 90 年左右。是这前八年是什么情况，还是你就顺口一说？ 总的来讲：一个矮小风干的内核，在这套看起来威严、闪亮、坚硬的盔甲的保护下，更显得脆弱干瘪；而盔甲，也显得空洞、虚华。当然，你可以认为这个句子本身没问题。 3 ．总结 Leave it unsaid. 写作过程中这点似乎很难，自己知道的总想竹筒倒豆子。也许是出于好心，告诉晚辈一些信息。也许只是不加思考，知道的就往文章里丢，显得博学多闻？ 调侃之后，还是希望是最简单的情况：大家还只是不知道怎么样写一篇读者喜欢，而不是作者自己喜欢的文章。至少这样的话，通过学习，改善是可以很快实现的。 大家多考虑些文字价值，当然，多花很多很多时间，让我们写出来的东西先实现every word counts，然后再慢慢延伸出去，写出整体性的好文章。 附：这里感谢二楼的仁兄，批评的是。接受学校一般，学术写作这一大课题绝非简单之事。同时，修改了文章，减掉了调侃过火的部分。
把基本的表达方法背下来（我称之为 “表达单元” ，例如“ A 长期被认为”： A haslong been thought to be ），然后熟练运用。我总结了几百个这样的表达单元，反复背诵。事实证明，这是提高英语表达能力的一种有效方法。 对于英文论文写作而言，看十几篇经典文献，从中提炼出自己写作能用得上的表达单元，反复背记，是提高英语论文写作能力的快速方法。 遇到不会的表达怎么办？ Google ： 检索英文网页，直接输入自己不确定的表达方法，例如不清楚“在 10 月 1 日”的表达方法是 On October 1st ，还是 At October 1st ，就可以分别检索这两种表达方法。正确的检索结果远多于错误的结果。当然还有更基本的检索方法，就是直接输入中文 + 英语翻译，例如“在显微镜下观察 英语翻译”。 CNKI 翻译助手： http://dict.cnki.net/ 遇到专业名词不知道翻译怎么办？ CNKI 翻译助手以中国知网数据库里面的中英文标题和摘要为依据，提供专业名词的翻译。不过由于都是中国人写的，翻译可能不十分准确，但是至少提供了一个参考。建议对查到的译法用 Google 学术进一步验证（下面会详述）。检索方法简答，就是直接输入中文，点击搜索即可。例如“在显微镜下观察”的搜索结果是： http://dict.cnki.net/dict_result.aspx?searchword=%u663E%u5FAE%u955C%u4E0B%u89C2%u5BDF 爱词霸英语句库： http://dj.iciba.com/toast/ 有大量例句。直接输入中文，检索英文。不过不是每一个表达方法都是地道的，所以还需要用 Google 学术进一步验证。 Google 学术： 优点是可以对发表的论文进行全文检索，所以适合用来参考论文写作的表达方法。假如不知道“帕金森病患者”怎样翻译，就可以在 Google 学术里面输入“ patient Parkinson's disease ”，然后搜索，可以看到正确的用法是 patientwith Parkinson's disease. 值得注意的是，检索的结果也有出错的可能，所以一般选用使用频率最高的表达方法，这样的表达应该最可靠。
不知道为什么脑海中总强调一句话“写英语时不要重复，要多用同义词”，以至于写文章的时候经常绞尽脑汁想同义词或者同义表达。 公共卫生文章里面频度最高的词应该是“Association”了，因为公卫里面纵向研究还是占少数，大部分还是横断面研究，文章的目的经常是确定两个因素的关联，比如吸烟与肺癌的关系等。于是“关联”这个词总是经常用到，最正规词算是association了，其他也可以用relationship，correlation等等。除了名词，也可以说is associated with等。 今天说这个例子，跟这个关联稍有关系。比如我发现了两个因素是正向关联，我可以说“A is positively associated with B”，但是这种说法理论上不够精确或者说不够直观，不如说Higher A is associated with higher B。不过为了避免重复，这个higher，我经常用比如“increased”来代替，我相信很多其他学者也是这么做的。我的例子就是关于这个increased。 Increased A is associated with higher B. 这句话，语法上没有问题，但是其实不够准确。因为我的实验设计是cross-sectional横断面的，那么如果用increased，感觉像是longitudinal纵向研究，有一个变化过程。虽然我们中文翻译过来意思是“随着A的增加B增加”，但是英文写出来就有了时间轴的问题，有个变化的问题，不准确了。所以老板建议我还是老老实实的用higher。（higher只是举个例子，也可以是larger，bigger等等）。 也就是说，我们在考虑用词的时候，不光要考虑语法，还要考虑语境，甚至实验设计！ ========================================================== 下面再说一个类似的情况：我们学的since除了自从的意思，还有因为的意思。不过我导师建议还是要老老实实的用because，除非你的语境跟时间有关系，比如说，since I am 30 years old...除了这种时间的情况，since没有单纯的因果关系，不要混用。
英文写作常搞混的词汇 已有 290 次阅读 2013-3-20 17:59 | 个人分类: 国际级写作与风格 | 系统分类: 论文交流 | 关键词:选字 英文单字 代名词 今天，我想谈谈中国作者常常搞混跟用错的几对英文单词。 methodology v.s. method “methodology”系指做某事的方法系统及准则，它是特定知识的一个惯例、程序、和规则。 范例 ：We examined the methodology of contemporary forensic science. 而“method”指的是技术或程序。 范例 ：We invented a new method of manufacturing ceramics. 因为 “methodology”指的是使用的过程与原因，所以没法像“method”那样令人印象深刻的用于各种形式。 if v.s. whether “whether”通常是用在讨论选项为2的时候。 范例 ：The participants were asked whether or not they felt any discomfort after the treatment. 如上例，“or not”意指暗示或理解，可省略。 范例 ：The participants were asked whether (or not) they felt any discomfort after the treatment. “If”则是在条件语句中使用，也就是表达状态或可能会或不会发生的事件。 范例 ：If the results are inconclusive, the experiment should be repeated. 这2个字常让人搞混是因为在一般的演讲中，“if”相较与“whether”更广泛的使用且被接受。 范例 ：I wonder if he will be willing to help. 不过，在学术写作中应避免使用“if”。 older v.s. elder “older”和“oldest”这2个形容词经常用来形容人、动物、东西的年纪，“Older”是表示某人、动物、物体的年纪比另一位大，而“oldest”是表示某个体的年纪在大于3个人、动物、东西的团体里是最大的。 范例 ： 1. They are older than all the other participants 2. He is the oldest student in the class. 另一方面，“elder”和“eldest”是特定用在比较家人间的年纪。 范例 ： 1. He has two elder sisters 2. She is the eldest of three siblings. “elder”这个字也用在专业关系中，作为“senior”的代名词。 范例 ：She is the elder partner in the business. “elder”也可当做名词使用，表示在家族、部落、团体里资深或具有影响力的人物。 范例 ：The village elders convened a meeting to discuss the employment situation. 虽然“older”可用在人或物上，“elder”只能用在人身上。
最近一篇英文稿子接受了，校样中很多“-”都给改了，后来查询网上发现错了，自己把这两种符号给搞错了，我发现这是很多人都容易犯的错误。实际上关于此类符号存在明显的差别。 英文标点中有一些很容易弄混淆的符号，例如「-」、「–」和「—」，在英文中，这三个符号分别叫做 hyphen (-)、en dash (–) 和 em dash (—)，下面分别介绍一下这三个符号的使用方法： Hyphen (-) Hyphen 就是连字号，主要用在以下几种情况： 行末单词换行，例如 We, therefore, the represen- tatives of the United States of America… 连接前缀与后缀，例如 co-worker anti-intellectual 连接复合词的各个组成部分，例如 28-year-old woman 分隔数字，例如 Tel: 585-362-4115 ISBN: 7-80087-535-0 En dash (–) En dash 是连接号，其长度等于大写字母 N，是 em dash 的一半，主要用在以下几种情况： 连接数字表示起止范围，相当于中文里的「～」，例如 June–July 1967 1:00–2:00 p.m. pp. 38–55 President Jimmy Carter (1977–81) 表示两者之间的关系和联系，相当于中文里的「－」，例如 The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision. Boston–Hartford route mother–daughter relationship The Glass–Steagall Act 在复合词构成的形容词定语中替代 hyphen，例如 pre–Civil War era Pulitzer Prize–winning novel public-school–private-school rivalries New York–London flight 在使用 en dash 时要注意，其前后都不留空格，除非是不留空格影响美观的时候，例如用「12 June – 3 July」替代「12 June–3 July」。 此外，由于 en dash 的长度通常与加号（+）一样，所有有的时候也被用来替代减号（−），但实际上 en dash 与减号是不同的。 Em dash (—) Em dash 的长度等于大写字母 M，使用方法与中文的破折号（——）类似， 主要用在以下几种情况： 替代逗号，将一个特定的概念从一个句子的主要从句中分离出来，例如 Sometimes writing for money—rather than for art or pleasure—is really quite enjoyable. 分隔一个插入的想法或从句，例如 I can’t believe how pedantic Ken is about writing—I mean, doesn’t he have anything better to do? 表示对话被打断，例如 “I reached in and pulled the spray can out of my pants—” “In front of the police?” 在使用 em dash 时也要注意，其前后都不留空格。 另外，还有 2-em dash 和 3-em dash 两种用法： 2-em dash 2-em dash 即两个 em dash 连写，主要用于： 表示在单词中省略了字母，例如 Mr. H—— and Mr. S—— entered into a legal agreement. 表示在句子中省略了单词，这时前面需要加空格，例如 I distinctly heard him say, “Go away or I’ll ——”. 3-em dash 3-em dash 即三个 em dash 连写，主要用于： 表示在句子中省略了单词，与 2-em dash 的第二种用法相同 在参考文献目录中，如果紧接着的条目作者相同时用以省略，例如 Acemoglu, Daron, 1999. “Patterns of Skill Premia” NBER Working Paper No. 7018. ———, 2001. “Directed Technical Change”, NBER Working Paper No. 8287. 那么，如何在电脑上输入这几种符号呢？ Hyphen (-) Hyphen 的 Unicode 编码是 U+2010，在 MS Word 里可以先输入 2010 再按 Alt + X。 不过在 ASCII 编码系统中，hyphen 被编为45号字符「hyphen-minus」，也就是我们电脑键盘上「0」和「=」之间的那个「-」。在通常情况下我们直接使用这个符号就可以了。 En dash (–) En dash 的 Unicode 编码是 U+2013，在 MS Word 里可以先输入 2013 再按 Alt + X，更简便的方法是利用 MS Word 的自动更正功能：按空格，按两下「-」，再按空格，例如输入「this is -- a test」，将转换为「this is – a test」（当然，要注意 en dash 前后一般是不留空格的）。 En dash 在 Windows 里可以用 Alt + 0150 （即按下 Alt 键的同时依次按下 0150）来输入，在 Mac 里可以用 ⌥ + - 来输入，在 TeX 里可以用 -- 输入，在 HTML 里可以用 ndash; 来输入。 Em dash (—) Em dash 的 Unicode 编码是 U+2014，在 MS Word 里可以先输入 2014 再按 Alt + X，更简便的方法是利用 MS Word 的自动更正功能：不加空格，直接按两下「-」，例如 输入「this is--a test」，将转换为「this is—a test」 Em dash 在 Windows 里可以用 Alt + 0151 来输入，在 Mac 里可以用 ⌥ + ⇧ + - 来输入，在 TeX 里可以用 --- 输入，在 HTML 里可以用 mdash; 来输入。 Minus sign (−) 减号的 Unicode 编码是 U+2212，在 MS Word 里可以先输入 2212 再按 Alt + X。 减号在 TeX 里可以用 $-$ 输入，在 HTML 里可以用 minus; 来输入。 参考来源：http://imquyi.com/blog/2012/08/how-to-use-hyphen-and-dash/
写了这么多博文，中文的写作是锻炼到了。但对于一个要毕业的博士生来说，英文写作才是硬通货。写了两个稿子，到nature 出版集团的文字修改编辑手上，修回来的都是大好江山一片红。打算仔细研究一下他们的写作风格，整理一下自己常犯的错误。这些注意点都是针对我个人的，如果对大伙儿也有点用，那也不错。这个目录会长期更新，不断添加俺犯的错误～～ 1. (A, B, and C) 和 (A, B and C)的用法都是可以的，但要注意全文统一。（根据 吴全丰 博友 的评论，用A, B, and C 的格式更好） 2. 数字的写法。 大于二十用数字，但整十整百时例外；百分比用数字，如52%，但当%用percent表达时例外；同一段落中，前面如用数字，后面要统一用数字。 用英语的情况： 小于二十用英语； 大于二十但是是整十整百也用英语； 数字在句首要用英语； 年代要用英语； 序数词用英语。 混用情况： 两个数挨在一块时，大数用数字，小数用英语。 3. 时态。描述方法和结果用一般过去式，而描述已经认可的现象和常识，用一般现在时。 4. Analysis 和 Analyses 的区别。以前都没注意analyses这个词，以为是英式或者美式的写法，原来analyses 是analysis的复数形式。 5. 常用句式。在描述结果的时候，一般第一句话要说明目的是什么，比如研究什么关系之类的。可以用几个句子开头：（1）To ...这个最简洁。(2) in order to ... 6. 越来越觉得，虚词实际上有强大的表现力，一点也不虚. 可以表现两个句子甚至段落之间的逻辑关系，准确地使用虚词和句式，可以使得表达更为清晰，逻辑也更为清楚。 7. 转折的用法，这几个词怎么区分？需要整理一下。（1）but. （2）in contrast. (3) on the other hand. (4) otherwise. (5) however. 8. 分辨率达到1微米： attain 1-μm resolution 9. 将近：用 approximately 比 about 更合适。about比较口语化，approximately 应该是书面用语。 10. radii 是 radius 的复数形式。这个还挺特别的，后面加了s的反而是单数形式。 11. 胶质细胞是Glial cells 而不是 glia cells. 只用 glia，是神经胶质的意思。 12. 使用XX来做XX，用 using 而不是 by using。比如 enhance the images using Fiji，而不是 enhance the images by using Fiji. 13. 多用主动语态，而不是被动语态。描述结果的时候直接说 XX is XX， 不用说 XX was found to be XX， 可以用we found XX 14. on a XX scale 而不是 in a XX scale 15. from a XX perspective, 而不是 through a XX perspective 16. 表示原因：due to VS owing to。在传统的英语中， due to 是形容词，而 owing to 是副词，这是需要区分的。但在现代英语中，已经混合在一起，可以互相替换，没有严格区分了。为了用词准确，还是建议区分一下。 Usage Note: Due to has been widely used for many years as a compound preposition like owing to, but some critics have insisted that due should be used only as an adjective. According to this view, it is incorrect to say The concert was canceled due to the rain, but acceptable to say The cancellation of the concert was due to the rain, where due continues to function as an adjective modifying cancellation. This seems a fine point, however, and since due to is widely used and understood, there seems little reason to avoid using it as a preposition. 17. a great challenge to XX studies，而不是 a great challenge in XX studies 18. “XX is estimated as 17” is better than "XX is estimated to be 17". 或者直接说 "XX is 17". 推荐资料： 【1】吴全丰的博客， 英语中词组/短语的平行结构
作为一个科研工作者，在国际学术期刊上发表科研论文是与同行交流、取得国际影响的必经之 路。有些国内的科学家，实验做得很漂亮，但常常苦恼于论文的写作力不从心，成为国际交流的一大障碍。本文从博主的亲身体验出发，给博士生、博士后、以及年 轻的PI提供一个借鉴。文章最后做简短总结。 我大学时的同班同学都知道，那时我的英语不算好（英语四级考试仅为“良”），写作尤其糟糕。初到美国之时，对英文环境适应得很差，读一篇JBC的文章要五、六个小时，还常常不理解其中一些关键词句的意思,心里压力极大。 很幸运，我在约翰霍普金斯大学（Johns Hopkins University）攻读博士学位时，1991年4月遇到了学兄和启蒙老师John Desjarlais。听了我的苦恼后，John告诉我，“Spend 45 minutes every day reading Washington Post, and you will be cruising with your written English in two years”(每天花45分钟读《华盛顿邮报》,两年后你的写作能力会得心应手)。这条建议正合我意 - 我原本就对新闻感兴趣！于是，我每天上午安排完第一批实验后，都会在十点左右花一小时的时间阅读《华盛顿邮报》，主要看A版(新闻版)。刚开始，我一个小 时只能读两、三个短消息或一个长篇报道，中间还不得不经常查字典看生词。但不知不觉间，我的阅读能力明显提高，1992年老布什与克林顿竞选总统，我跟踪 新闻，常常一个小时能读上几个版面的消息或四、五个长篇报道，有时还把刚看到的新闻绘声绘色地讲给师兄师姐听。 阅读直接提升了我的英文写作能力。看完一些新闻后，我常常产生动笔写自己感想的冲动。 92年巴塞罗那奥运会，中国游泳队取得了四金五银的好成绩，美国主要媒体纷纷指责这是中国运动员服用违禁药物，但没有任何检测的证据，完全凭美国运动员的 感觉。此事让我很气愤，我生平第一次给《华盛顿邮报》和《巴尔的摩太阳报》（The Baltimore Sun）各写了一封信，评论报道的不公平。没想到两天后《巴尔的摩太阳报》居然原封不动的把我的信刊登在“读者来信”栏目，同事祝贺，我也洋洋得意。受到 此事鼓励，我在此后三年多的日子里，常常动笔，有些文章发表在报刊上（大部分投稿石沉大海），也曾代表中国留学生写信向校方争取过中国学生的利益。有时还 有意外的惊喜。95年的一天，一位朋友打电话告诉我：今天出版的《巴尔的摩太阳报》上有我的评论文章！我急匆匆赶到街头买来5份报纸，果然，在A版的倒数 第二页，以15x15厘米的篇幅发表了我一个多星期前寄给报社、本以为不会发表的一篇抨击吴宏达的文章。 以上是简述我个人英文写作提升的一段过程。但是，科研论文不同于读者来信，有其专业特 点、甚至是固定格式。1994年，我第一次完整地写科研论文，感觉很差。好不容易写完的文章，连我自己都不愿意读第二遍；勉强修改之后，交给了老板 Jeremy Berg。他拖了三周没看我的文章，我实在忍不住了、去催他，上午9点，Jeremy告诉我：今天看！11点，我去他办公室催，秘书拦住我，说 Jeremy正在办理重要事务，两点前不得打扰。我心里惴惴，不知Jeremy在干什么。下午一点半，Jeremy急匆匆过来找我，拿了一叠纸， “This is the draft. Please let me know what you think. We can aim for a Science report.”（这是初稿，你看看如何，我们可以试试《科学》）我仔细一看，天啊！一共7页，四个多小时Jeremy已经把文章的整体写完了，只是缺少 Method和 references。让我郁闷的是，他根本没有用我的初稿。 其实，写文章贵在一气呵成 。我也沿袭了 Jeremy的风格。2006年10月，在我们处于劣势的激烈竞争中，有两个课题面临被 scoop的危险，我曾经两次、一晚上赶一篇文章。10月15日，傍晚8点左右开始写、通宵，第二天早晨10点完成一篇按照《细胞》杂志格式的论文，包括 abstract, introduction, results, discussion,仔细阅读一遍后于下午4点半完成网上投稿。这篇文章最终发表在12月份《自然》的子刊《结构与分子生物学》上（电子版于11月10 日发表）。另一篇，10月18日，晚6点开始写、通宵，第二天早晨8点完成，上午9点半完成投稿，最终发表在12月15日的《细胞》上。当然，能通宵完成 一篇文章，还有一个重要前提，就是对研究领域非常熟悉，对文章整体的大概思路已经深思熟虑，所有的Figures都事先做好了。这些前期工作即使全身心投 入也需要3-4天。 从1994年自己写第一篇科研论文的艰难到现在写起来得心应手、驾轻就熟，我总结出如下经验： 1．要写好科研论文，必须先养成读英文文章的习惯，争取每天30-60分钟。刚开始可以选择以读英文报纸、英文新闻为主，逐渐转为读专业杂志。我会在近期专门写一篇博客文章介绍一套行之有效的增强读专业杂志能力的办法。 2．写科研论文，最重要的是逻辑。逻辑的形成来自对实验数据的总体分析。必须先讨论出一套清晰的思路，然后 按照思路来做图(Figures)，最后才能执笔 。 3．具体写作时，先按照思路（即Figures）写一个以subheading为主的框 架，然后开始具体写作。第一稿，切忌追求每一句话的完美，更不要追求词语的华丽，而 主要留心逻辑 （logic flow），注意前后句的逻辑关系、相邻两段的逻辑关系。写作时，全力以赴，尽可能不受外界事情干扰（关闭手机、座机），争取在最短时间内拿出第一稿。还 要注意：一句话不可太长。 4． 学会照葫芦画瓢 。没有人天生会写优秀的科研论文，都是从别人那里学来的。学习别人的 文章要注意专业领域的不同，有些领域（包括我所在的结构生物学）有它内在的写作规律。科研文章里的一些话是定式，比如 “To investigate the mechanism of …, we performed …”, “These results support the former, but not the latter, hypothesis …”, “Despite recent progress, how … remains to be elucidated …” 等等。用两次以后，就逐渐学会灵活运用了。在向别人学习时，切忌抄袭。在美国一些机构，连续7个英文单词在一起和别人的完全一样，原则上就被认为抄袭 （plagiarism）。 5．第一稿写完后，给自己不要超过一天的休息时间，开始修改第二稿。修改时，还是以逻辑 为主，但对每一句话都要推敲一下，对abstract和正文中的关键语句要字斟句酌。学会用“Thesaurus”（ 同义词替换 ）以避免过多重复。第二稿 的修改极为关键，再往后就不会大改了。 6．第二稿以后的修改，主要注重具体的字句，不会改变整体逻辑了。投稿前，一定要整体读一遍，对个别词句略作改动。 记住：学术期刊一般不会因为具体的语法错误拒绝一篇文章，但一定会因为逻辑混乱而拒绝一篇文章。 这套方法行之有效，我对所有的学生和博士后都会如此教导。我的第一个博士后是柴继 杰，1999年加入我在普林斯顿大学的实验室。继杰当时的英文阅读和写作能力很差。我对他的第一个建议就是，“每天花半小时读英文报纸”。难能可贵的是： 他坚持下来了！经过几年的努力，2004年继杰已经能写出不错的grant proposal，2006年他的第一篇独立科研论文发表在《Molecular Cell》上，随后相继在《自然》发表两篇、在其它一流学术期刊发表十多篇论文。写作能力开始成熟。 发表论文是一件值得高兴的事情，但要明白：论文只是一个载体，是为了向同行们宣告你的科研发现，是科学领域交流的重要工具。所以，在科研论文写作时，一定要谨记于心的就是：用最简单的话表达最明白的意思，但一定要逻辑严谨！其实，中文和英文论文皆如此！ 本文引用地址： http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-722391-585566.html
博士导师最近给组里所有的学生都买了一本书The elements of style，我仔细读了，觉得适合研究生阅读，推荐给大家。 The elements of style(作者是William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White)是一本关于英文写作的小册子，适合想提高英语写作水平的研究生阅读。这本书内容十分精炼，列举出很多英文写作的常见弊病，比如没用的词语太多，降低整个句子的清晰度以及力度；尽量用主动语态而不是被动语态，主动语态更加有力度，能更有效的表达作者的意思。 书中有几个例子，比如： She did not think that studying Latin was a sensible way to use one's time. 直接改成 She thought the study of Latin a waste of time. 前者用了很多词，这些词对中心意思都没有贡献，放在那里只能分散读者的注意力。 另外一个例子关于主动语态和被动语态的。主动语态明显要直接，清楚和简洁。 被动语态： My first visit to London will always remembered by me. 主动语态: I shall always remembered my first visit to London. 最后再举书中两个例子阐释主动语态的有效性。 非主动语态： There were a great number of leaves lying on the ground 主动语态: Many dead leaves covered the ground. 后者只有5个词就表达出了前面11歌词要表达的意思。 非主动语态: It was not long before she was very sorry that she had said what she said. 主动语态: She soon repented her words. 更加明显的体现出了主动语态的强大。 所以如果我们写英文论文的时候，带着这些观念去修改论文，就会让论文更加简明扼要，清晰准确的表达主旨。 The elements of style
http://bbs.chinaunix.net/viewthread.php?tid=641801 句点（Full Stop / Period，“.”） 问号（Question Mark，“？”） 感叹号（Exclamation Mark，“!”） 逗点（Comma，“,”） 冒号（Colon，“:”） 分号（Semicolon，“;”） 连字符（Hyphen，“-”） 连接号（En Dash，“–”） 破折号（Em Dash，“—”） 括号（Parentheses，小括号“( )”；中括号“ of those surveyed 5.用于一个词的一部分要移行, 一般按音节间断开单词加连字号（例如：ha-ppy,不可断为hap-py……）,或根据发音,不要把单个字母留在行尾或行首。注意一页中最后一个单词不能使用连字号将其置于两页。 八、圆括弧Parenthesis( ( ) ) 1．标出表顺序的数字和字母(如: (1) 、(2) 等) 2．用来表示其中插入的或附加的解释成分。这个插入成分可以是单词、词组或句子．但要注意,括号会削弱强调作用,因此,如果要强调插入的句子成份,则要用破折号。 They might take a walk together(remember feet) and see the neighborhood with fresh , new eyes. 九、引号Quotation Marks(“”‘’) 引号分单引号(single quotation marks) 和双引号(double quotation marks) 。单引号只用在一个直接引语中所含有的另一个直接引语上。 1． 表示直接引语。当直接引语超过四行或多于40 个字词时, 一般不用引号而改用黑体字以便与文章的其它部分界线清晰 “Well, ”the foreigner said to him ,“ you look like an engineer. ” 句号和逗号必须置于引号(双引号和单引号) 之内。 He told the gunman ,“I refuse to do that ”；his knees , however , were shaking even as he said those words. She called this schedule of activities her “load ”：work , study , exercise , recreation , and sleep. 冒号与分号必置于引号外。 The teacher asked , “Could you understand me”？ Did the teacher ask ,“Have they gone”？ Did the teacher ask ,“They have gone ？” The frightened girl screamed ,“Help”! The fellow only said ,“Sorry !” He interrupted me , “Now , listen”——and went on saying. 问号、感叹号和破折号有时置于引号之内, 有时置于外号之外。如果所引内容本身是疑问句或感叹句或带有破折号, 问号、感叹号或破折号一般放在引号之内。否则,放在引号之外。 2. 标明短篇出版物的标题, 诸如杂志、报纸上的文章、短诗、短篇故事和整部书的某一章节。 Have you read“The Old Man and the Sea”？ Chapter three is entitled“The Internet . ” 3.表示所用的词语具有特殊意义。另外,当俚语出现在较正式的文章中, 也用引号引起来, 以表示文风的有意转变。 The report contained the“facts”of the case. The speaker owns a“fat farm”in California , which slims down rich overeaters for ＄2 , 500 a week. 4. 用于表示引起读者注意的词语, 或读者不熟悉的特殊词语。 It is customary to say“Youpre welcome” whenever anyone says“Thank you. ” “SOS”is a message for help from a ship or aircraft when in danger. 十、省略号Ell ipsis(...) 此省略号无论出现在句首、句中、还是句尾,都是表示单词的省略。 1. 表示直接引语中的省略 Max wrote ,“...in one word ,manps consciousness , changes with every change in the conditions of his material existence....” 句后的省略号和句号的写法应是在一条直线上的四个黑点。前三个黑点表示省略号,后一个黑点表句号。 2. 表示说话中的犹豫或迟疑 “If that the way you think...just go back to school ,”he said. 3. 表示段落或整行词句的省略, 须使用一整行黑点。 十一、撇号或省字号Apostrophe(’) 1.构成名词所有格 rest my son’ s a moment’s books A three weeks’pay 2.表示词、字母、数码、符号等的复数形式 Don’t use so many ands in the sentence. How many 5s have you got？ 这与一般单词的复数形式不同, 正规的写法须在s 前加“ ’ ”, 要牢记规则。 3.除表动词的紧缩形式外, 还表一个或几个字母和数字的省略。 I’ve got it. “Yes ,ma’ am ,”the waiter said. 注意：有相当大一部分省略词是口语中的用法，不宜出现在书面语中。例如：I’d like to(在书面语中要写作I would like to) 十二、 字底线Underline( ) 和斜体Italics 斜体是英语的一种独特的书写手段, 但具有标点的作用,它和字底线的作用完全一样。 1. 用于火车、飞机、轮船、太空船的名称之下 Challenger (飞机) Apollo Nine(太空船) 2. 用于具有一定厚度的书籍、报纸、杂志、长诗、电影、作曲的标题下 Have you read Gone with the Win d ？ 在书写体中,长篇小说书名下要加字底线,如是印刷体写成斜体即可。 the Washington Post Time magazine 3．表示不常用的或还没有被英语这一语言所接受的外来词或短语。但外来语中的动植物科目须用字底线来表示。 In Korea , the sixty-first birthday is calld huan gup (beginning of new life) 1 He longed for La dolce vita. 4． 强调文章中的某些词语,以引起读者的注意, 相当于汉语中的着重号(即在所强调的汉字下加一个黑点) 。 英国英语和美国英语标点符号的差异 1．引号的用法：①属于引语的逗号、句号在美国英语中位于引号内，而在英国英语中多位于引号外；②引语内再套用引语时，美国英语中双引号在外单引号在内，而英国英语中的单引号在外、双引号在内。 在美国英语中，如果省略号恰好在句尾，就用四个点，如I‘d like to...that is...if you don‘t mind.... 2． 冒号的用法：①在小时与分钟之间，美国英语多用冒号，英国英语多用句号；②美国英语中，信件或演说词的称呼语之后用冒号，而在英国英语中多用逗号。 中英文标点符号的差异 汉语中目前使用的标点符号是参考借鉴西文的标点体系而制定的，它既保留了西文标点的主体特征，又带有与汉语语言特点相适应的特色。因而，中英文标点符号之间存在着一定的差异。 ⒈ 汉语中的某些标点符号为英语所没有。 ⑴ 顿号（、）：顿号在汉语中起分割句子中的并列成分的作用；英语中没有顿号，分割句中的并列成分多用逗号。如： She slowly, carefully, deliberately moved the box. 注意：类似的情况下，最后一个逗号后可加and，这个逗号也可省略--She slowly, carefully(,) and deliberately moved the box. ⑵ 书名号（《》）：英文没有书名号，书名、报刊名用斜体或者下划线表示。如： Hamlet / Hamlet 《哈姆雷特》 Winter‘s Tale / Winter‘s Tale 《冬天的童话》 The New York Times / The New York Times 《纽约时报》 另外，英语中文章、诗歌、乐曲、电影、绘画等的名称和交通工具、航天器等的专有名词也常用斜体来表示。 ⑶ 间隔号（•）：汉语有间隔号，用在月份和日期、音译的名和姓等需要隔开的词语的正中间，如"一二•九"、"奥黛丽•赫本（人名）"等。英语中没有汉语的间隔号，需要间隔时多用逗点。 ⑷ 着重号：有时汉语用在文字下点实心圆点表示需要强调的词语，这些实心点就是着重号。而英语中没有这一符号，需强调某些成分时可借助文字斜体、某些强调性词汇、特殊句型、标点停顿等多种方法。 ⒉ 英语中的某些标点符号为汉语所没有。 ⑴ 撇号--Apostrophe（‘） ⑵ 连字号--Hyphen（-） ⑶ 斜线号—Virgule or Slash（/）：该符号主要起分割作用，如It could be for staff and / or students. 也常用于标音，如bed /bed/。 ⒊ 某些符号在汉英两种语言中的形式不同。 ⑴ 中文的句号是空心圈（。） 英文的句号是实心点（.）。 ⑵ 英文的省略号是三个点（...），位置在行底； 中文的为六个点（......），居于行中。 ⑶ 英文的破折号是（-） 中文的是（--） 中国学生常见标点符号错误例析 (1) 顿号、书名号、句号、省略号错误。比较中英文标点符号可见,英文标点中没有中文形式的顿号、书名号、句号和省略号。而这四种标点符号成了大学英语写作中“借鉴频率较高的符号。如: 〔错误〕1. While she is reading《Gone With the Wind》, I am cooking。 〔错误〕2. My sister bought a lot of fruits for me , such as banana 、orange 、apple and pear. 英文中的印刷体用斜体字表示书籍、报刊、戏剧、电影、绘画作品等的名称,在书写体或打字机打的文本中用字下线表示斜体字;英文常用逗号来代替冒号;而句号是用实心小黑点表示。故以上两句应改为: 〔修改〕1. While she is reading Gone With the Wind , I am cooking. (印刷体) 或While she is reading Gone With the Wind , I am cooking. (书写体) 〔修改〕2. My sister bought a lot of fruits for me , such as banana , orange , apple and pear. 还有,英文中的省略号其实是三个句号的并列,许多学生由于受中文影响常错误地把英文省略号写成六点。 (2) 冒号错误。冒号是中英文兼有的标点符号。在汉语中,冒号是表示提示性话语之后的停顿,常用在“说、道、讲、问、唱、回答、喊、吼”等动词的后边,以标明下面的话是谁说的。此用法影响下列英文句子标点: 〔错误〕3. I thought to myself :“What kind of trap is she laying ？” 〔错误〕4. He asked :“Where are you from ？” 以上两例中的冒号在英文中需用逗点表示。汉语中的冒号还可用在“如次“如下“例如“像等引起下文的提示语后边。在英文表达中,“for example”(例如) 一类的词后常用逗点代替冒号。 〔错误〕5. Good manners can be seen in everyday life. For example : a person with good manners is kind and helpful to others . 〔修改〕5. Good manners can be seen in everyday life. For example , a person with good manners is kind and helpful to others. (3) 破折号错误。汉语中的破折号标明行文中解释说明的部分,而英文同位语也具有同等说明的功能,故英文写作中用破折号连接同位语成份的错误也屡见不鲜。如: 〔错误〕6. We are studying and living at the famous university — Beijing University. 〔修改〕6. We are studying and living at the famous university , Beijing University. 对于同位语,英语一般使用逗点而不用破折号。英文中破折号的用法远没有中文的丰富。 在大学英语写作中,与语法知识有关的标点错误主要有: (1) 把非限制性定语从句(non -restrictive attributive clause) 理解成限制性定语从句(restrictive attributive clause) 而忽略用逗点。如: 〔错误〕7. We were led into a nearest fabric shop that was divided into two parts. 从句意来看,上句是一个非限制性定语从句,故应在shop 后加逗点,把that 相应改成which 即: 〔修改〕7. We were led into a nearest fabric shop , which was divided into two parts. (2) 不论状语从句在整个句子中处于何种位置,一概以逗点隔开。 〔错误〕8. We will go there , if it is fine tomorrow. 状语从句可置于句首或句末。置于句首时,一般要用标点隔开;而置于句末时,则无需与主句隔开,故 以上句子应改为: 〔修改〕8. If it is fine tomorrow , we will go there. 或We will go there if it is fine tomorrow. (3) 在疑问句形式的陈述句后使用问号。 〔错误〕9. What fun we girls could expect , to stay in the same class , studying for four long years with them ？I wondered. 〔修改〕9. What fun could we girls expect , to stay in the same class , studying for four long years with them , I wondered. 英语疑问除可用问号来表达外,尚可用词序加以表达。故上例的疑问可用逗点表示。 (4) 误把however ,therefore , because , thus 等起联系作用的副词当成并列连词,导致写作中的逗号粘连(comma splice) 错误。 〔错误〕10. She thought what the teacher pointed out was right , however , she didn’t care for that . 两个完整的句子或两个并列句之间不能一概用逗点点开, 可用句号、分号或在逗点后加并列连词(and , but , or , for , so , nor , yet) 等方法修改。故上例可改为: 〔修改〕10. She thought what the teacher pointed out was right . However , she didn’t care for that . 或She thought what the teacher pointed out was right ; however , she didn’t care for that . 或She thought what the teacher pointed out was right , but she didn’t care for that . (5) 与comma splice 相映成趣的是,许多学生作文时,极少考虑句子间的逻辑关系,一个逗点连首尾,导致大量熔句(fused sentence) 的堆砌。例如: 〔错误〕11. Young men like blue jeans they wear them all the time. 〔修改〕11. Young men like blue jeans ; they wear them all the time. 或Young men like blue jeans. They wear them all the time. 或Young men like blue jeans , and they wear them all the time. 或Young men like blue jeans ; they wear them all the time. 或Since young men like blue jeans , they wear them all the time. (6) 两个并列的形容词间以and 代替逗点。 〔错误〕12. Through the window ,in front of me were large green fields which reminded me of the small clearing where I spent my lonely and hard childhood. 现代英语表达一般在两个形容词中间不使用and , 而是用逗点分隔。 〔修改〕12. Through the window ,in front of me were large green fields which reminded me of the small clearing where I spent my lonely , hard childhood 因语体错位而造成的标点错误。英文写作是一种书面语的输出。其书面语体的特征要求其与口头语相区别。口语中存在的大量缩约 (contraction) 在书面语体中应尽量避免。而许多学生在书面作文中大量使用省字号(’),几乎1/ 3 左右的作文在文体上存在漏洞,现代英语的发展对此却难以容忍。如: 1. I’d like to share my joys with you. ( I would like to) 2. .you can’t behave like that . (you cannot) 3. .there’re so many splendid toys for me to select . (there are) 其他错误： (1) 引号错误。 〔错误〕13.“No pain , no gain. ”If you . 〔修改〕13. As the saying goes ,“No pain , no gain. ” 英文中短小的引语与作者提示“某某说之类的词语之间用逗点隔开,置于引号内。不能省略提示语“某某说之类而直接引用。 〔错误〕14. Glancing through the essay entitled“Why Not More ？ ”, Dr. Jefferson frowned thoughtfully. 〔修改〕14. Glancing through the essay entitled“Why Not More ？,”Dr. Jefferson frowned thoughtfully. 许多学生对诸如上例引号边的标点位置含糊,不清楚以下常用法:句号和逗号必须置于引号之内;冒号和分号必须置于引号之外;如果所引内容本身是疑问句或感叹句,问号和感叹号一般放在引号之内,否则,问号和感叹号则放在引号之外。 (2) 日-月-年次序的日期中的逗号错误。英语日期的表达可以用月-日-年的次序和日-月-年 的次序,日和年之间加逗号而月和年之间习惯上不加逗号。例如: 误把“13 August 2002”写成“13 August , 2002”。 (3) 在部分副词如perhaps , so 后加逗号。如: 〔错误〕16. Perhaps , I would not have such a good chance again. 〔错误〕17. So , they keep in touch with each other merely by writing letters and phoning now. 以上两句的修改方法是把句中的逗号去掉。 (4) 连接号(hyphen) 错误。许多英语习作者往往随意用连接号派生单词,如把“boyfriend”写成“boy -friend”; “middle school”写成“middle -school”。在行末单词分行时,连接号使用错误更多。与之相反,若把本应有的连接号粗心删去, 其单词含义可能会大相径庭。如有一年美国政府在一份贸易清单上列举了一些免税进口的物品,其中有一种是foreign fruit —plants(外国果树苗),后来由于打字员的疏忽，漏打连接号使其成了foreign fruit , plants(外国水果、树苗),结果导致第二年大量的水果如桔子、葡萄等从世界各地免税涌入美国市场从而使美国政府当年损失约200 多万美元。 应用逗号而没用,造成语义的表达不清。 Please send me a gross each of the red , green ,blue ,orange and black ties. 使人看了以后不知是发5 摞(1 摞= 12 打) —红、绿、蓝、橙、黑各一摞— 领带,还是发4 摞 —红、绿、蓝、橙黑各一摞领带。这句话可改为: ①Please send me a gross each of the red , green ,blue ,orange ,and black ties. ②Please send me a gross each of the red , green ,blue ,orange-and-black ties. 该用分号的地方用了逗点, 不该用标点的地方也用了逗点,都导致了句子的错误。 ①People make history , unusual people make history interesting. 此句逗点应改为分号, 这是两个独立分句。 ②Mary was happiest when she was free of her parents’ scrutiny ,or while she was working in her garden. 此句的并列连词是连接的成对的从句,而不是独立分句,连词前面的逗号应去掉。 标点符号的使用是约定俗成的, 初学写作的人只有牢记它的使用规则, 才能写出规范的文章来。
这九本书是五月底我与一些HP网友们合购的，原帖地址为 http://www.hi-pda.com/forum/viewthread.php?tid=782841extra=page%3D1 现在已经历时三个多月了，现在将这批书解禁，与各位朋友共享。 下面是这九本书的书名、亚马逊的介绍以及Dbank网盘的链接： 1.新版GRE官方指南.The Official Guide to the GRE revised General Test http://www.amazon.com/Official-Guide-revised-General-ebook/dp/B004GNFPAW/ref http://goo.gl/V4pfp 2.托福官方指南The Official Guide to the New TOEFL iBT （这个是第二版，纸版已有第三版） http://www.amazon.com/Official-Guide-New-TOEFL-ebook/dp/B002IYEL56/ref http://goo.gl/cH1Vu 3.分析性写作.Writing Analytically, 5th Edition (据称对备考GRE作文很有帮助,这本书国内也出了影印版，比较便宜，但据说纸张较差。) http://www.amazon.com/Writing-Analytically-5th-Edition-ebook/dp/B0030HKYMY http://goo.gl/7O66y 4.巴郎GRE词表.Essential Words for the GRE (这是2007第二版，但纸版已到2010第三版，国内出版的封皮注明是第一版） http://www.amazon.com/Essential-Words-GRE-ebook/dp/B002NGBOXQ/ref http://dl.dbank.com/c0bvja7bwj 5.公正.Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?（这本书我看了不少了，感到比视频中讲的要详细、深入,可以结合着一起学习，对于备考GRE的逻辑写作很有帮助，因为这本书对于很多到的道德和选择困境都做了多角度的讨论，非常的启发思路） http://www.amazon.com/Justice-Whats-Right-Thing-ebook/dp/B002Q7H7L0/ref http://dl.dbank.com/c0loc26d8c 6.E-mail写作实用指导.The Executive Guide to E-mail Correspondence: Including Model Letters for Every Situation （大家备考寄托的同时，也不要忘了多和国外的老师联系，英文email写作还是有些讲究的吧，不过这本书我还真的不是很了解，或者大家有没有更好的推荐） http://www.amazon.com/Executive-Guide-mail-Correspondence-ebook/dp/B001QPHNJY/ref http://dl.dbank.com/c0c1fe87d9 7.Ace the GRE Writing Assessment http://www.amazon.com/Ace-GRE-Writing-Assessment-ebook/dp/B003DM3R16/ref http://dl.dbank.com/c0trt9aoe0 8.Speaking and Writing Strategies for the TOEFL iBT http://www.amazon.com/Speaking-Writing-Strategies-TOEFL-ebook/dp/B004C44NQC/ref http://dl.dbank.com/c0an4rb3o6 9.哈佛申请范文50篇50 Successful Harvard Application Essays, Third Edition: What Worked for Them Can Help You Get into the College of Your Choice http://www.amazon.com/Successful-Harvard-Application-Essays-ebook/dp/B003P9WEE8/ref http://dl.dbank.com/c0v9hhedgp
Chapter5—— 孤悬的修饰语 英语写作能力不好不坏时，很容易犯一种修辞错误：写出带 有「孤悬的修饰语」 (dangling modifier) 的句子。 dangling 字面上 的意思就是悬在半空中、无所依附。 在修辞学中， dangling modifier 专指一种修饰语的错误：副词子句的主词与主要子句主 词不同，却在减化 【注】 时被省略掉，造成修饰的对象不明，句意 也就模糊不清。如果写作者只有能力写单句和复句，倒不容易出现这种错误；一旦想让句型有丰富变化、加强简洁性，而开始尝 试写作减化子句时，就会犯这种错误。若不仔细分辨，并在写作 时特别注意，往后还会一犯再犯。 孤悬的修饰语可以分为以下几种类型： Ø Ving 副词子句减化后，剩下现在分词词组的补语部分。例如 Seeking to facilitate the New Deal, several Justices were nominated by F.D.R. to serve on the Supreme Court. ( 误 ) 为了便利推行「新政」，几名大法官被小罗斯福总统提名到最高法 院服务。 这句的毛病是：到底是谁想要便利新政的推行？句子中并未作明确的交代。合理的解释应该是罗斯福为了便利新政的推行而 使出这个手段，可是从句型上来看又不是这样。因为 seeking to facilitate the New Deal 是一个减化的副词子句，依据文法，本句的主词应与主要子句主词 (several Justices) 相同，才可省略，所以 还原后就变成下面这个副词子句 ： Because they (the Justices) were seeking to facilitate the New Deal.... 如此一来，就变成是大法官想要便利新政的推行，并不合理。 既然是罗斯福要便利新政的推行，就应该用 F.D.R. 当副词子 句主词，然后把后面的主要子句改为主动语态，使主词统一，成为： Because he was seeking to facilitate the New Deal, F.D.R. nominated several Justices to serve on the Supreme Court. 只要主词相同，就可以进行减化，使句子更精简 ： Seeking to facilitate the New Deal, F.D.R. nominated several Justices to serve on the Supreme Court. ( 正确 ) 下面这个例子则稍有不同： Using a filter on a computer monitor, the radiation can be cut down by more than 90%.( 误 ) 在计算机屏幕上使用护目镜，辐射线可以减少百分之九十以上。 这个句子中也有一个 dangling modifier ，因为减化的副词子 句 using a filter on a computer monitor 中，省略的主词不可能是主 要子句的主词 radiation ，那么主词是什么？合理的主词应该是人 —— 没有特定对象，可以是任何人，这时通常以 one 来代表： When one uses a filter on a computer monitor, the radiation can be cut down by more than 90%. ( 正确) 主词不同时不可减化 ； 只要使用完整的副词子句，就可写出 正确的句子。 然而，后面主要子句的主词原本也是一个不特定的 one ，所 以才使用被动语态以求简洁。 如果改成主动语态，两个子句主词 就可以一致： When one uses a filter on a computer montior, one can cut down the radiation by more than 90%.( 正确 ) 这个句子固然正确，但是用到两个空洞的主词 one ，用字仍 然不够简洁，最好减化成一个： Using a filter on a computer monitor, one can cut down the radiation by more than 90%.( 正确 ) 另外，如果完全避免使用分词 using ，还有更精简的改法： A filter on a computer monitor cuts down the radiation by more than 90%.( 正确 ) 这个句子是最精简的表达方法。如果以中文的习惯来写作， 很容易写出例 2 的句子，造成 dangling modifier 的错误； 要考虑 到修辞才能写出正确又精简的句子。 另外，即使减化子句出现在介系词词组中，仍然要考虑是否有 dangling 的嫌疑，例如： 例 3 Instead of buying fire insurance, John's house was fitted with a fire alarm. ( 误 ) 不买火险，约翰的房子却装了一个火灾警报器。 句首的 Instead of buying fire insurance 是一个介系词词组，可是受词 buying fire insurance 这个部分仍然是一个减化子句，而且应该是名词子句的减化，才能放在 of 后面作受词使用；从句意上 判断，省略的主词应该是 John —— 没有买火险的人是 John 。然而主要子句的主词却是 John's house ，这就造成主词不一致，减化后会造成 dangling modifier 。如果把主要子句修改成以 John 作主词，就可以避免这个问题： Instead of buying fire insurance, John fitted his house with a fire alarm. ( 正确 ) 同样地，例 2 也可以选择用介系词词组的型态来表示： By using a filter on a computer monitor, one can cut down the radiation by more than 90%.( 正确 ) 在 by 引导的介系词词组中，减化子句 ( 此时是做为名词 ) using a filter on a computer monitor 省略掉的主词 one ， 与主要子句的主词相同，所以是正确的减化。 Ø Ven 第二种情形是副词子句减化后，剩下过去分词的补语。 例如： 例 4 Impregnated with salt and other alkaline minerals, the quality of the soil at the waterfront does not meet minimal requirements for rice farming. ( 误 ) 饱含盐分与其他碱性矿物质，这块水边地区的土质不符种稻的基 本条件。 副词子句 Impregnated with salt and other alkaline minerals 中省略的主词，从句意上判断应该是 soil —— 土壤才会饱含盐分；可是主要子句的主词不是 soil ，而是一个抽象名词 quality ，所以这 个减化子句是一个 dangling modifier 。最简单的改法就是干脆把 quality 去掉，换 soil 当主要子句的主词： Impregnated with salt and other alkaline minerals, the soil at the waterfront does not meet minimal requirements for rice farming. ( 正确 ) 副词 子句可以还原为 Because it (the soil) is impregnated with salt and other alkaline minerals ，它的主词和主要子句的主词 the soil 相同，所以减化后不会造成 dangling 。 例 5 Dr. David H p's "cocktail" medication cannot really help a patient unless treated in the earliest stages of HIV infection. ( 误 ) 何大一博士的「鸡尾酒」疗法对病人没有眞正的帮助，除非在感 染人类免疫不全病毒初期就加以治疗。 从句意上判断， unless... 引导的子句应该是下面这个副词子 句的减化： unless he (the patient) is treated in the earliest stages of HIV infection 。 省略掉的主词是 the patient ，可是主要子句的主 词却是 medication ，这样就犯了 dangling modifier 的毛病。一种 改法是不要减化，使用完整的副词子句： Dr. David Ho's "cocktail" medication cannot really help a patient unless he is treated in the earliest stages of HIV infection.( 正确 ) 如果一定要减化，主词就必须相同，要把副词子句的主词也 改为 medication ，因而动词也必须跟着修改，成为： unless the medication is administered in the earliest stages of HIV infection 。动词 administer 意思是「行使」，可以配合主词 medication ( 医疗 ) 使用。主词统一之后句子就可以进一步精简了 ： Dr. David Ho's "cocktail" medication cannot really help a patient unless administered in the earliest stages of HIV infection. ( 正确 ) 如果主要子句和副词子句的主词无法统一，通常表示副词子句不适合减化。 副词子句的主词和主要子句并无重复之处，也就 没有什么可以精简的空间，不如维持原状。如果还是要进行减 化，只能把连接词省略以求精简，不同的主词则要保留下来 ，请 见下例： 例 6 Eaten hollow by germs, the dentist decided to do a root canal on the patient. ( 误 ) 被细菌蛀空了，牙医决定为病人做根管治疗。 依照句型，副词子句 Eaten hollow by germs 省略的主词是 the dentist ，这一来的意思就变成牙医这个人被细菌吃剩一个空壳 子！应该要以病人的牙齿作主词，才说得通，所以可以把这个句 子还原为： Because the patient's tooth was eaten hollow by germs, the dentist decided to do a root canal. ( 正确 ) 副词子句的主词 (the patient's tooth) 与主要子句之间并无重复 之处，所以没有可以精简的空间。如果还是要减化，则必须保留主词，只能删除 was 以及连接词 because ，以达精简的目的，成 为： The patient's tooth eaten hollow by germs, the dentist decided to do a root canal. ( 正确 ) Ø 其他 除了现在分词与过去分词之外，副词子句经减化后可能会剩 下名词、形容词，或介系词词组等补语。这时仍要注意不可以出现孤悬的修饰语，也就是说，省略的主词必须与主要子句的主词 相同。 例 7 An excellent observer of human nature, Henry James' novels have proved an enduring source of enlightenment. ( 误 ) 身为对人性观察入微的人，亨利 . 詹姆斯的小说一直能给人启示。 句首的名词词组 An excellent observer of human nature 应视为以下这个副词子句的减化： Because he (Henry James) was an excellent observer of human nature.... 副词子句的主词是 he ，而主要子句的主词却是 Henry James' novels ，并不相同，减化后就会形成 dangling modifier 。应该使 两句的主词统一，也就是把主要子句的主词改成 Henry James ： An excellent observer of human nature, Henry James created novels that have proved an enduring source of enlightenment. ( 正确 ) 例 8 For some women, calorific food is something to be resisted even when quite hungry. ( 误 ) 对有些女人来说，高热量食物是要抗拒的东西，即使肚子很饿也 一样。 句尾的 even when quite hungry 因为保留了连接词 when ，可以看出是副词子句的减化。从句意上看，可以还原为： ... even when they (these women) are quite hungry. 但主要子句的主词是 calorific food ，和副词子句的主词不 同；句首的 some women 不是主词，只是介系词 for 的受词，所 以减化之后会形成 dangling modifier 。要避免这种毛病，可以使 用完整的副词子句，不用减化句型： For some women, calorific food is something to be resisted, even when they are quite hungry. ( 正确 ) 另一个办法就是改成主词相同，再来减化： Some women consider calorific food something to be resisted even when quite hungry. ( 正确 ) 这时因为主要子句的主词是 some women ，与副词子句 even when they are quite hungry 中的主词相同，所以可以将副词子句减 化，而不会造成 dangling 。 例 9 While in jail, the biographer says that Kim Dae Jung cultivated an interest in botany. ( 误 ) 在狱中时，这位传记作家说金大中培养出对植物学的兴趣。 句首的 While in jail 部分因为有连接词 while ，可以看出是副 词子句 While he was in jail 的减化。那么到底是谁在狱中呢？依 照句意来判断，应该是金大中在狱中；可是主要子句的主词却是 the biographer ，变成这位传记作家在狱中，这就不合理了。可以 把 while in jail 移到句尾，改成： The biographer says that Kim Dae Jung cultivated an interest in botany while in jail. ( 正确 ) 这时候 while in jail 是依附在 that 子句中的副词子句减化，那 么省略的主词就是 that 子句的主词 Kim Dae Jung ，意思才比较清楚。另外也可以这样改： Kim Dae Jung, says the biographer, cultivated an interest in botany while in jail. ( 正确 ) 把 the biographer says 这部分放到括号性的逗点间，与另一个 子句隔开，这么一来 while in jail 就不可能修饰 the biographer says ，只能修饰 Kim Dae Jung cultivated... ，意思就更明确了 。 Ø 结语 减化子句是高级句型，在写作当中能作最精简、有效的表 达，但困难度也最高。副词子句的减化要求特别严格，所以要格外小心，避免犯了 dangling modifier 的错误。 只有当副词子句主词和主要子句主词相同时才能进行减化，否则就会产生修饰语孤悬的结果，造成句意不清楚 。如果副词子句主词和主要子句主词不同，就不要用减化的方式，可以将主词保留，减化动词与连接词的部分，才能避免犯这个极普遍的错误 【 注】所谓减化子句 (reduced clauses) ，是把从属子句 ( 名词、形容 词、副词子句 ) 的主词与 be 动词省略，只留下补语部分的作法。一般文法书所谓的非限定子句 (non-finite clauses) 就属于减化子句的范围。减化子句的变化非常繁复，若欲进一步了解减化原则、方式等等相关的文法观念，请参看《英文魔法师之文法俱乐部》一书。相信能让读者对减化子句有一套完整、有系统的概念。
说明： 旋元祐老师是台湾英文教辅界的神人，编写了一系列英文单词、阅读和写作的好书，之前我在verycd上下载了旋老师的系列书籍，但是由于是扫描版，需要耐心坐在电脑前阅读，所以一直拖着没怎么看。前两天发现了一款好用的OCR软件，于是就动手开始识别并矫正这些书籍，一是自己在这个过程中能够有大收获，二来也可以将其制作成更易阅读、学习的文字版本。 下面所列的这篇文章来自于旋老师的英文魔法师-修辞高峰会，以后我会陆续将其余章节上传到此微博当中。 Chapter 1 —— 英文修辞概论 一般的英语文学习者对文法多少都有些概念，然而说到修 辞，除了念英文系的人以外，大概都会觉得很陌生。英文修辞是 什么？有需要学习吗？学了有什么好处？这是本章首先要解答的 问题。 Ø 何谓修辞？ 古罗马诗人西塞罗 (Cicero) 曾说，修辞是说服的艺术 (Rhetoric is the art of persuasion.) 。感性的文字要能动人，知性的文字要能服人，这里牵涉的层次超越了文法正确性 (correctness) 的层次，属于修辞有效性 (effectiveness) 的层次。如何在寥寥数语中，让一个字、一个句子发挥最大的效果，就是修辞学的范畴。 文学性的修辞比较专业，有各式各样的修辞手法，如拟人、明喻、暗喻、换喻、夸张、淡化等，不过大抵都偏向比较感性的目的，而且主要是文学家与专业作家才需要刻意去研究。本书系针对一般英语文学习者而设计，不拟深入探讨文学修辞，而将重点置于一般的修辞原则上。这些原则的理解，对于英文写作有极大的帮助。学习这些原则，可收事半功倍之效，避免一般写作常犯的毛病，让笔下一字一句都不浪费，达到最大的文字效果。如果你自认英文不错，可是写出来的句子就是有点别扭，差那么点火候，请务必仔细阅读本书每一章，你将学会写出像英文的英文，而且是优美流畅的英文。 Ø 修辞的两大准则：清楚与简洁 一般英文修辞最恨本、最重要的两大准则，一是清楚，一是简洁。句子首先要能写得清楚，表达明确的意思。清楚之后要简洁，不浪费笔墨，每个字都要有效果。 很不幸，清楚和简洁这两个要求之间有冲突，不容易兼顾。最清楚的文字莫过于法律条文、合约等，因为这类文字得滴水不漏，一句话绝不能作两种解释。可是这种文字同时也是最繁复、啰嗦的，没有耐性的人根本看不下去。 相反的极端是诗歌。诗号称浓缩的语言，是最精简的文字，好作跳跃性的思考与表达，文辞能省则省。这种文字固然十分精简，但就是因为太精简，乍看之下常看不懂写什么，非得咀嚼再三，加上些慧根，才有可能「恍然大悟」。 清楚与简洁之间潜在的冲突要如何化解，才能在两者间拿捏最佳平衡点，这就是修辞的艺术。本书介绍的各项修辞原则与手法，往往都要回到清楚与简洁这两个原点上来思考，才能有所体会。 Ø 两种不清楚的状况 句子不清楚，可能有两种情况：一是模糊 (vague) ，读者无法 明确地掌握作者所要表达的意思；另一种情况是模棱两可 (ambiguous) ，同一句有两种合理的诠释，意思各不相同，读者无 从判断作者的原意是哪一个。兹列举这两种情况说明如下： 例 1 Eating too much ice cream adds excessive calories that eventually turn into fat, and some nutritionists suggest that the best defense against temptations like these is to refuse even to go near the refrigerator. ( 不佳 ) 吃太多冰淇淋会增加多余的卡路里，最后变成脂肪。有些营养学 家建议，抵抗这些诱惑的最好方法是根本就不走近冰箱。 这个句子不够清楚，主要是因为 temptations like these 这个片 语意思模糊，或者该说代名词 these 所指不清。 these 是复数代名 词，必须代表复数的名词词组 ( 先行词 ) 。然而唯一有可能作先 行词的复数名词 calories 代入 these 的位置显然是不通的 —— temptations like calories 意为「像卡路里的诱惑」，可是诱惑人的 不是卡路里，是冰淇淋。而 ice cream 却是单数，不能作 these 的 先行词。于是代名词 these 缺乏合适的先行词， temptations like these 也就成为空洞模糊的叙述 。 改正这个毛病最简单的作法是把 temptations like these 改为 such temptations ，避免使用代名词 these ，就不会造成找不到先行词的困扰。 与模糊相反的错误是一语双关、模棱两可，这也会造成句意 不清。请看下例： 例 2 Many tenants in Taipei try to buy their own houses or apartments, despite prices for such buildings that are unreasonably high. ( 不佳 ) 许多在台北租屋的人想买自己的房子或公寓，尽管这类建筑的价 格高得不合理。 这个句子的意思不够清楚，因为它有两种解释： that are unreasonably high ( 高得不合理 ) 这个形容词子句可以修饰 prices ，表示价格高，但也可以修饰 buildings ，表示建筑物高， 因为 prices 和 buildings 都是复数，都可以作 that 的先行词，配合 复数动词 are 使用。这就是模棱两可，读者不易判断到底是什么 东西高。 如果是价钱高，就必须改变句型，排除另一种解释。例如形 容词子句 that are unreasonably high 可以只留下有意义的部分 unreasonably high ，再把 despite 的介系词词组还原成副词子句，成为： Many tenants in Taipei try to buy their own houses or apartments, although prices for such buildings are unreasonably high. ( 正确 ) 这时句子只有一种解释，句意也就表达清楚了。 Ø 两种不简洁的状况 句子够清楚之后，还得要求简洁。与简洁抵触的修辞错误是 冗长 (wordy) 与重复 (redundant) 。以下分别举例说明： 例 3 Slavery arose in a period of time when there was a labor-intensive form of agriculture that was practiced by people. ( 不佳 ) 奴隶制度兴起的时代是实行劳力密集农业的时代。 这个句子最大的毛病是冗长，因为用了太多空洞的字眼。 in a period of time 本身就太啰嗦了，因为 a period 代表的一定是 time ，所以 time 就可以不必提了。 when 是关系词，代表上文的 time ，只因文法的要求而存在，并无新的内容。 there was 的句型 只介绍「存在有」的观念，如果用别的句型带出 a labor-intensive form of agriculture ，那么 there was 就可以删去而不影响句意。 that was practiced by people 这个子句中， that was 两字也是没有 内容，只有文法上的功能， by people 这个词组更是多余：实施 农业的自然是人， people 一字也就不必提。 删去所有多余、空洞 的字眼后，原句可以精简为： Slavery arose in a period when labor-intensive agriculture was practiced. ( 正确 ) 如果不是为了交代历史时代，甚至连 in a period 也可以删 除，因为它也缺乏具体的内容。 要求文章精简，首先要养成一个习惯： 避免使用空洞、无内 容的字眼。 写完后检查看看有没有什么单字、词组可以删除，句 型能不能再浓缩，务求通篇没有任何赘字，才有资格称为好文章。 另一个违反简洁的毛病是重复，如下例： 例 4 Legislators and social workers alike both agree that drastic measures must be taken to curb soaring rates of juvenile delinquency, which are on a rapid increase. ( 不佳 ) 议员与社工人员一致认为应采取激烈措施来遏阻快速增加的青少 年犯罪。 这个句子的毛病是大量重复。 alike ， both 与 agree 都表示同样 的意思：两者之间有共识。只须留下动词 agree ，另外两字都可删去。此外，句尾部分的 which are on a rapid increase 可以全部删除，因为这个形容词子句是修饰先行词 rates ( 由复数动词 are 可 以看出 ) ，而 rates 前面的形容词 soaring — 字已清楚表达同样的意 思，所以又是一个赘述。去除这些后成为： Legislators and social workers agree that drastic measures must be taken to curb soaring rates of juvenile delinquency. ( 正确 ) 无意义的重复会破坏简洁性，应予删除，不过若是有补充说 明或加强语气等功能的重复，则是有意义的文字运用，不在此 限。例如： 例 5 I offer you three secrets to successful public speaking: rehearse, rehearse, and rehearse. 我教你公开演说成功的三个秘诀：练习、练习、再练习。 这个句子虽然重复了三次 rehearse ，可是成功地达到强调语 气的任务，让读者了解「练习」的重要性，所以并非无意义的重 复。又如： 例 6 The liver can metabolize, or render harmless, most toxins that enter the body. ( 正确 ) 肝脏能够代谢，也就是化解大部分进入体内的毒素。 句中的 metabolize 就是 render harmless ，所以此处有重复。 但是 metabolize 是生物学术语，一般读者对此用法可能不熟悉， 因而重复一遍 render harmless 具有解释说明的功能，可让句意更 清楚，所以重复是有道理的。 Ø 相关字组 除了清楚与简洁之外，英文修辞还有一些其他要求，相关字 组 (correlatives) 即是其一。相关字组是指英文使用习惯中，有某些 字固定与一些字一起出现，使用时不能违反这个习惯，例如： 例 7 Can you distinguish a Chinese and a Japanese? 你会分别中国人和日本人吗？ 句中 distinguish 的用法，应该以 distinguish A from B 或是 distinguish between A and B 这两种相关字组出现才对，因此上句的用法即属错误。 可改为： Can you distinguish a Chinese from a Japanese? ( 正确 ) Can you distinguish between a Chinese and a Japanese? ( 正确 ) 这两种方式都可以。相关字组属于词组的问题，没什么道理 可说。但如果不按照英文习惯，一般人就不容易了解或接受，因 而也要逐一学习，避免误用。 Ø 用字 另一项修辞要求是正确的用字 (diction) 。用字的选择必须符合 英文的使用习惯，符合惯用法 (idiomatic) ，否则就不像英文。例 如： 例 8 The experiment will hopefully shed new light on the causes of cancer.( 不佳 ) 这项实验希望能对癌症的成因带来新的了解。 句中 hopefully — 字是误用。它正确的用法是表示 in a manner that is full of hope ，用于类似下例的情况： 例 9 The children are looking at the gift boxes hopefully. ( 正确 ) 孩子们充满希望地看着礼盒。 这个句子的主词是 children ，抱希望的人也是 children ，这 时才能用 hopefully 来修饰动词 are looking 。相反地，例 8 中主 词是 experiment ，可是抱希望的不是 experiment ，而是未明言的 别人。此时不宜使用 hopefully ，应该改用 it is hoped ： 例 10 The experiment, it is hoped, will shed new light on the causes of cancer. ( 正确 ) Ø 方法论 经由以上的概述，读者对英文修辞大概有了基本的概念。修 辞学不是文学家的专利，也不是遥不可及的东西。相反地，它是你想要写出清楚简洁的英文句子所必须具备的能力，是非常实用 的。 本书将有系统地介绍各种重要的修辞原则，采用错误分析法 (error analysis) ：列举各项常犯的修辞错误，逐一分析并订正，以 帮助读者积极辨识常犯的修辞错误，并知所趋避。所有的修辞原则皆以标准写作英文 (standard written English) 为本，不处理口语或俚语的问题 —— 因为许多口语上可以接受的表达方式，并不符合标准写作英文的要求，这也是许多英美人士英文写不好的一大原因。 本书错误分析的例句，基本上采 GMAT ( 美国商学研究所入学性向测验 ) 的修辞考题型态。这是最高程度的文法修辞考试，即使对美国名校大学毕业生都是重大的挑战。本书基本上会将句型及单字简单化，但保持 GMAT 考题对英文修辞原则极佳的整理与系统架构，帮助想学好英文及修辞的读者，由错误句型的分析及正确用法的提供来达到目的。了解修辞学是提高英文阅读及写作能力的必经之路，想要在工作职场上出类拔萃 (Over the Top) 就 从现在开始。
说明： 为了备考GRE的作文，我一直比较用心，因为写作一直是我的弱项。经过一段时间的学习和训练，我觉得自己在GRE写作所要求的逻辑性和辩证性商有了提高，但是语言还是比较弱，有些思想虽然勉强可以表述，但是所用的语言和搭配常常不够地道，因此，我特地从GRE的issue题库中提取了一些关键词，并查找了这些关键词在牛津英语搭配词典上的内容，集合起来贴在下面。 Issue 核心关键词的搭配 竞争；合作 历史 传统；习俗；伦理学 科学的；发现 艺术；原创性；创造性 革新；保守的； 文化；认同；统一性 平衡 进展；进步； 成功；发展 英雄；领导者 社会；政府；民主 环境；科技；政治学 想象力；经验 智力；合理的 情绪，情感 沟通，交流 一致性；个体 实用性 理想的，媒体 竞争 competition noun 1 event in which people try to win sth ADJ. international, national | knock-out | dancing, piano, sporting, etc. VERB + COMPETITION win She won an international dancing competition . | lose | have, hold, stage We're going to have a competition to see who can swim the furthest. | enter, take part in | withdraw from COMPETITION + VERB take place | be open to sb The competition is open to all readers of the magazine PREP. in a/the ~ I won the car in a competition. | ~ between a competition between the best teams in the country | ~ for a competition for the best chef 2 trying to achieve the same thing/gain an advantage ADJ. cut-throat, fierce, intense, keen, serious, severe, stiff, strong, tough intense competition for the contract | direct Public transport is run in direct competition with the private sector. | fair, free, healthy, open | domestic | foreign, global, international, overseas | economic VERB + COMPETITION be up against, face | go into to go into competition with British Telecom | beat off, fight off to fight off competition from foreign firms PREP. against ~ They won the order against fierce international competition. | in ~ with We are in competition with some very large companies. | in the face of ~ The gas companies are having to lay off staff in the face of stiff competition from oil. | ~ among/between There is a lot of competition between rival airlines. | ~ for, ~ from We face strong competition from other countries. 合作 cooperation noun ADJ. close | full | greater, increased | active | effective | international, local | mutual a society founded on mutual cooperation and shared prosperity | cultural, economic, military, political, social, technical VERB + COOPERATION need, require | ask for, call for, demand, seek She called for closer cooperation on drugs control. They are seeking the cooperation of senior medical staff. | enlist, get We are hoping to enlist the cooperation of women's groups. | give (sb), offer (sb) | encourage, promote promoting cooperation between universities and industry | ensure PREP. in ~ with The film was made in cooperation with the Sports Council. | with/without sb's ~ With the cooperation of the public, the police may be able to catch this man. | ~ among increased technical cooperation among large companies | ~ between political cooperation between the two groups | ~ from You will need a bit of cooperation from your family. | ~ in We asked for their cooperation in the collection of data. | ~ on They offered their cooperation on the project. | ~ with We should like to thank you for your cooperation with us. PHRASES a lack of cooperation, a need for cooperation There is a need for greater economic cooperation. 团队合作 teamwork noun ADJ. effective, good VERB + TEAMWORK emphasize, encourage The company says the aim is to encourage teamwork. PREP. through ~ achieving our success through effective teamwork 历史 history noun 1 the past, especially as a subject of study ADJ. contemporary, early, recent the early history of the trade union movement things that happened in recent history | ancient, medieval, modern | local | family | British, world, etc. | official the official history of the Labour Party | recorded The debate about the origins of the universe has been going on throughout recorded history. | oral Oral history enables us to take account of those many aspects of history that are not recorded in documents. | art, church, cultural, economic, human, literary, military, political, social, etc. QUANT. piece She created a piece of history by winning her fourth title. VERB + HISTORY be steeped in a building that is steeped in history | go down in, make, pass into He will go down in history as a wise adviser and a kind man. He made history by being the first man to walk on the moon. | trace The regiment traces its history back to 1803. | distort, rewrite her attempt to rewrite history with herself in the role of heroine HISTORY + VERB go back (to) … The town's history goes back to Roman times. | reveal sth, show sth History shows that New Zealand are almost unbeatable by British teams on their own turf. | repeat itself Years later, family history repeated itself with Eve's daughters. HISTORY + NOUN book (figurative) She has earned her place in the history books. PREP. during sth's ~ The country has suffered several invasions during its history. | in (sth's) ~ the most extraordinary royal meeting in history the best player in the sport's history | throughout ~ There have been conflicts such as this throughout history . PHRASES change the course of history events that could change the course of history | a period of history This is a fascinating period of history. | the rest is history (= the rest of the story does not need to be told because it is well-known), a sense of history a people with no sense of history | a slice of history The team grabbed a slice of history here today (= achieved sth that will be remembered) . Note at SUBJECT (for more verbs and nouns) 2 facts about sb/sth's life/existence in the past ADJ. chequered, colourful, fascinating, interesting, rich The city has a rich and colourful history. | long She has a long history of mental illness. | previous, subsequent | case She familiarized herself with the case history of her new patient. | employment, family, life, medical, personal, sexual The doctor will need some details of your medical history. I know nothing about his personal history. VERB + HISTORY have PREP. ~ of a history of heart disease in the family 3 sth in the past that is no longer important ADJ. past They had an affair once, but that's past history now. 当代 contemporary adj. 1 belonging to the same time as sb/sth else VERBS be ADV. strictly She used only strictly contemporary documents to research the book. | almost, nearly | broadly, roughly a period broadly contemporary with the Shang dynasty PREP. with a composer contemporary with Beethoven 2 modern VERBS be ADV. very His work is very contemporary. 传统 tradition noun ADJ. age-old, ancient, archaic, centuries-old, deep-rooted , enduring, living, long/ long-established , old, time-honoured, unbroken, well-established | distinguished, fine, great, honourable | cherished , hallowed | dominant, powerful , strong | ancestral, family | local, national, native | folk, popular | oral | Catholic, Christian, pagan, etc. | Eastern, English, European, etc. | 19th-century, classical, medieval, modernist, etc. | academic , artistic, cultural, ideological, literary, military, musical, philosophical, political, religious, sociological, sporting, teaching, theatrical This region has a great sporting tradition. | democratic , liberal , radical, revolutionary VERB + TRADITION have | cherish , continue, follow (in), keep alive, maintain, preserve, uphold Following in the Hitchcock tradition, he always appears in the films he directs. Villagers get together every year to keep this age-old tradition alive. | hand down an oral tradition handed down from generation to generation | break (with), go against He broke with the family tradition and did not go down the mines. | establish, start | revive TRADITION + VERB continue, die hard, survive Old habits and traditions die hard. PREP. according to (a/the) ~ According to tradition , a tree grew on the spot where the king was killed. | by ~ By tradition , nobody interrupts an MP's maiden speech. | in (a/the) ~ In time-honoured tradition , a bottle of champagne was smashed on the ship. He's a politician in the tradition of (= similar in style to) Kennedy. PHRASES a departure from tradition In a departure from tradition , the bride wore a red dress. | in the best traditions of sth The building was constructed in the best traditions of medieval church architecture. | respect for tradition I acquired lasting respect for tradition and veneration for the past. 习俗 custom noun ADJ. accepted, age-old, ancient, established, old, traditional | quaint | local | social VERB + CUSTOM follow, observe, respect They still follow the custom of pinning money to the bride's dress. | maintain, preserve, revive CUSTOM + VERB die out, disappear The custom died out in the nineteenth century. | prevail, survive These customs still prevail in remote areas. PREP. according to a/the ~, in accordance with (a/the) ~ They poured wine round the trees in accordance with local custom. | through ~ The rules have grown up through custom and are not laid down by law. | ~ of PHRASES as is/was the custom People threw coins onto the stage, as was the custom. loyalty noun ADJ. absolute, complete, total, undivided, unswerving He showed unswerving loyalty to his friends. | fierce, great, intense, strong, tremendous | conflicting, divided Rows with one's in-laws often create divided loyalties. | primary, prime His prime loyalty was to his family. | family, filial, group, personal, tribal | local, national, regional | religious | party, political | brand, customer VERB + LOYALTY command, inspire, win He inspires great loyalty from all his employees. | feel, have | display, express, prove, show | pledge, swear They pledged their loyalty to the king. | transfer Some party members found it hard to transfer their loyalty to the new leader. | expect LOYALTY + VERB be, lie, remain His loyalties lay with people from the same background as himself. LOYALTY + NOUN oath PREP. out of ~ She stayed on at the school out of loyalty to her students. | ~ among The village is the object of fierce loyalty among its inhabitants. | ~ for Mass advertising creates brand loyalty for a product. | ~ from The company expects loyalty from its employees. | ~ to men whose loyalty is to their political careers | ~ towards The team members felt tremendous loyalty towards one another. PHRASES a conflict of loyalties, an oath/a pledge of loyalty, a sense of loyalty 伦理学 ethics noun ADJ. personal She resigned over an issue of personal ethics. | Christian | business, medical, professional The study was approved by the medical ethics committee. PHRASES a code of ethics There should be a code of business ethics which indicates how clients are to be served. | a matter/question of ethics. It's the committee's job to decide on matters of ethics. 科学的 scientific adj. VERBS be, look, seem ADV. highly It all looks highly scientific! | truly | purely Her curiosity was purely scientific. | not very His approach was not very scientific. 发现 discovery noun ADJ. amazing, big, exciting, great, important, major, remarkable, significant, startling, surprising, unexpected potentially the biggest archaeological discovery in Norway for fifty years | awful, chilling, grim, terrible the awful discovery that he had been deceiving her | latest, new, recent | accidental, chance All these were chance discoveries made by scientists engaged in other investigations. | archaeological, medical, scientific | personal The story tells of a man's journey of personal discovery up an African river. VERB + DISCOVERY make New scientific discoveries are being made all the time. | lead to Their work led to some important medical discoveries. | await There may be many unexpected treasures awaiting discovery. PREP. ~ by a discovery by a French scientist | ~ of the discovery of oil in the North Sea PHRASES a process of discovery, a journey/voyage of discovery (figurative) To tour Sri Lanka is to take a voyage of discovery through a land of endless variety. 艺术 art noun 1 paintings, drawings, etc. ADJ. great, high | abstract, avant-garde, commercial, conceptual, figurative, fine, graphic, performance, pop/popular, sacred, visual | contemporary, modern VERB + ART create, produce one of the greatest works of art ever produced ART + NOUN gallery | collector, critic, dealer, historian, lover | treasure, work (also artwork ) | college, school | form Cinema became accepted as an art form. | history | market | world Many people from the art world attended the painter's funeral. 2 the arts: art, music, theatre, literature, etc. ADJ. creative, decorative, dramatic, performing, plastic, visual PHRASES arts and crafts an exhibition of Peruvian arts and crafts | funding for the arts, a patron of the arts, sponsorship of the arts 3 arts not sciences ART + NOUN subject | degree PHRASES arts and sciences 4 ability/skill VERB + ART master, perfect I've never mastered the art of making bread. PREP. ~ of Television has ruined the art of conversation. PHRASES get sth down to a fine art (= learn to do it very well) She's got the business of buying Christmas presents down to a fine art. Note at ART 原创性 originality noun ADJ. great, startling, striking VERB + ORIGINALITY have | display, show | be lacking in, lack ORIGINALITY + VERB lie in sth His originality as a painter lies in his representation of light. PREP. ~ in The government has shown great originality in its foreign policy. PHRASES a spark of originality 创造性 creativity noun ADJ. great | artistic, musical VERB + CREATIVITY develop, encourage, stimulate A good teacher can encourage artistic creativity. | inhibit, stifle This rigid approach stifles creativity. PREP. ~ in This exercise encourages creativity in the use of language. PHRASES scope for creativity My job does not give me much scope for creativity. 革新 innovation noun 1 introduction of new ideas ADJ. constant, continuous | successful | cultural, educational, industrial, scientific, technical, technological | design, policy, product industries where constant product innovation is a criterion for survival VERB + INNOVATION encourage, facilitate, foster, stimulate | stifle Too strict a regulatory system will stifle innovation. INNOVATION + VERB occur Technical innovation may occur directly in the factory. INNOVATION + NOUN process PREP. ~ in innovation in engineering PHRASES scope for innovation 2 new idea ADJ. great, major, important, significant | successful | welcome | interesting | latest, new | recent | scientific, technical, technological VERB + INNOVATION come up with She believed she had come up with one of the greatest innovations of modern times. | introduce Many innovations were introduced by the 1919 Act. | design, develop technological innovations designed to save energy INNOVATION + VERB occur PREP. ~ by Mathematical astronomy was the great innovation by the Greeks of the 5th century BC. | ~ in innovations in machinery and instruments 保守的 conservative adj. VERBS be | become | remain ADV. deeply, extremely, highly, profoundly, very | increasingly | largely, predominantly | fairly, rather, relatively | basically, essentially She takes a basically conservative view of society. | generally | innately, instinctively, naturally the army's innately conservative values | notoriously Banks are notoriously conservative about their dealings with clients. | traditionally a traditionally conservative profession | culturally, morally, politically, socially the culturally conservative world of commerce and industry conservative noun ADJ. diehard, dyed-in-the-wool, hardline, staunch | right-wing | back-bench disagreement among back-bench Conservatives | senior Senior Conservatives are opposed to the change. | political 文化 culture noun 1 customs/ideas/beliefs ADJ. ancient | primitive | dominant | alien, foreign | indigenous, native | local, national | traditional | African, black, Greek, Western, world, etc. These ideas have always been central to Western culture. | rural, urban | mainstream | underground | wider Prisoners are isolated from the wider culture of society at large. | bourgeois, working-class, etc. | street, youth As young people started to have more money, a significant youth culture developed. | dance, drug, football, etc. | academic, business, company, corporate, intellectual, legal, political, professional, religious, scientific, etc. the political culture of the United States | capitalist, computer, consumer, enterprise, materialistic , etc. the development of the enterprise culture in Britain VERB + CULTURE assimilate (sb into) The Romans gradually assimilated the culture of the people they had conquered. Newcomers to the company are soon assimilated into the culture. | create, develop, foster, produce The new director is trying to foster a culture of open communication within the company. CULTURE + VERB develop CULTURE + NOUN group a country containing many language and culture groups | shock She experienced great culture shock when she first came to Europe. PREP. in a/the ~ In some cultures children have an important place. | ~ of The social security system has been accused of producing a culture of dependency. 2 art/literature/music, etc ADJ. contemporary, modern | mass, pop, popular | folk | high | wide | literary, oral Jokes are an important part of our popular, oral culture. PREP. a man/woman of culture She is a woman of wide culture. 认同，同一性 identity noun ADJ. true | assumed, false He was discovered living under an assumed identity in South America. | mistaken This is obviously a case of mistaken identity. | new | common, corporate, cultural, national, personal, political, racial, sexual VERB + IDENTITY create, develop, establish, forge They are still struggling to establish their identity as a political party. The company forged its own identity by producing specialist vehicles. | give sb/sth He felt that having a job gave him an identity. | maintain, preserve Many minority groups are struggling to maintain their cultural identity. | lose | change He changed his identity and moved abroad on his release from prison. | assume She was given a false passport and assumed a new identity. | disclose, reveal He refused to reveal the identity of his client. | discover, find out | guess It was easy to guess the identity of the thief. | conceal, hide, keep secret, protect Her voice was disguised to conceal her identity. IDENTITY + NOUN bracelet, tag | card, documents, papers | code | parade The victim picked out her attacker in an identity parade. | crisis The country suffered from an identity crisis for years after the civil war. PREP. ~ as Scotland has never lost its identity as a separate nation. PHRASES proof of identity The police officer asked him for proof of identity. | a search for identity His search for his cultural identity took him to where his parents were born. | a sense of identity 成功 success noun 1 good results ADJ. considerable, conspicuous, enormous, great, notable, overwhelming, phenomenal, remarkable, spectacular, tremendous, unprecedented | limited, moderate, modest The campaign to stop drink-driving had only limited success. | popular, public | early, initial | immediate | long-term, short-term | business, commercial, economic, financial | academic, educational, electoral, literary, military, etc. | international The company's excellent marketing has resulted in enormous international success. QUANT. amount, degree Initially, the venture enjoyed a fair amount of success. VERB + SUCCESS achieve, enjoy, have, notch up She had little success in getting new customers. He is keen to notch up yet another success. | bring A change of management failed to bring success. | end in, lead to, result in The year-long fight for a pay rise ended in success. | ensure, guarantee We can't guarantee immediate success. | be vital to Your contribution was vital to the success of the concert. SUCCESS + VERB come Success didn't come overnight? She struggled for years before making any money. | lie (in sth) Much of his success lies in his skill in handling staff. | depend on sth The success or failure of the project depends on how committed the managers are. SUCCESS + NOUN rate The operation has a success rate of over 80%. | story The company has been one of the success stories of the past decade. PREP. without ~ She tried to persuade them without success. | ~ in I've had some success in getting rid of the weeds. | ~ with the secret of his success with women PHRASES a chance/hope of success What are our chances of success? We're trying to get him to sponsor us, but there's not much hope of success. | confident of success She had worked hard and was confident of success. | the key to success, a lack of success, the secret of (sb's) success, a symbol of (sb's) success 2 sth that achieves its aim ADJ. big, complete, considerable, conspicuous, enormous, great, huge, major, notable, outstanding, phenomenal, popular, real, remarkable, resounding, roaring, runaway, spectacular, total, tremendous, unprecedented, unqualified The band's new album has been a runaway success. | modest, qualified | business, commercial, economic, popular The book proved a major commercial success. | international | immediate VERB + SUCCESS be, prove | have We had one or two outstanding successes. | judge sth The event was judged a success by its organizers. | make She's made a real success of that job. PHRASES wish sb (every) success We are sad to see Hiroko go, and wish her every success in the future. 平衡 balance noun 1 even combination/distribution ADJ. correct, equal, even, exact, ideal, necessary, optimum, perfect, proper, right With children, it is important to achieve the right balance between love and discipline. | comfortable, equitable, excellent, good, happy, harmonious, healthy a healthy balance of foods | acceptable, adequate, appropriate, fair, reasonable, sensible How do you find an acceptable balance between closeness and distance in a relationship? | careful, delicate, fine, subtle Being a good boss requires a fine balance between kindness and authority. | fragile, precarious, uneasy | overall It is the overall balance of the diet that is important. | ecological, natural Pulling up all the plants will disturb the natural balance of the pond. | hormonal, nutritional | ethnic, gender, social There is an even gender balance amongst staff and students (= equal numbers of men and women) . VERB + BALANCE require | seek | achieve, create, find, strike We need to strike a balance between these conflicting interests. | keep, maintain, sustain You have to maintain a balance in your life or else you'll go crazy. | disturb, upset Tourists often disturb the delicate balance of nature on the island. | redress, restore | affect | alter, change, shift BALANCE + VERB change, shift PREP. on ~ (= after considering all the information) On balance, the company has had a successful year. | in ~ It is important to keep the different aspects of your life in balance. | ~ between the balance between academic and practical work | ~ of the balance of animals and plants in the environment PHRASES the balance of nature 2 division of power/influence ADJ. changing, shifting | military, political VERB + BALANCE hold to hold the balance of power (= to be in a position where your support would be just enough to give overall power to one group or another) | affect | change, shift | swing, tilt, tip (= to influence a result/decision) In an interview, smart presentation can tip the balance in your favour. BALANCE + VERB change, shift PHRASES the balance of advantage The balance of advantage has shifted from the unions to employers. | the balance of forces/power the changing balance of power between the working and middle class | checks and balances Democracy depends on a system of checks and balances. 3 of the body ADJ. excellent, good | poor VERB + BALANCE have Gymnasts have excellent balance. | affect Tightness in one set of muscles will affect your whole balance. | keep I struggled to keep my balance on my new skates. | lose She lost her balance and fell. | recover, regain | knock sb off, throw sb off The sudden movement threw him off balance. PREP. off ~ PHRASES a sense of balance Cats have a very good sense of balance. 4 money ADJ. account, bank | cash, money | credit, favourable, healthy, positive | debit, negative | cleared, net Interest is calculated on the daily cleared balance and paid direct to your account. | opening | final, outstanding | trade VERB + BALANCE have Everyone likes to have a healthy bank balance. | ask for, request He asked the cashier for the balance of his current account. | check I'll need to check my bank balance before I spend so much money. | show | achieve | be due The final balance is due six weeks before departure. | pay I'll pay the balance later. | use The balance of the proceeds will be used for new equipment. | bring forward, carry forward the balance brought forward from the previous year BALANCE + NOUN sheet the company's balance sheet PHRASES the balance of payments (= the difference between the amount of money coming into and going out of a country), the balance of trade (= the difference in value between imports and exports) balance verb 1 keep steady ADV. carefully, precariously PREP. on He balanced the glasses carefully on the tray. 2 compare two things; give them equal value VERB + BALANCE have to, need to | seek to, try to The plan seeks to balance two important objectives. | manage to PREP. against We have to balance the risks of the new strategy against the possible benefits. | with She tries to balance the needs of her children with those of her employer. 进展 advance noun 1 forward movement ADJ. rapid | Allied, British, German, etc. VERB + ADVANCE make The regiment made an advance on the enemy lines. | order The general ordered an advance to the front line. | halt, resist, stop PREP. on ~ the advance on Leningrad | to ~, towards ~ the Russian advance towards Berlin 2 development ADJ. big, considerable, dramatic, enormous, great, spectacular, substantial, tremendous | important, major, notable, remarkable, significant | rapid, steady rapid advances in science and technology | recent | economic, educational, medical, political, scientific, social, technical, technological | theoretical VERB + ADVANCE make We need more money if we are to make any further advances in this area of science. PREP. in ~ two major advances in orthopaedic medicine | on ~ an advance on the existing techniques | towards ~ an advance towards a better understanding of God 3 money ADJ. large | cash VERB + ADVANCE give, pay The publishers have paid me an advance. | get, receive PREP. ~ of an advance of ￡ 10,000 | ~ on He was paid ￡ 5,000 as an advance on royalties. 4 advances: sexual ADJ. amorous, sexual VERB + ADVANCE make He made amorous advances to one of his students. PREP. ~ to advance verb 1 move forward ADV. quickly, rapidly | cautiously, slowly PREP. from advancing from the south | into The troops advanced into central Europe. | on/upon The army advanced on the capital. | towards He advanced towards me in aggressive style. 2 develop ADV. considerably, greatly, significantly | rapidly PREP. beyond Society needs to advance beyond prejudice and superstition. 进步 progress noun 1 movement forwards ADJ. considerable, dramatic, encouraging, excellent, genuine, good, great, impressive, real, remarkable, significant, substantial | fast, rapid, swift | inexorable | slow, stately We watched the ship's stately progress out of the harbour. | satisfactory, steady | further | academic, educational VERB + PROGRESS achieve, make | assess, chart, check (on), evaluate, monitor, observe, review, trace, track, watch Regular tests enable the teacher to monitor the progress of each child. | block, hamper, hinder, impede, obstruct, slow (down) | halt, stop | accelerate, facilitate PROGRESS + NOUN report PREP. in ~ There was a cricket match in progress. | ~ from … to … The book traced his steady progress from petty theft to serious crime. | ~ in He's making good progress in maths. | ~ on How much progress have the builders made on the extension? | ~ towards Who can halt Woods' inexorable progress towards yet another championship? | ~ with She's making steady progress with her thesis. PHRASES a lack of progress I was frustrated by my apparent lack of progress when I started the violin. | a rate of progress At the present rate of progress we won't be finished before July. | work in progress I have one file for completed work and one for work in progress. 2 improvement in society ADJ. economic, evolutionary, industrial, medical, scientific, social, technical, technological | human VERB + PROGRESS hold back PHRASES the march of progress the onward march of technological progress progress verb ADV. satisfactorily, smoothly, well The talks are progressing very well. | further He felt he still needed to progress further in his learning. | rapidly progressing rapidly in his chosen career | slowly The work is progressing quite slowly. | steadily VERB + PROGRESS fail to PREP. beyond Samir failed to progress beyond this first step on the ladder. | from, through allowing students to progress through the stages of the course | to She soon progressed from the basics to more difficult work. | towards slowly progressing towards a new kind of art | up his ambition to progress up the career ladder | with They are keen to progress with the scheme. 发展 development noun 1 developing sth ADJ. full School should encourage the full development of a student's talents. | gradual | rapid | sustainable | healthy | commercial, economic, industrial | evolutionary, historical | regional | rural, suburban, urban | human | educational, emotional, intellectual, linguistic, personal, physical, psychological, sexual, social, spiritual | software | child | property VERB + DEVELOPMENT aid, allow, assist, encourage, enhance, facilitate, favour, foster, permit, promote, stimulate, support Education stimulates the stage in the development of Anglo-Irish relations | a stage of development This is a perfectly normal stage of development. 2 new event/idea ADJ. exciting, important, major, radical, remarkable, significant, striking | the latest, new, recent | logical The move from TV to film was a logical development in her career. | unexpected | welcome | political, scientific, technical, technological DEVELOPMENT + VERB occur, take place the significant developments taking place in the health service PREP. ~ in new developments in film-making 3 new buildings ADJ. housing, property | development of rational thinking. A group of experts has been brought together to support the develop business, commercial | ribbon | accelerate, speed up Ribbon developments (= lines of Environmental factors can buildings) extended along the mai n accelerate the development of road . certain cancers. | arrest, discourage, halt, hinder, inhibit, prevent, restrict, retard, slow Too much emphasis o n memorizing facts can inhibit th e development of creative thinking . | finance The company went dee p into debt to finance th e development of the engine. | monitor, oversee A UN team i s monitoring the development o f the peace process. | trace In th e opening chapter, the author trace s the development of judo from it s ancient roots . DEVELOPMENT + VERB occur, take place DEVELOPMENT + NOUN initiative, plan, programme, project, scheme | aid, assistance | work The invention requires more development work to make it viable. | process the lengthy development process of a new model of car | budget, capital, fund, grant | costs, expenditure PREP. during ~ Cell divisions during development occur in a fixed sequence. | in ~ A more powerful version of this electric bus in currently in development. | under ~ The new vaccine is still under development. PHRASES research and development I do quite a lot of research and development work in my job. | a stage in the development of sth an important 英雄 hero noun ADJ. big, great He was one of the great football heroes of his day. | real | all-time Einstein is the all-time hero of many scientists. | unsung She was an unsung hero of the British film industry. | reluctant, unlikely | brave, gallant The song remembers the brave heroes who died for their country. | romantic, tragic Being short and overweight, he was an unlikely romantic hero. | square-jawed, swashbuckling Tired of playing the square-jawed hero, he sought out more challenging roles. | all-conquering, conquering In his war stories he portrayed himself as the all-conquering hero. He returned home from the tournament a conquering hero. | fallen a fallen hero trying to regain his position | cult James Dean was a cult hero of the fifties. | folk, local, national, popular | fictional, legendary, mythical | eponymous Don Quixote, the eponymous hero of the novel by Cervantes | boyhood, childhood Bugs Bunny was one of my childhood heroes. | proletarian, working-class | military | celluloid | musical In this album she pays tribute to her musical heroes. | film, football, guitar, sporting, war Jimi Hendrix was her guitar hero. VERB + HERO be hailed (as) He was hailed as a hero after the rescue. | become, make sb into, turn sb into The fight to save the forest turned him into a local hero. | die He died a national hero. PREP. ~ to He was a hero to all his schoolmates. PHRASES be no hero John was no hero?he stood back as his friends approached the two armed border guards. | give sb/receive a hero's welcome, hero of the hour Everyone played brilliantly, but Jones was the hero of the hour. | (die) a hero's death 领导者 leader noun 1 person who is in charge of sth ADJ. born, natural | charismatic, effective, good, great, inspiring, inspired, visionary | undisputed | powerful, strong | weak | deputy | former | joint | local, national | opposition, parliamentary, party | Conservative, Labour, etc. | military, political, religious, spiritual | gang, guerrilla, nationalist, rebel | group, project, squadron, team Discuss any problems with your team leader. | business, church, civic, community, council, government, strike, student, (trade) union, youth Business leaders have been in talks with the government. | miners', teachers', etc. VERB + LEADER be appointed, become, be elected | appoint (sb), appoint sb as, choose (sb as), elect (sb), elect sb as, nominate (sb), nominate sb as PHRASES a leader of the Opposition 2 person/team that is best or in first place ADJ. undisputed | brand, market, world The company is a world leader in electrical goods. | championship, league, tournament VERB + LEADER overtake aiming to overtake the market leaders within two years PREP. behind the ~ ten points behind league leaders Manchester United | ~ in the undisputed leader in her field 社会 society noun 1 people who have shared customs and laws ADJ. wider the position of women within the family and the wider society | contemporary, modern | traditional | advanced the division of labour in an advanced capitalist society | primitive | egalitarian, free, just, open | closed | civilized, humane | affluent the consumerist values of the affluent society | consumer, consumerist | throwaway Our throwaway society must be encouraged to recycle. | permissive | multicultural, multiracial, pluralistic | divided, stratified Years of high unemployment have left society deeply divided. | civil the relationship between the state and civil society | secular | human a theory on the basis of human society | class | classless | tribal | matriarchal, patriarchal | bourgeois | capitalist, democratic, feudal, socialist, etc. | industrial, post-industrial, pre-industrial | agricultural, technological | Western | rural, urban, village | polite Such language would not be used in polite society. VERB + SOCIETY build, create, shape the struggle to build a just society | permeate, pervade the greed that pervades modern society | fit into Prisoners often have problems fitting into society on their release. | polarize SOCIETY + VERB be based on sth a society based on social justice PREP. in/within (a) ~ the role of television in modern Western society PHRASES a cross-section of society The clinic deals with a wide cross-section of society | the fabric of society The civil war tore apart the fabric of society. | the higher/top echelons of society Officers were drawn largely from the top echelons of society. | a level/rank/stratum of society Child cruelty exists at all levels of society. | a member of society welfare reforms to protect the most vulnerable members of society | an outcast from/of society She devoted herself to helping the outcasts of society. | the backbone/a bulwark/a pillar of society One of the pillars of society must be that everyone has access to the legal system. He considered himself to be a pillar of society. | your place/rank in society A person's job is one of the factors that determines their place in society. | the rest of society He felt isolated from the rest of society. | a section/sector/segment of society Every section of society must have access to education. | society as a whole The research examines minorities and their relation to society as a whole. | society at large Health standards have risen in society at large. | the structure of a society the class structure of British society 2 organization formed for a particular purpose ADJ. secret | debating, dramatic, historical, horticultural, law, medical, musical, religious, etc. VERB + SOCIETY belong to She belongs to the historical society. | become a member of, join | create, establish, form, found, set up, start PREP. in a/the ~ She was active in the Society for Women's Suffrage. | ~ for a society for the prevention of cruelty to animals | ~ of the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders Note at ORGANIZATION 民主的 democratic adj. 1 favouring/practising democracy VERBS be | become | remain There have been major changes in the constitution, but the system remains democratic. ADV. genuinely, truly | fully, thoroughly a fully democratic society | fairly, quite, reasonably They have a fairly democratic form of government. | dangerously In 1776 these were considered dangerously democratic principles. 2 being fair to different sides VERBS be, seem ADV. extremely, very | fairly, quite, reasonably I think it was a reasonably democratic decision. 民主 democracy noun ADJ. genuine, true | political | constitutional, parliamentary | multi-party | Western VERB + DEMOCRACY believe in, support people who believe in true democracy | fight for | establish | restore The military regime has promised to restore democracy soon. PREP. in a/the ~ We live in a multi-party democracy. PHRASES pro-democracy a pro-democracy demonstration in the capital | the road to democracy the need to overcome political apathy and advance on the road to democracy | the spread of democracy 环境 environment noun 1 conditions of the place where you are ADJ. immediate Cold-blooded animals depend on the temperature of their immediate environment. | alien, new, unfamiliar | changing | protected, safe, secure, stable | friendly | pleasant | clean, healthy | stimulating | favourable This period provided a favourable environment for the spread of communism. | uncertain, unstable | dangerous | noisy | competitive | hostile | extreme, harsh | fragile Walkers can unwittingly damage the fragile environment in which the birds live. | rural, urban | arid, cold, warm | aquatic, coastal, forest, mountain | domestic, family, home Children learn best in their home environment. | physical | cultural, emotional, social | office, work, working, workplace A comfortable working environment will increase productivity. | classroom, educational, learning, school, teaching, training | economic, financial Investors are showing more caution in the current economic environment. | political | business, commercial, corporate She now had to transfer her design skills to a commercial environment. | professional VERB + ENVIRONMENT create, provide parents who strive to provide a stimulating environment for their children to grow up in | adapt to creatures that have adapted to hostile desert environments | improve | explore The cat walked round, exploring its new environment. PREP. in an/the ~ people working in increasingly competitive environments 2 the environment the natural world ADJ. natural | global, world | local VERB + ENVIRONMENT preserve, protect, safeguard The government should do more to protect the environment. | clean spokesman, spokeswoman | policy | conference | protection | issues PREP. in the ~ the amount of carbon in the environment PHRASES conservation/protection of the environment, damage to the environment farming methods that minimize damage to the environment | harmful to the environment The label identifies the products that are least harmful to the environment. | pollution of the environment up, improve | have an impact on factors that have a huge impact on the environment | damage, harm, pollute industries which damage the environment ENVIRONMENT + NOUN agency, committee, department, group, ministry | minister, official, 科技 technology noun ADJ. current, existing, present-day | emerging, the latest, modern, new small businesses that are involved with emerging technologies | basic, low | advanced, complex, high, leading-edge, sophisticated, state-of-the-art, up-to-date, white-hot | alternative, innovative a car based on alternative technology | efficient | communication/communications, computer, digital, energy, information, management, manufacturing, nuclear, production, software, telecommunications | educational, environmental, medical, military VERB + TECHNOLOGY have We now have the technologies to transplant limbs. | adopt, apply, employ, exploit, introduce, take advantage of, use exploiting existing technologies more fully | create, develop, improve | be based on a car engine based on technology developed for aeroplanes | invest in The company is investing heavily in new technologies. TECHNOLOGY + VERB develop Telecommunications technology is developing fast. | allow sth, enable sth This technology enables computers to read handwriting. PREP. ~ for the technology for the extraction of iron ore PHRASES advances in technology recent advances in medical technology | the impact of (a) technology, science and technology 政治学 politics noun 1 work/ideas connected with getting/using power ADJ. county, local She was active in local politics for many years. | domestic, internal, national the country's internal politics the internal politics of the legal profession | global, international, world | democratic, electoral, multiparty, parliamentary, party | contemporary, modern | mainstream | practical He argued that it was not practical politics to abolish private schools. | power They took the view that Casper was playing power politics with their jobs at stake. | consensus Consensus politics places a high value on existing political institutions. | conviction | cultural, gender, sexual | office VERB + POLITICS enter, go into They went into politics in the hope of changing society. | abandon, retire from He abandoned politics and went into business. | be interested in | be active in, be engaged in, be/get immersed in, be/get involved in, engage in, participate in | dabble in, play (informal) | get embroiled in | interfere in, intervene in, meddle in As a churchman, he was accused of meddling in politics. | dominate the issues which have dominated Irish politics | reshape reforms that are intended to reshape Italian politics POLITICS + VERB dominate sth In their world politics dominates everything. PHRASES the world of politics 2 political beliefs ADJ. extreme, radical His manners were as mild as his politics were extreme. | left-wing, right-wing | sectarian | working-class | feminist VERB + POLITICS discuss, talk (about) (informal) Let's not talk politics now. 3 study of government ADJ. comparative Note at SUBJECT (for verbs and nouns) 想象力 imagination noun ADJ. great | active, creative, fertile, vivid | fevered, overactive, overheated It's just a product of your fevered imagination! | collective, popular, public a popular hero who inspired the collective imagination | visual I was no good at art?I have a very poor visual imagination. | historical, literary It requires a strong effort of historical imagination to understand the Roman attitude to death. | human the powers of the human imagination VERB + IMAGINATION have | show | lack Today's pop music lacks imagination. | require, take It does not take great imagination to guess what happened next. | use I haven't got a picture of this so you'll just have to use your imagination. | capture, captivate, catch, excite, fire, inspire, seize, stimulate, stir Victorian writers fired the popular imagination with their tales of adventure. | grip, hold Dinosaurs caught and have held the imagination of us all because they seem like dragons. | stretch, tax | defy The scale of the disaster defied imagination (= was greater than you could imagine) . | leave sth to As for their reaction, I'll leave that to your imagination! IMAGINATION + VERB conjure sth up His imagination conjured up a vision of the normal family life he had never had. | run away with you, run riot/wild PREP. beyond (your) ~ misery that is beyond most people's imagination | in the/your ~ Nobody hates you?it's all in your imagination! | with/without ~ He was totally without imagination. PHRASES a lack of imagination, a figment/product of sb's imagination The figure vanished as silently as if it had simply been a figment of her imagination. | not by any/by no stretch of the imagination Not by any stretch of the imagination could she be called beautiful (= she was definitely not beautiful in any way) . | only your imagination Is it only my imagination or have you lost weight? | with a little imagination With a little imagination you can create a delicious meal from yesterday's leftovers. 政府 government noun 1 people in control of a country ADJ. central, federal, local, national, provincial, regional | Communist, Conservative, Labour, etc. the country's new Communist government | left-wing, right-wing | coalition | minority The socialists won 42% of the seats and formed a minority government. | caretaker, interim, transitional The president dissolved the assembly and swore in an interim government. | military | puppet | French, Western, etc. The report on world poverty calls for urgent action from Western governments. VERB + GOVERNMENT elect The present government was elected last year. | form A nre government was formed in September of that year. | install A puppet government was installed as the occupying forces withdrew. | swear in | head, run a new government headed by a former military leader | bring down, destabilize, oust, overthrow, topple This crisis could bring down the British government. The group aims to overthrow the military government. GOVERNMENT + VERB come to power | take office On May 23 a coalition government took office. | fall, resign a national emergency that could cause the government to fall | announce sth The government announced the cancellation of the dam project. | introduce sth, launch sth GOVERNMENT + NOUN agency, body, department | funds, money | aid, assistance, backing, funding, grant, subsidy, support | expenditure, spending | cuts The hospital has been hit by government cuts. | control | intervention, involvement calls for government intervention in the dispute | minister, official, representative, spokesman | sources According to government sources, two people died in the incident. | figures, statistics | post | reshuffle The former minister was relieved of his post in last month's extensive government reshuffle. | decisions, legislation, measures, plans, policy, proposals | report | propaganda PREP. in ~ a problem facing whichever party is in government | under a/the ~ measures that were introduced under the last government PHRASES a change of government It is time we had a change of government. | the government of the day This was a decision taken by the government of the day. | a member of a government The prime minister has been meeting members of the French government. 2 act of governing ADJ. democratic, representative | firm, good, strong We need strong government to take the country through this crisis. | weak 经验 experience noun 1 knowledge/skill got from seeing/doing sth ADJ. considerable, long, wide | good, invaluable, relevant, unrivalled, valuable She didn't get paid much but it was all good experience. Both candidates for the presidency were short of relevant experience. Rolls Royce's unrivalled experience in high technology manufacturing | previous Do you have any previous experience of this type of work? | direct, first-hand, hands-on, practical the importance of hands-on experience as well as academic training | professional, work VERB + EXPERIENCE have | lack | gain, get | broaden She wanted to broaden her experience in international affairs. PREP. ~ of She has considerable professional experience of translation. PHRASES a lack of experience, a wealth of experience The veteran goalkeeper will bring a wealth of experience to the team. 2 the things that have happened to you ADJ. past We're in for a difficult couple of weeks, if past experience is anything to go by. | direct, first-hand, hands-on, personal | subjective Experience is subjective and very hard to measure. | vicarious I love reading: I have an insatiable appetite for vicarious experience. | common, shared his peers, with whom he shares the common experience of being black in a white society | common It is a matter of common experience that disorder will increase if things are left to themselves. | everyday Choose illustrative examples from the children's everyday experience. | human There are few areas of human experience that have not been written about. | sensory VERB + EXPERIENCE have | share | draw on, learn by/from/through In her book, she draws on her first-hand experience of mental illness. We all learn by experience. | be based on The book is based on personal experience. EXPERIENCE + VERB suggest sth, teach (sb) sth Experience has taught me that life can be very unfair. PREP. by/from ~ We know from experience that hot objects are painful to touch. | in sb's ~ In my experience, very few people really understand the problem. | ~ of He has direct experience of poverty. 3 event/activity that affects you ADJ. enjoyable, exhilarating, good, interesting, liberating, pleasant, rewarding, unforgettable, valuable | bad, harrowing, painful, traumatic, unnerving, unsettling I had a bad experience with fireworks once. | hair-raising, nerve-racking a hair-raising experience of white-water rafting | humbling, salutary, sobering | personal, subjective | common, shared The use of drama can motivate students by allowing them to share a common experience. | common It is a common experience to feel that an author writes well, without being able to say why. | real-life | past | childhood, early, formative Early experiences shape the way we face up to and deal with crises in later life. | educational, learning | mystical, religious, visionary | psychic | sexual | near-death VERB + EXPERIENCE enjoy, go through, have, undergo She has been through a very traumatic experience. I think you will enjoy the experience of taking part in the show. | come through, get over It could take him years to get over this experience. | describe, recount, talk about | share, swap Does anyone have any experiences?good or bad?that they would like to share with the group? | relive Reliving past experiences can release powerful feelings that have been pent up too long. | be based on The novel is based on his experiences in the war. PHRASES quite an experience It was quite an experience being involved in making a television programme. experience verb ADV. actually | directly, first-hand He hadn't directly experienced the fighting in the city. people who have actually experienced these problems first-hand | subjectively 智力 intelligence noun 1 ability to understand ADJ. acute, considerable, great, high a writer with an acute intelligence This essay shows considerable intelligence. | quick | average, normal | limited, low | innate, native | human | artificial Computer scientists study artificial intelligence. VERB + INTELLIGENCE have At least he had the intelligence to turn off the gas. | demonstrate, show | use INTELLIGENCE + NOUN test 2 information ADJ. secret We've obtained secret intelligence about enemy plans. | reliable | military Military intelligence is gathered using sophisticated technology. | criminal VERB + INTELLIGENCE collect, gather INTELLIGENCE + NOUN agency, service He works for the French intelligence service. | officer | gathering His unit was responsible for intelligence gathering in North Africa. | report | operation 合理的 reasonable adj. VERBS appear, be, seem, sound | consider sth, judge sth, regard sth as, think sth ADV. eminently, extremely, very | entirely, perfectly, utterly The police apparently thought this explanation perfectly reasonable. | fairly, quite | enough Her request sounded reasonable enough to me. | apparently 情绪，情感 emotion noun ADJ. deep, extreme, intense, overwhelming, powerful, profound, strong, violent | complex | conflicting, contradictory, mixed, tangled She felt torn by conflicting emotions. | destructive, negative Counselling can teach people to handle negative emotions such as fear and anger. | positive | inner, innermost | painful | fragile The nurse was handling his fragile emotions very carefully. | raw a moving performance full of raw emotion | pent-up, suppressed Years of pent-up emotion came out as he sobbed. | human Fear is a normal human emotion. QUANT. flicker, hint, trace There wasn't a hint of emotion in his eyes. | flood, rush, surge, wave She felt a sudden rush of emotion at the thought of seeing him again. | display She could not cope with such public displays of emotion. VERB + EMOTION experience, feel the emotions that we experience as children He felt no emotion as she left. | be choked with, be filled with, be overcome with Her voice was choked with emotion. | be devoid of, be drained of | display, express, show Drama can help children to express their emotions. The woman's face showed no emotion. | release Releasing these emotions is part of the healing process. | betray | shake with, tremble with She realized she was shaking all over with emotion. | bottle up, control, hide, stifle, suppress | cope with, deal with, handle | confront Counsellors encourage victims of crime to confront their emotions. | arouse, provoke, stir (up) an incident that has aroused strong emotions locally | be charged with, be full of a speech that was charged with emotion PREP. with/without ~ She spoke with deep emotion. PHRASES depth/intensity of emotion The film has a surprising depth of emotion for a comedy. | a gamut/range of emotions Her performance in the play covered the whole gamut of emotions. 沟通，交流 communication noun 1 act of communicating ADJ. effective, good Good communication is important for business. | poor | direct | open | two-way | interpersonal | regular | electronic, non-verbal, verbal, written | business VERB + COMMUNICATION have I haven't had any communication with him for several years. | establish | facilitate, improve | prevent measures which prevented the prisoners' communication with the outside world COMMUNICATION + VERB break down Communication between the two sides has broken down. COMMUNICATION + NOUN skills | breakdown PREP. in ~ with We are in regular communication with the kidnappers. | ~ between to establish direct communication between the lookout towers | ~ by communication by letter | ~ with We need better communication with clients. PHRASES a breakdown in communication(s), channels/lines of communication to keep open the channels of communication | a lack of communication, a means/method/system of communication Letters are their only means of communication. 2 communications: systems for sending information ADJ. good | online | global, international | mass | radio, rail, road, telephone VERB + COMMUNICATION have | cut off, disrupt COMMUNICATION + NOUN centre, links, network, satellite, system, technology PREP. ~ between They tried to disrupt communications between the two headquarters. | ~ with Paris has good rail communications with other major cities. 3 message ADJ. formal, official VERB + COMMUNICATION receive | send PREP. ~ about He received an official communication about the reorganization of the Ministry. | ~ from, ~ to a communication from the officer to the general 一致性 conformity noun ADJ. complete | strict | outward a society of outward religious conformity | political, religious, sexual, social QUANT. degree VERB + CONFORMITY achieve, bring sth into, ensure to bring national laws into conformity with European laws PREP. in ~ with The procedure is in strict conformity with standard international practices. | ~ between to achieve conformity between all the schemes | ~ to conformity to the accepted standards | ~ with We work to ensure conformity with the customer's wishes. 个体 individual noun ADJ. outstanding, talented | key | powerful | creative | average, ordinary Their research shows that the average individual watches around three and a half hours of television per day. | private He was carrying out his functions as a trustee in the course of his business, rather than as a private individual. | single | particular, certain The motives influencing a particular individual may change from time to time. | autonomous, independent His philosophy is about becoming aware of oneself as an autonomous individual. | isolated Society does not consist of isolated individuals, but people in a network of relationships. | unique She saw the artist as a unique individual, possessing a heightened awareness of reality. | like-minded a group of like-minded individuals | named The book recommends that you sign ‘Yours sincerely’ if you are send | qualified We welcome applications from suitably qualified individuals. | human We know that all human individuals are unique. VERB + INDIVIDUAL treat sb as Th e teacher should treat each pupil a s an individual . INDIVIDUAL + VERB vary Althoug h individuals vary widely, the bone s of the average female skeleton ar e smaller and lighter than the male . INDIVIDUAL + NOUN level His writing s are concerned with religiou s phenomena at the individual level . PHRASES any/no/one individual No single individual had done s o much for the development of th e motor vehicle. | concern for the individual, the freedom of the individual the issue of th e freedom of the individual versu s the intervention of the state | a group of individuals She ha d taken a group of individuals an d made them into a superb team. | the individual concerned It's u p to the individual concerned t o contact the police. | the needs of the individual Each course has t o be tailored to the needs of th e individual. | respect for the individual, vary from individual to individual Eating habits ar e bound to vary from individual t o individual . 实用的 pragmatic adj. VERBS be, seem | become ADV. highly, very | entirely, purely, utterly | essentially, largely Our approach is essentially pragmatic. | quite, rather PREP. about They're pragmatic about the spending cuts. 理想的 ideal adj. VERBS be, look, seem, sound | make sth The hotel's size makes it ideal for large conferences. | consider sth ADV. absolutely | almost | less than Language learning often takes place in a less than ideal environment. PREP. for The houses are absolutely ideal for families with young children. ideal noun ADJ. high, lofty, noble Sam was a real leader who had high moral ideals. | unattainable This is not an unattainable ideal. | aesthetic, artistic, ethical, moral, political | democratic, liberal, revolutionary, socialist VERB + IDEAL be committed to, be devoted to, believe in, cling to, espouse, have, support They still clung to the old ideals. | pursue, strive for | achieve, attain, be true to, conform to, live up to A journalist should always live up to the ideals of truth, decency, and justice. | fall short of This agreement falls far short of the ideal. | abandon, betray She was accused of betraying her political ideals. | embody, reflect the democratic ideals embodied in the charter 媒体 media noun ADJ. audio-visual, broadcast, broadcasting, electronic, mass, news, print, visual The event was widely covered by the mass media | foreign, international, local, national | mainstream, official, popular MEDIA + VERB report sth The local media reported rioting across the country. MEDIA + NOUN attention, coverage, interest, publicity, reporting There was a lot of media coverage of the wedding. | campaign | report | event Sport has been turned into a series of media events. | blitz, circus, hype The company is anxious to play down the media hype. | spotlight | image She's very different from her media image. | bias | blackout, censorship | freedom | relations | baron, magnate, mogul, person, pundit, tycoon | conglomerate, empire, group, interests, organization, outlet | awareness, studies PREP. through/via the ~ propaganda through the media PHRASES access to the media, the role of the media
【 序：此文针对本科生和一、二年级的博士、硕士生，对高年级的博士生和博士后也应该有参考价值。该文的一些背景可以参考我此前关于提高英文写作能力的博文： http://www.sciencenet.cn/m/user_content.aspx?id=349932 】 从小到大，我感性思维多一些，不善于读书。 85 至 89 年在清华生物系读本科期间，从未读过任何一种英文专业期刊。我受到的与英文阅读相关的训练一共只有两个。一是我在 1986 年暑假期间选修的时任系主任的蒲慕明老师开设的《生物英语》系列讲座，隐隐约约记得蒲先生让我们阅读一些诸如 DNA 双螺旋发现之类的科普性英文文章，很有意思。但时间较短，暑假过后也没有养成读英文文章的习惯。二是《生物化学》这门课。与现在的清华生命学院形成鲜明对比，我上大学期间的所有基础课和专业课都是采用中文教材、中文讲课，只有郑昌学老师讲授的《生物化学》采用了 Lehninger 的《 Principles of Biochemistry 》，而且郑老师要求我们每个学生每次课后阅读 10-20 页教材。我们同学大多感觉到专业英文阅读有所提高。 1990 年 4 月至 7 月初，我在依阿华州 Ames 小镇的 Iowa State University 度过了初到美国的前三个月，其中大部分时间在 Herbert Fromm 教授的实验室做轮转（ rotation ），跟随刘峰和董群夫妻两人做研究（刘峰现在 University of Texas Health Science Center 做教授）。当时感觉最困难的就是读专业论文。有一次， Fromm 教授要求我在组会上讲解一篇《 Journal of Biological Chemistry 》的文章，我提前两天开始阅读，第一遍花了足足六个小时，许多生词只能依靠英汉词典，文章中的有些关键内容还没有完全读懂，当时的感觉是 JBC 的文章怎么这么长、这么难懂？！真有点苦不堪言。为了能给 Fromm 教授和师兄师姐留下好印象，第二天又花了好几个小时读第二遍，还做了总结。第三天我在组会上的表现总算没有给清华丢脸。但是，前前后后，真搞不清楚自己为了这一篇文章到底花了多少时间！ 90 年 7 月我转学到约翰霍普金斯大学以后，与本科来自北大的虞一华同在 IPMB program 。虞一华大我一岁，来巴尔地摩之前已经在夏威夷大学读了一年的研究生，对于科研论文的阅读比我强多了。他常常在 IPMB 的办公室里拿着《科学》和《自然》周刊津津有味地阅读，看得我很眼馋，也不理解其中那些枯燥的文章有什么意思。他告诉我：他在读很有意思的科学新闻。科学新闻能有什么意思？虞一华给我讲了好几个故事：洛克菲勒大学校长诺贝尔奖得主 David Baltimore 如何深陷泥潭、人类基因组测序如何争辩激烈、 HIV 病毒究竟是谁发现的，等等。我还真没有想到学术期刊上会有这么多我也应该看得懂的内容！从那时起，每一期新的《科学》和《自然》一到，我也开始尝试着阅读里面的新闻和研究进展介绍，这些内容往往出现在“ News Comment ”“ Research News ”“ News Views ”“ Perspectives ” 等栏目，文笔平实，相对于专业的科研论文很容易读懂。有时，我还把读到的科研新闻讲给我的同事朋友们听，而同事的提问和互动对我又是更好的鼓励。除了《科学》和《自然》，我也常常翻看《科学美国人》 ( “ Scientific American ” ) 。 与《细胞》 (Cell) 、《生物化学期刊》（ JBC ）等非常专业的期刊不同，《科学》和《自然》里面有相当一部分内容是用来做科普教育的。《科学》周刊的“ Perspectives ”和 《自然》周刊的 “ News Views ” 栏目都是对重要科学论文的深入浅出的介绍，一般 1-3 页，读起来比较通俗易懂，较易入门。读完这些文章后，再读原始的科学论文，感觉好多了！而且可以把自己的体会与专家的分析比较一下，找找差距，有时甚至也能找回来一点自信！ 从 1998 年在普林斯顿大学任职到现在清华大学做教授，我总是告诉自己实验室的所有年轻人（包括本科生、硕士生、博士生、博士后）下面这几点读科研论文的体会，也希望我的学生跟我学： 1． 请每位学生每周关注《科学》和《自然》。（生命科学界的学生还应该留心《细胞》）。如果时间有限，每周花一个小时读读这两种周刊里的 文章标题 以及与自己研究领域相关的科研论文的 abstract , 即可！这样做可以保证一个学生基本上能够跟踪本领域最重要的发现和进展，同时开阔视野，大概知道其它领域的动态。 2． 在时间充足的情况下，可以细读《科学》和《自然》里的新闻及科研论文。如果该科研论文有 “ News Views ” 或“ Perspectives ”来介绍，请先读这些文章，这类导读的文章会提炼问题，就好比是老师事先给学生讲解一番论文的来龙去脉，对学生阅读原始论文有很大帮助。 3． 在读具体的科研论文时，最重要的是了解文章的 主线逻辑 。文章中的所有 Figures 都是按照这个主线逻辑展开描述的。所以，我一般先读“ introduction ”部分，然后很快地看一遍 Figures 。大概知道这条主线之后，才一字一句地去读“ results ”和“ discussion ”。 4． 当遇到一些实验或结果分析很晦涩难懂时， 不必花太多时间深究 ，而力求一气把文章读完。也许你的问题在后面的内容中自然就有解答。这与听学术讲座非常相似！你如果想每个细节都听懂，留心每一个技术细节，那你听学术讲座不仅会很累，而且也许会为了深究一个小技术环节而影响了对整个讲座逻辑推理及核心结论的理解。 5． 对个别重要的文章和自己领域内的科研论文，应该精读。对与自己课题相关的每一篇论文则必须字斟句酌地读。这些论文，不仅要完全读懂，理解每一个实验的细节、分析、结论，还必须联想到这些实验和结论对自己的课题的影响和启发，提出自己的观点。 6． 科学论文的阅读水平是循序渐进的。每个人开始都会很吃力，所以你有这种感觉不要气馁。坚持很重要，你一定会渐入佳境。当你有问题时或有绝妙分析时，应该与师兄师姐或找导师讨论。 7． 科研训练的一个重要组成部分就是科研论文的阅读。每一个博士生必须经过严格的科研论文阅读的训练。除了你自己的习惯性阅读外，你应该在研究生阶段选修以阅读分析专业文献为主的一至两门课，在实验室内也要有定期的科研论文讨论（ Journal Club ）。如果你的实验室还没有这种讨论，你们学生可以自发地组织起来。 8． 前面几条都是讨论如何提高科研论文的阅读能力，但是一旦入了门，就要学会 critical reading 。不要迷信已发表的论文，哪怕是发表在非常好的期刊上。要时刻提醒自己：该论文逻辑是否严谨，数据是否可靠，实验证据是否支持结论，你是否能想出更好的实验，你是否可以在此论文的基础上提出新的重要问题？等等。 天外有天，读科研论文是一件很简单、但也很深奥的事情。一般的学生常常满足于读懂、读透一篇好的论文，优秀的学生则会举一反三、通过查找 references 纵深了解整个领域的历史、现状，并展望该领域未来的可能进展。 我从 1990 年对学术论文一窍不通到 96 年博士后期间的得心应手，还常常帮助同事分析，自以为水平了得。但是有一件事让我看到了自己的严重不足，颇为羞愧。 1996 年，是 SMAD 蛋白发现及 TGF- b 信号转导研究的最激动人心的一年，哈佛医学院的 Whitman 实验室在十月份的《自然》杂志上以“ Article ”的形式发表了一篇名为“ A transcriptional partner for MAD proteins in TGF- b signaling ” 的文章。读完之后，正好遇到 TGF- b 领域的著名学者 Joan Massague, 我对 Joan 评论说： I’m not so sure why this paper deserves a full article in Nature. They just identified another Smad-interacting protein, and the data quality is mediocre. 完全出乎我的意料， Joan 马上回应我： I disagree! This paper links the cytoplasmic Smad protein into the nucleus and identifies a transcription factor as its interacting protein. Now the TGF- b signaling pathway is complete. It is a beautiful Nature article! 这件事对我触动极大：原来大师的视野和品位远远在我之上。从那以后，我也开始从整个领域的发展方面来权衡一篇文章的重要性，这件事对我今后为国际重要学术期刊审稿、自己实验室选择研究课题都起到了相当重要的作用。 如今，我阅读一篇本领域内的科研论文，非常顺利，而且常常可以看出一些作者没有想到或分析到的关键点。回想从前，感慨万千，感谢蒲慕明、郑昌学、虞一华、 John Desjarlais 、 Jeremy Berg 、 Joan Massague 等一批老师和同事对我的帮助。我很留心，也很用心。 希望所有的学生也能通过努力和坚持对英文科研论文的阅读得心应手！ 以上博文转自： http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=46212do=blogid=350496
When I read this bolg this morning ( http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=569569do=blogid=448000 ) It suddenly downed on me that why couldn't I write the blog in English！ I have always been learning English very hard，I passed the college English Bet 4 test when I was a fresh man ,and then got through the Bet 6 test in the following year.Since I became a postgraduate ，because my subject is logistics engineering ，I found that English is more important for me.So I begun to learn English harder then ever before.I am mad about English now. IreadEnglish loudly in the morning ,andlisten the BBC or VOA materialstored in mymp3 player beforegoing to sleep.In a word,I have pieced together all my spare time to learn English well. Now,in the following passage,I'll introduce my learning method: Fisrtly,I have been reciting the new concept English 3 last year .Though I had learnt the textbook when I was a undergraduate .However,I have almost forgot all of the passages I acquinted.Through persistent hard work，I can recite 40 passages very fluently now,and I hope Secondly，To improve my listening ，Ilistenend theVOA special English at first .After that,I begun to listen VOA standard and BBC.Though it's very hard to appreciate all the contents of the liatening material,you can listen it over an over again until you get the every meaaring of the sentence,even the every meaning of the word.As the old saying goes:practice makes perfect.Only through persistent effort can we improve our English. Finally,I want to say the most important thing in learning English.To learn English,you must make it become part of your life,you muststudy English with full of passion,and you must study English with great interest.There is no shortcut on the road to learn English.Here I want to cite the chinese old saying as a conclusion :Diligence is the path to the mountain of knowledge，hard-working is the boat to the endless sea of learning.(书山有路勤为径，学海无涯苦作舟)
英文写作第一反应词替换表 收藏 作文要想得高分，用词多变是关键。以下是一些作文中的常用替换词，仅供大家参考 ： through － in term of/via operate － manipulate offspring － descendant inevitable － indispensable detail － specific explain － interpret obvious － conspicuous hurt － vulnerable use － employ/utilize value － merit provide － lend － offer true － accurate leading to － contribute to/ conduce to/result in more and more － increasing/growing hardly － merely － barely well-known － outstanding large － miraculous/marvelous although － albeit/notwithstanding in fact － actually/virtually want － intend to/tend to/be inclined to because － in that may be － probably to sum － to summarize/in conclusion explain － interpret/illustrate change － alter chance － alternative custom － convention/tradition think － contemplate/muse/meditate/retrospect arouse － ignite/stimulate/spur/motivate limit － stress/hinder/hamper key － crucial/vital/consequential old － ancient emphasis － accentuate devote to － dedicate to character － trait/individuality/idiosyncrasy/personality expect － anticipate join － participate delegate － representative bias － prejudice/discriminate/tendency thrive － palmy/flourishing/prosperity clash － conflict/collision/rencounter publicize － propagandize agree partly － agree with reserve proper － apposite want to － desire big city － metropolis lawmaking － legislation first － primarily but － nonetheless/nevertheless child － juvenile absorb － assimilate hand in － render undermine － sap/enervate/debilitate get into chaos － with chaos ensuing key － pivot/crux sway － vacillate fanatic patriotism － jingoism/chauvinism persusive － thorough/sound/specific/convincing consider － take into account vague － gratuitous/unwarranted/oversimplified
Scientific Writing for Beginners (1)-(8) by Zuojun Yu I put these articles on one page, for my new friends and their students. Just click each link to see its content. (1) Basic Knowledge of English http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=255459 (2) Preparing Your Figures and Captions http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=256165 (3) Putting Together an Outline http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=256680 (4) Title and Abstract http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=256862 (5) Introduction http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=258111 (6) Never Let Go of Your Readers http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=259573 (7) End Your Paper with a Positive Outlook http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=260375 (8) Revise, Revise, Revise http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=260381 p.s. If you find these tips helpful, please share them with your colleagues and students so they may benefit, too.
【 序：此文针对本科生和一、二年级的博士、硕士生，对高年级的博士生和博士后也应该有参考价值。该文的一些背景可以参考我此前关于提高英文写作能力的博文： http://www.sciencenet.cn/m/user_content.aspx?id=349932 】 从小到大，我感性思维多一些，不善于读书。 85 至 89 年在清华生物系读本科期间，从未读过任何一种英文专业期刊。我受到的与英文阅读相关的训练一共只有两个。一是我在 1986 年暑假期间选修的时任系主任的蒲慕明老师开设的《生物英语》系列讲座，隐隐约约记得蒲先生让我们阅读一些诸如 DNA 双螺旋发现之类的科普性英文文章，很有意思。但时间较短，暑假过后也没有养成读英文文章的习惯。二是《生物化学》这门课。与现在的清华生命学院形成鲜明对比，我上大学期间的所有基础课和专业课都是采用中文教材、中文讲课，只有郑昌学老师讲授的《生物化学》采用了 Lehninger 的《 Principles of Biochemistry 》，而且郑老师要求我们每个学生每次课后阅读 10-20 页教材。我们同学大多感觉到专业英文阅读有所提高。 1990 年 4 月至 7 月初，我在依阿华州 Ames 小镇的 Iowa State University 度过了初到美国的前三个月，其中大部分时间在 Herbert Fromm 教授的实验室做轮转（ rotation ），跟随刘峰和董群夫妻两人做研究（刘峰现在 University of Texas Health Science Center 做教授）。当时感觉最困难的就是读专业论文。有一次， Fromm 教授要求我在组会上讲解一篇《 Journal of Biological Chemistry 》的文章，我提前两天开始阅读，第一遍花了足足六个小时，许多生词只能依靠英汉词典，文章中的有些关键内容还没有完全读懂，当时的感觉是 JBC 的文章怎么这么长、这么难懂？！真有点苦不堪言。为了能给 Fromm 教授和师兄师姐留下好印象，第二天又花了好几个小时读第二遍，还做了总结。第三天我在组会上的表现总算没有给清华丢脸。但是，前前后后，真搞不清楚自己为了这一篇文章到底花了多少时间！ 90 年 7 月我转学到约翰霍普金斯大学以后，与本科来自北大的虞一华同在 IPMB program 。虞一华大我一岁，来巴尔地摩之前已经在夏威夷大学读了一年的研究生，对于科研论文的阅读比我强多了。他常常在 IPMB 的办公室里拿着《科学》和《自然》周刊津津有味地阅读，看得我很眼馋，也不理解其中那些枯燥的文章有什么意思。他告诉我：他在读很有意思的科学新闻。科学新闻能有什么意思？虞一华给我讲了好几个故事：洛克菲勒大学校长诺贝尔奖得主 David Baltimore 如何深陷泥潭、人类基因组测序如何争辩激烈、 HIV 病毒究竟是谁发现的，等等。我还真没有想到学术期刊上会有这么多我也应该看得懂的内容！从那时起，每一期新的《科学》和《自然》一到，我也开始尝试着阅读里面的新闻和研究进展介绍，这些内容往往出现在“ News Comment ”“ Research News ”“ News Views ”“ Perspectives ” 等栏目，文笔平实，相对于专业的科研论文很容易读懂。有时，我还把读到的科研新闻讲给我的同事朋友们听，而同事的提问和互动对我又是更好的鼓励。除了《科学》和《自然》，我也常常翻看《科学美国人》 ( “ Scientific American ” ) 。 与《细胞》 (Cell) 、《生物化学期刊》（ JBC ）等非常专业的期刊不同，《科学》和《自然》里面有相当一部分内容是用来做科普教育的。《科学》周刊的“ Perspectives ”和 《自然》周刊的 “ News Views ” 栏目都是对重要科学论文的深入浅出的介绍，一般 1-3 页，读起来比较通俗易懂，较易入门。读完这些文章后，再读原始的科学论文，感觉好多了！而且可以把自己的体会与专家的分析比较一下，找找差距，有时甚至也能找回来一点自信！ 从 1998 年在普林斯顿大学任职到现在清华大学做教授，我总是告诉自己实验室的所有年轻人（包括本科生、硕士生、博士生、博士后）下面这几点读科研论文的体会，也希望我的学生跟我学： 1． 请每位学生每周关注《科学》和《自然》。（生命科学界的学生还应该留心《细胞》）。如果时间有限，每周花一个小时读读这两种周刊里的 文章标题 以及与自己研究领域相关的科研论文的 abstract , 即可！这样做可以保证一个学生基本上能够跟踪本领域最重要的发现和进展，同时开阔视野，大概知道其它领域的动态。 2． 在时间充足的情况下，可以细读《科学》和《自然》里的新闻及科研论文。如果该科研论文有 “ News Views ” 或“ Perspectives ”来介绍，请先读这些文章，这类导读的文章会提炼问题，就好比是老师事先给学生讲解一番论文的来龙去脉，对学生阅读原始论文有很大帮助。 3． 在读具体的科研论文时，最重要的是了解文章的 主线逻辑 。文章中的所有 Figures 都是按照这个主线逻辑展开描述的。所以，我一般先读“ introduction ”部分，然后很快地看一遍 Figures 。大概知道这条主线之后，才一字一句地去读“ results ”和“ discussion ”。 4． 当遇到一些实验或结果分析很晦涩难懂时， 不必花太多时间深究 ，而力求一气把文章读完。也许你的问题在后面的内容中自然就有解答。这与听学术讲座非常相似！你如果想每个细节都听懂，留心每一个技术细节，那你听学术讲座不仅会很累，而且也许会为了深究一个小技术环节而影响了对整个讲座逻辑推理及核心结论的理解。 5． 对个别重要的文章和自己领域内的科研论文，应该精读。对与自己课题相关的每一篇论文则必须字斟句酌地读。这些论文，不仅要完全读懂，理解每一个实验的细节、分析、结论，还必须联想到这些实验和结论对自己的课题的影响和启发，提出自己的观点。 6． 科学论文的阅读水平是循序渐进的。每个人开始都会很吃力，所以你有这种感觉不要气馁。坚持很重要，你一定会渐入佳境。当你有问题时或有绝妙分析时，应该与师兄师姐或找导师讨论。 7． 科研训练的一个重要组成部分就是科研论文的阅读。每一个博士生必须经过严格的科研论文阅读的训练。除了你自己的习惯性阅读外，你应该在研究生阶段选修以阅读分析专业文献为主的一至两门课，在实验室内也要有定期的科研论文讨论（ Journal Club ）。如果你的实验室还没有这种讨论，你们学生可以自发地组织起来。 8． 前面几条都是讨论如何提高科研论文的阅读能力，但是一旦入了门，就要学会 critical reading 。不要迷信已发表的论文，哪怕是发表在非常好的期刊上。要时刻提醒自己：该论文逻辑是否严谨，数据是否可靠，实验证据是否支持结论，你是否能想出更好的实验，你是否可以在此论文的基础上提出新的重要问题？等等。 天外有天，读科研论文是一件很简单、但也很深奥的事情。一般的学生常常满足于读懂、读透一篇好的论文，优秀的学生则会举一反三、通过查找 references 纵深了解整个领域的历史、现状，并展望该领域未来的可能进展。 我从 1990 年对学术论文一窍不通到 96 年博士后期间的得心应手，还常常帮助同事分析，自以为水平了得。但是有一件事让我看到了自己的严重不足，颇为羞愧。 1996 年，是 SMAD 蛋白发现及 TGF- b 信号转导研究的最激动人心的一年，哈佛医学院的 Whitman 实验室在十月份的《自然》杂志上以“ Article ”的形式发表了一篇名为“ A transcriptional partner for MAD proteins in TGF- b signaling ” 的文章。读完之后，正好遇到 TGF- b 领域的著名学者 Joan Massague, 我对 Joan 评论说： I’m not so sure why this paper deserves a full article in Nature. They just identified another Smad-interacting protein, and the data quality is mediocre. 完全出乎我的意料， Joan 马上回应我： I disagree! This paper links the cytoplasmic Smad protein into the nucleus and identifies a transcription factor as its interacting protein. Now the TGF- b signaling pathway is complete. It is a beautiful Nature article! 这件事对我触动极大：原来大师的视野和品位远远在我之上。从那以后，我也开始从整个领域的发展方面来权衡一篇文章的重要性，这件事对我今后为国际重要学术期刊审稿、自己实验室选择研究课题都起到了相当重要的作用。 如今，我阅读一篇本领域内的科研论文，非常顺利，而且常常可以看出一些作者没有想到或分析到的关键点。回想从前，感慨万千，感谢蒲慕明、郑昌学、虞一华、 John Desjarlais 、 Jeremy Berg 、 Joan Massague 等一批老师和同事对我的帮助。我很留心，也很用心。 希望所有的学生也能通过努力和坚持对英文科研论文的阅读得心应手！
【 序：此文针对本科生和一、二年级的博士、硕士生，对高年级的博士生和博士后也应该有参考价值。该文的一些背景可以参考我此前关于提高英文写作能力的博文： http://www.sciencenet.cn/m/user_content.aspx?id=349932 】 从小到大，我感性思维多一些，不善于读书。85至89年在清华生物系读本科期间，从未读过任何一种英文专业期刊。我受到的与英文阅读相关的训练一共只有两个。一是我在1986年暑假期间选修的时任系主任的蒲慕明老师开设的《生物英语》系列讲座，隐隐约约记得蒲先生让我们阅读一些诸如DNA双螺旋发现之类的科普性英文文章，很有意思。但时间较短，暑假过后也没有养成读英文文章的习惯。二是《生物化学》这门课。与现在的清华生命学院形成鲜明对比，我上大学期间的所有基础课和专业课都是采用中文教材、中文讲课，只有郑昌学老师讲授的《生物化学》采用了Lehninger的《Principles of Biochemistry》，而且郑老师要求我们每个学生每次课后阅读10-20页教材。我们同学大多感觉到专业英文阅读有所提高。 1990 年4月至7月初，我在依阿华州Ames小镇的Iowa State University度过了初到美国的前三个月，其中大部分时间在Herbert Fromm教授的实验室做轮转（rotation），跟随刘峰和董群夫妻两人做研究（刘峰现在University of Texas Health Science Center做教授）。当时感觉最困难的就是读专业论文。有一次，Fromm教授要求我在组会上讲解一篇《Journal of Biological Chemistry》的文章，我提前两天开始阅读，第一遍花了足足六个小时，许多生词只能依靠英汉词典，文章中的有些关键内容还没有完全读懂，当时的感觉是JBC的文章怎么这么长、这么难懂？！真有点苦不堪言。为了能给Fromm教授和师兄师姐留下好印象，第二天又花了好几个小时读第二遍，还做了总结。第三天我在组会上的表现总算没有给清华丢脸。但是，前前后后，真搞不清楚自己为了这一篇文章到底花了多少时间！ 90 年7月我转学到约翰霍普金斯大学以后，与本科来自北大的虞一华同在IPMB program。虞一华大我一岁，来巴尔地摩之前已经在夏威夷大学读了一年的研究生，对于科研论文的阅读比我强多了。他常常在IPMB的办公室里拿着《科学》和《自然》周刊津津有味地阅读，看得我很眼馋，也不理解其中那些枯燥的文章有什么意思。他告诉我：他在读很有意思的科学新闻。科学新闻能有什么意思？虞一华给我讲了好几个故事：洛克菲勒大学校长诺贝尔奖得主David Baltimore如何深陷泥潭、人类基因组测序如何争辩激烈、HIV病毒究竟是谁发现的，等等。我还真没有想到学术期刊上会有这么多我也应该看得懂的内容！从那时起，每一期新的《科学》和《自然》一到，我也开始尝试着阅读里面的新闻和研究进展介绍，这些内容往往出现在“News amp; Comment”“Research News”“News amp; Views”“Perspectives”等栏目，文笔平实，相对于专业的科研论文很容易读懂。有时，我还把读到的科研新闻讲给我的同事朋友们听，而同事的提问和互动对我又是更好的鼓励。除了《科学》和《自然》，我也常常翻看《科学美国人》(“Scientific American”)。 与《细胞》(Cell)、《生物化学期刊》（JBC）等非常专业的期刊不同，《科学》和《自然》里面有相当一部分内容是用来做科普教育的。《科学》周刊的“Perspectives ”和 《自然》周刊的“News amp; Views”栏目都是对重要科学论文的深入浅出的介绍，一般1-3页，读起来比较通俗易懂，较易入门。读完这些文章后，再读原始的科学论文，感觉好多了！而且可以把自己的体会与专家的分析比较一下，找找差距，有时甚至也能找回来一点自信！ 从1998年在普林斯顿大学任职到现在清华大学做教授，我总是告诉自己实验室的所有年轻人（包括本科生、硕士生、博士生、博士后）下面这几点读科研论文的体会，也希望我的学生跟我学： 1 ． 请每位学生每周关注《科学》和《自然》。（生命科学界的学生还应该留心《细胞》）。如果时间有限，每周花一个小时读读这两种周刊里的 文章标题 以及与自己研究领域相关的科研论文的 abstract ,即可！这样做可以保证一个学生基本上能够跟踪本领域最重要的发现和进展，同时开阔视野，大概知道其它领域的动态。 2 ． 在时间充足的情况下，可以细读《科学》和《自然》里的新闻及科研论文。如果该科研论文有“News amp; Views”或“Perspectives ”来介绍，请先读这些文章，这类导读的文章会提炼问题，就好比是老师事先给学生讲解一番论文的来龙去脉，对学生阅读原始论文有很大帮助。 3 ． 在读具体的科研论文时，最重要的是了解文章的 主线逻辑 。文章中的所有 Figures 都是按照这个主线逻辑展开描述的。所以，我一般先读“ introduction ”部分，然后很快地看一遍 Figures 。大概知道这条主线之后，才一字一句地去读“ results ”和“ discussion ”。 4 ． 当遇到一些实验或结果分析很晦涩难懂时， 不必花太多时间深究 ，而力求一气把文章读完。也许你的问题在后面的内容中自然就有解答。这与听学术讲座非常相似！你如果想每个细节都听懂，留心每一个技术细节，那你听学术讲座不仅会很累，而且也许会为了深究一个小技术环节而影响了对整个讲座逻辑推理及核心结论的理解。 5 ． 对个别重要的文章和自己领域内的科研论文，应该精读。对与自己课题相关的每一篇论文则必须字斟句酌地读。这些论文，不仅要完全读懂，理解每一个实验的细节、分析、结论，还必须联想到这些实验和结论对自己的课题的影响和启发，提出自己的观点。 6 ． 科学论文的阅读水平是循序渐进的。每个人开始都会很吃力，所以你有这种感觉不要气馁。坚持很重要，你一定会渐入佳境。当你有问题时或有绝妙分析时，应该与师兄师姐或找导师讨论。 7 ． 科研训练的一个重要组成部分就是科研论文的阅读。每一个博士生必须经过严格的科研论文阅读的训练。除了你自己的习惯性阅读外，你应该在研究生阶段选修以阅读分析专业文献为主的一至两门课，在实验室内也要有定期的科研论文讨论（ Journal Club ）。如果你的实验室还没有这种讨论，你们学生可以自发地组织起来。 8 ． 前面几条都是讨论如何提高科研论文的阅读能力，但是一旦入了门，就要学会critical reading。不要迷信已发表的论文，哪怕是发表在非常好的期刊上。要时刻提醒自己：该论文逻辑是否严谨，数据是否可靠，实验证据是否支持结论，你是否能想出更好的实验，你是否可以在此论文的基础上提出新的重要问题？等等。 天外有天，读科研论文是一件很简单、但也很深奥的事情。一般的学生常常满足于读懂、读透一篇好的论文，优秀的学生则会举一反三、通过查找references纵深了解整个领域的历史、现状，并展望该领域未来的可能进展。 我从1990年对学术论文一窍不通到96年博士后期间的得心应手，还常常帮助同事分析，自以为水平了得。但是有一件事让我看到了自己的严重不足，颇为羞愧。1996年，是SMAD蛋白发现及TGF- b 信号转导研究的最激动人心的一年，哈佛医学院的Whitman实验室在十月份的《自然》杂志上以“Article”的形式发表了一篇名为“ A transcriptional partner for MAD proteins in TGF- b signaling ”的文章。读完之后，正好遇到TGF- b 领域的著名学者 Joan Massague, 我对Joan评论说： I’m not so sure why this paper deserves a full article in Nature. They just identified another Smad-interacting protein, and the data quality is mediocre. 完全出乎我的意料， Joan 马上回应我： I disagree! This paper links the cytoplasmic Smad protein into the nucleus and identifies a transcription factor as its interacting protein. Now the TGF- b signaling pathway is complete. It is a beautiful Nature article! 这件事对我触动极大：原来大师的视野和品位远远在我之上。从那以后，我也开始从整个领域的发展方面来权衡一篇文章的重要性，这件事对我今后为国际重要学术期刊审稿、自己实验室选择研究课题都起到了相当重要的作用。 如今，我阅读一篇本领域内的科研论文，非常顺利，而且常常可以看出一些作者没有想到或分析到的关键点。回想从前，感慨万千，感谢蒲慕明、郑昌学、虞一华、 John Desjarlais 、 Jeremy Berg 、 Joan Massague 等一批老师和同事对我的帮助。我很留心，也很用心。 希望所有的学生也能通过努力和坚持对英文科研论文的阅读得心应手！
hi，马老师您好，非常欣赏你的博文和你的思考和感悟。 最近看了你关于个人修炼的文章，可否推荐一些你觉得比较好的关于如何训练和提高科技英文写作的书？ 还有，关于时间管理，我看到很多谈时间管理的书都是关于工作，公司里面的东西，关于科研的（尤其是关于做实验以及理论学习的时间如何分配，科研生活如何协调），可否推荐一些书，或谈谈您的看法？ 谢谢您的宝贵时间！ 回答：关于科技论文写作，在国外时看到有人推荐《The Elements of Style》，然而我读了这本书感到对我的用处不大：这本书主要从英语写作的基本功角度写的，包括如何使行文更加简洁等，然而对科研论文的谋篇布局却没有涉及。后来读到《How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper》（第六版，北京大学已经引进出版：《如何撰写和发表科技论文》），感到这本书非常适合初学的研究生看，作者介绍了科研写作、投稿和科研伦理的方方面面，每一章都通俗易懂，很容易看懂。如果在科研写作方面没有任何基础的话，用这本书打基础是非常适合的。但是有一定基础的人读这本书就感到比较小儿科，感到这里说的都是常识。 使我有启发的是《The ACS Style Guide》（第二版），后来我又买了第三版。这本书不但有科研论文的基本功，包括如何使用缩略语，如何引用别人的文章，而且有资深的编辑、审稿人对于他们如何写作、审稿子看什么的体会。这本书还用笼统描述性的语言介绍了写文章各个部件的总的要求和注意事项。读了以后，就知道并不是你得到了好数据然后把数据罗列一下就行的，而是要有更多的分析和内涵。用美国化学会杂志征稿要求的语言来说，纯粹是报数据的文章是不收的，而要有深入的道理方面的讨论，能提高人们对这一个课题的科学认识。 我最推崇的是牛津大学出版社出版的《Write Like A Chemist》，这本厚厚的书把科研论文分解为各个部件，每个部件有“公式化”的写作方法、常用句型和注意事项。这本书并非笼统描述、看过就忘记的那种，而是讲解得很清楚，里面的内容也很实用，并且配了各种案例和习题。如果真的能够从头到尾读下来，能成为写作高手。而已经熟悉科研写作的人，也能从书中找到对自己经验方法的印证。这本由牛津大学出版社出版的书，字正腔圆，它不是左道旁门，而是正统的好书。而书店里卖的国内很多介绍科研写作的中文书过于强调英语的词法、句法，却没能介绍“上乘功夫”，读了那些，很难写出神采飞扬的好文章。 关于时间管理，我想说我并不是时间管理大师，否则我的“结局”会更好。但是：（1）时间管理的规律是客观存在的，不以人的意志为转移的。时间管理能导致好的结果，但是有好结局的人并不是一定就擅长时间管理，这和评价的标准有关系。（2）正因为我很早以前没有接触到时间管理这方面的书，所以我要学习这方面的道理，并且感到有些道理（虽然我也无法完全照着做。） 很多市场上时间管理的中文书是一些常识性的经验、体会，我推荐一本非常好的Brian Tracy写的《Eat That Frog!》（中文版已经引进出版：《吃掉那只青蛙》）。这本书非常适合大学生、研究生和科研工作者看，甚至高中生也能读懂。该书分为十多章，讲述时间管理的规律性的东西，看了以后会很有启发。如果真的能够用到自己身上，威力一定很大。还有本详细、深奥一点的，是《Time Power》（中文版《时间力》），比较枯燥。 你的来信促使了我的思考，是因为你引出了一个重要的话题：书上讲的那些东西，看起来很有道理，在理论上站得住脚，但是如何把这些规律用到具体的科研实践中呢？如何指导自己的科研和研究生阶段的生活呢？我本来想回答说：“只要你看了《Eat That Frog!》，你就能潜移默化地提高了。”但这个回答在闪躲。以下，也许我无法充分地回答你的问题，但我尽可能提供几点值得思考的东西。 时间管理理论的发展，正如现代管理理论的发展一样，经历了几个阶段。一开始，人们认为抓紧时间、每天工作十几个小时就是时间管理。后来人们认识到效率、统筹方法的重要性。再后来人们强调计划，就是拿出一张纸片，记下来我已经做了什么，我明天要做什么。这些只是比较初级的时间管理，因为这些都强调“做事”，却没有分清楚“做什么样的事情”。在高级阶段，人们认识到，每天都有无数的事情要做，而这些事情有的是重要的，有的是不重要的。重要的事情件数少，只占20%，但能带来80%的效用；而不重要的事情件数多，占80%，但只带来20%的效用。因此时间管理的秘诀就是帕累托的80-20定律。为此，我们应在做事之前甄别什么是重要的，什么是不重要的。时间管理大师说：你没有时间做所有的事情，但你有足够的时间做重要的两三件事。 举个夸张的假设性的例子（虽然我不是这么做）：比如说留学生想进国内高校任教，准入条件是至少发两篇第一作者的JACS（美国化学会志）。“聪明”的人就会围绕着这个指挥棒转，一心只发JACS，一心只做对自己有利的事情（第一作者），而不从事辅助性的实验（即不发第N作者文章），因为他知道，几篇第一作者JACS就是能给能带来80%效用的20%事情。而“愚蠢”的人做了这个、做了那个，有的是搭仪器，有的是帮助老板写proposal，有的是帮助别人做实验（自己为第N作者），后来要么很少有文章，要么虽然文章出了一大堆，“有用”的却没有几篇。这就是所谓的80%的付出带来了20%的效用。 以上这个夸张的例子从一个角度来讲，说明80-20原理是客观存在的，从另一个角度去讲，说明这个原理的局限性：这个原理是从最终的“效用”为导向、为指挥棒的，并且这个“效用”受评价标准的影响而会有“无效”和“有效”的结论。比如说我认为帮助别人（自己为第N作者）对我的心理上是有效用的，但是有的评价体系不这么认为。因此，怎么做，取决于你自己对“效用”的认定，即价值观。 除了上面的假设性的例子外，还有些正儿八经的例子：比如说我很少看电视，很少出去购物（或者“一次购清”），我认为这些都不能产生“效用”。再比如有些科学家收到审稿邀请，随手就把稿子发给学生去审，他很“聪明”，他知道这些“杂事”不会给他带来很大的“效用”。还有的科学家把学生差一点的文章让课题组的“小老板”或者“大师兄”去精心修改，而自己则腾出手来“御驾亲征”修改“高档次文章”，因为后者能带来更大“效用”。 以上说了些80-20原理。这本《吃掉那只青蛙》当然还有很多很有价值的经验。现代人在时间管理上还有一个“陷阱”就是把“活动”当作了“效果”。一匹马整天在“活动”，但它没有“效果”。再比如一个研究生或者青年教师，到了学校上午去财务科报销、然后审稿子，下午参加各种会议、接待社会上来的推销员，晚上看报纸、看杂志，表面上看起来在“活动”，但没有产生多大“效果”。从书中，我领会到，“吃掉那只青蛙”的意思就是说“别人恶心吃青蛙，你要狠下心来吃掉那只最难吃的青蛙”（即跳出“舒适区”）。生活、工作，不是捡最简单的事情来做，而是捡难做的事情来做，捡别人不会做、不能做的事情来做。做了难的事情，你的能力就提高了，难的事情就难不倒你；而做了简单的事情，则永远只会做简单的事情。并且，这本书告诉读者，时间和精力花在什么地方，你的成就也在什么地方。比如说你花在研究化妆品上，你是“闲暇生活者”；你花在八卦别人上，你成为“八卦者”；你花在写博客上，你成为知名博主；你花在工作上，你成为业务骨干。 这本书所说的东西，我现在无法完全做到，但这本书能启发我做选择。比如说，有的机构请我当“绿色产品鉴定专家”，有的和我自己专业没有关系的杂志请我当英文技术编辑（校稿），有的留学机构请我给他们的客户提供有偿服务，有的报纸杂志请我写社会上大众也能写的文章，有的不公开发行的内部刊物请我写文章，这些我都推辞了。因为我知道，时间放在哪里，成功就在哪里。 关于如何安排看文献、做实验、写文章，王华峰在《科学新闻》撰文说，要1/3时间看文献，1/3时间做实验，1/3时间写文章。我认为具体的怎么安排，要根据以下两个因素进行调整：（1）你现在是什么身份；（2）你将来要做什么。很多留学生到了美国，老板是不会让你拿着他的钱而坐下来看文献的，而是一进实验室就赶鸭子上架似的让你做实验，利用业余时间看文献，后来又利用白天时间加上业余时间写文章。那些老板设计好了实验思路，就是让你来完成的。而对于博士后，更是如此，有拿个老板愿意你每天领着200美金的工资不干活？看到你坐在电脑前面，心里想白给你工资了。 也就是说，如果你只是想拿个文凭毕业、只是想对得起博士后的工资、或者只是想成为“有手的工具”的话，多花点时间做实验对你完全没有坏处，而且是非常有利的，因为别人只看“效果”。然而，如果你要放眼将来成为“学者”的话，看文献（甚至是看和自己课题无关的文献）是非常重要的。并且这是一条默默无闻的“不归路”：你看了文献，无法取得立竿见影的效果，在找工作的时候，国内的人只看你发了什么文章，你无法用“我看了5000篇文献”作为应聘的筹码。这里的关系就象《The 7 Habits of High Efficient People》里面所说的鸡和金蛋的故事：有的人杀鸡取金蛋，而你既要产金蛋的鸡，也要得到金蛋，于是就引出了“生产出东西”和“可再生产能力”这两者平衡（即可持续发展）的问题。
作为一个科研工作者，在国际学术期刊上发表科研论文是与同行交流、取得国际影响的必经之路。有些国内的科学家，实验做得很漂亮，但常常苦恼于论文的写作力不从心，成为国际交流的一大障碍。本文从博主的亲身体验出发，给博士生、博士后、以及年轻的PI提供一个借鉴。文章最后做简短总结。 我大学时的同班同学都知道，那时我的英语不算好（英语四级考试仅为“良”），写作尤其糟糕。初到美国之时，对英文环境适应得很差，读一篇JBC的文章要五、六个小时，还常常不理解其中一些关键词句的意思,心里压力极大。 很幸运，我在约翰霍普金斯大学（Johns Hopkins University）攻读博士学位时，1991年4月遇到了学兄和启蒙老师John Desjarlais。听了我的苦恼后，John告诉我，“Spend 45 minutes every day reading Washington Post, and you will be cruising with your written English in two years”(每天花45分钟读《华盛顿邮报》,两年后你的写作能力会得心应手)。这条建议正合我意 - 我原本就对新闻感兴趣！于是，我每天上午安排完第一批实验后，都会在十点左右花一小时的时间阅读《华盛顿邮报》，主要看A版(新闻版)。刚开始，我一个小时只能读两、三个短消息或一个长篇报道，中间还不得不经常查字典看生词。但不知不觉间，我的阅读能力明显提高，1992年老布什与克林顿竞选总统，我跟踪新闻，常常一个小时能读上几个版面的消息或四、五个长篇报道，有时还把刚看到的新闻绘声绘色地讲给师兄师姐听。 阅读直接提升了我的英文写作能力。看完一些新闻后，我常常产生动笔写自己感想的冲动。92年巴塞罗那奥运会，中国游泳队取得了四金五银的好成绩，美国主要媒体纷纷指责这是中国运动员服用违禁药物，但没有任何检测的证据，完全凭美国运动员的感觉。此事让我很气愤，我生平第一次给《华盛顿邮报》和《巴尔的摩太阳报》（The Baltimore Sun）各写了一封信，评论报道的不公平。没想到两天后《巴尔的摩太阳报》居然原封不动的把我的信刊登在“读者来信”栏目，同事祝贺，我也洋洋得意。受到此事鼓励，我在此后三年多的日子里，常常动笔，有些文章发表在报刊上（大部分投稿石沉大海），也曾代表中国留学生写信向校方争取过中国学生的利益。有时还有意外的惊喜。95年的一天，一位朋友打电话告诉我：今天出版的《巴尔的摩太阳报》上有我的评论文章！我急匆匆赶到街头买来5份报纸，果然，在A版的倒数第二页，以15x15厘米的篇幅发表了我一个多星期前寄给报社、本以为不会发表的一篇抨击吴宏达的文章。 以上是简述我个人英文写作提升的一段过程。但是，科研论文不同于读者来信，有其专业特点、甚至是固定格式。1994年，我第一次完整地写科研论文，感觉很差。好不容易写完的文章，连我自己都不愿意读第二遍；勉强修改之后，交给了老板Jeremy Berg。他拖了三周没看我的文章，我实在忍不住了、去催他，上午9点，Jeremy告诉我：今天看！11点，我去他办公室催，秘书拦住我，说Jeremy正在办理重要事务，两点前不得打扰。我心里惴惴，不知Jeremy在干什么。下午一点半，Jeremy急匆匆过来找我，拿了一叠纸， “This is the draft. Please let me know what you think. We can aim for a Science report.”（这是初稿，你看看如何，我们可以试试《科学》）我仔细一看，天啊！一共7页，四个多小时Jeremy已经把文章的整体写完了，只是缺少Method和 references。让我郁闷的是，他根本没有用我的初稿。 【其实，写文章贵在一气呵成。我也沿袭了Jeremy的风格。2006年10月，在我们处于劣势的激烈竞争中，有两个课题面临被 scoop的危险，我曾经两次、一晚上赶一篇文章。10月15日，傍晚8点左右开始写、通宵，第二天早晨10点完成一篇按照《细胞》杂志格式的论文，包括abstract, introduction, results, discussion,仔细阅读一遍后于下午4点半完成网上投稿。这篇文章最终发表在12月份《自然》的子刊《结构与分子生物学》上（电子版于11月10日发表）。另一篇，10月18日，晚6点开始写、通宵，第二天早晨8点完成，上午9点半完成投稿，最终发表在12月15日的《细胞》上。当然，能通宵完成一篇文章，还有一个重要前提，就是对研究领域非常熟悉，对文章整体的大概思路已经深思熟虑，所有的Figures都事先做好了。这些前期工作即使全身心投入也需要3-4天。】 从1994年自己写第一篇科研论文的艰难到现在写起来得心应手、驾轻就熟，我总结出如下经验： 1．要写好科研论文，必须先养成读英文文章的习惯，争取每天30-60分钟。刚开始可以选择以读英文报纸、英文新闻为主，逐渐转为读专业杂志。我会在近期专门写一篇博客文章介绍一套行之有效的增强读专业杂志能力的办法。 2．写科研论文，最重要的是逻辑。逻辑的形成来自对实验数据的总体分析。必须先讨论出一套清晰的思路，然后按照思路来做图(Figures)，最后才能执笔。 3．具体写作时，先按照思路（即Figures）写一个以subheading为主的框架，然后开始具体写作。第一稿，切忌追求每一句话的完美，更不要追求词语的华丽，而主要留心逻辑（logic flow），注意前后句的逻辑关系、相邻两段的逻辑关系。写作时，全力以赴，尽可能不受外界事情干扰（关闭手机、座机），争取在最短时间内拿出第一稿。还要注意：一句话不可太长。 4．学会照葫芦画瓢。没有人天生会写优秀的科研论文，都是从别人那里学来的。学习别人的文章要注意专业领域的不同，有些领域（包括我所在的结构生物学）有它内在的写作规律。科研文章里的一些话是定式，比如 “To investigate the mechanism of …, we performed …”, “These results support the former, but not the latter, hypothesis …”, “Despite recent progress, how … remains to be elucidated …” 等等。用两次以后，就逐渐学会灵活运用了。在向别人学习时，切忌抄袭。在美国一些机构，连续7个英文单词在一起和别人的完全一样，原则上就被认为抄袭（plagiarism）。 5．第一稿写完后，给自己不要超过一天的休息时间，开始修改第二稿。修改时，还是以逻辑为主，但对每一句话都要推敲一下，对abstract和正文中的关键语句要字斟句酌。学会用“Thesaurus”（同义词替换）以避免过多重复。第二稿的修改极为关键，再往后就不会大改了。 6．第二稿以后的修改，主要注重具体的字句，不会改变整体逻辑了。投稿前，一定要整体读一遍，对个别词句略作改动。记住： 学术期刊一般不会因为具体的语法错误拒绝一篇文章，但一定会因为逻辑混乱而拒绝一篇文章。 这套方法行之有效，我对所有的学生和博士后都会如此教导。我的第一个博士后是柴继杰，1999年加入我在普林斯顿大学的实验室。继杰当时的英文阅读和写作能力很差。我对他的第一个建议就是，“每天花半小时读英文报纸”。难能可贵的是：他坚持下来了！经过几年的努力，2004年继杰已经能写出不错的grant proposal，2006年他的第一篇独立科研论文发表在《Molecular Cell》上，随后相继在《自然》发表两篇、在其它一流学术期刊发表十多篇论文。写作能力开始成熟。 发表论文是一件值得高兴的事情，但要明白：论文只是一个载体，是为了向同行们宣告你的科研发现，是科学领域交流的重要工具。所以，在科研论文写作时，一定要谨记于心的就是：用最简单的话表达最明白的意思，但一定要逻辑严谨！其实，中文和英文论文皆如此！
自己也常困扰于摄氏度之类的不大常用的符号的正确格式的书写问题，正好科学网qq群里的卢芸老师写下了这篇经验之谈，留给自己看的，哈哈哈 原帖地址：http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=298970do=blogid=405428 小圈却是大问题，谈谈如何正确在word中打出 “°”和“°C” 这里只谈英文写作中如何正确表示这两个单位。 1. degree “ ° ” 方法一 ： word 的“插入”工具栏下的“符号”，字体选择 Times New Roman ， 子集 选择拉丁语 -1 ，最右端便是“ ° ”。 方法二 ：使用 sogou 拼音，中文输入“ du ”，选择第三个，此时在文中是“°”，字体此时显示是宋体，将字体改为 Times New Roman 后为“ ° ”。 方法三 ： word 的“插入”工具栏下的“特殊符号”，单位符号中第三排第二列“°”，仍要将字体改为 Times New Roman ，改后为“ ° ”。 2. degrees Celsius “ °C ” 伪方法一：使用 sogou 拼音，中文输入“ sheshidu ”，选择第五个，此时在文中是“℃”，字体此时显示是宋体，将字体改为 Times New Roman 后仍为“ ℃ ”。 伪方法二：输入英文字母“ oC ”后将字母“ o ”变成上标，此时显示“ o C ”。 伪方法三： word 的 “插入”工具栏下的“特殊符号”，单位符号中第一排倒数第二列“ ℃ ”，将字体改为 Times New Roman 后仍为“ ℃ ”。 正确方法 ：按照之前介绍的方法键入“ ° ”，不要空格，直接键入大写字母“ C ”即为“ °C ”。 注意事项 ：数字和单位之间应当有空格，但数字和百分号、单独的“ ° ”之间不需要空格。 Incorrect 30°C 30° C 30 % 30 ° Correct 30 °C 30% 30° 致谢： 谢谢 杨 老师 给我的耐心指导和帮助，谢谢科学网博客群里热心博友 宁佳、王正全 的出谋划策。 参考文献 ： Robinson, M. S. ； Stoller ， F. L. Write Like a Chemist: A Guide and Resource; Robinson, M. S., Jones, J. K., Eds.; Oxford University Press; Madison Avenue, New York, 2008; p 86-89.
这里只谈英文写作中如何正确表示这两个单位。 1. degree “ ° ” 方法一 ： word 的“插入”工具栏下的“符号”，字体选择 Times New Roman ， 子集 选择拉丁语 -1 ，最右端便是“ ° ”。 方法二 ：使用 sogou 拼音，中文输入“ du ”，选择第三个，此时在文中是“°”，字体此时显示是宋体，将字体改为 Times New Roman 后为“ ° ”。 方法三 ： word 的“插入”工具栏下的“特殊符号”，单位符号中第三排第二列“°”，仍要将字体改为 Times New Roman ，改后为“ ° ”。 2. degrees Celsius “ °C ” 伪方法一：使用 sogou 拼音，中文输入“ sheshidu ”，选择第五个，此时在文中是“℃”，字体此时显示是宋体，将字体改为 Times New Roman 后仍为“ ℃ ”。 伪方法二：输入英文字母“ oC ”后将字母“ o ”变成上标，此时显示“ o C ”。 伪方法三： word 的 “插入”工具栏下的“特殊符号”，单位符号中第一排倒数第二列“ ℃ ”，将字体改为 Times New Roman 后仍为“ ℃ ”。 正确方法 ：按照之前介绍的方法键入“ ° ”，不要空格，直接键入大写字母“ C ”即为“ °C ”。 注意事项 ：数字和单位之间应当有空格，但数字和百分号、单独的“ ° ”之间不需要空格。 Incorrect 30°C 30° C 30 % 30 ° Correct 30 °C 30% 30° 致谢： 谢谢 杨 老师 给我的耐心指导和帮助，谢谢科学网博客群里热心博友 宁佳、王正全 的出谋划策。 参考文献 ： Robinson, M. S. ； Stoller ， F. L. Write Like a Chemist: A Guide and Resource; Robinson, M. S., Jones, J. K., Eds.; Oxford University Press; Madison Avenue, New York, 2008; p 86-89.
作为一个科研工作者，在国际学术期刊上发表科研论文是与同行交流、取得国际影响的必经之路。有些国内的科学家，实验做得很漂亮，但常常苦恼于论文的写作力不从心，成为国际交流的一大障碍。本文从博主的亲身体验出发，给博士生、博士后、以及年轻的PI提供一个借鉴。文章最后做简短总结。 我大学时的同班同学都知道，那时我的英语不算好（英语四级考试仅为良），写作尤其糟糕。初到美国之时，对英文环境适应得很差，读一篇JBC的文章要五、六个小时，还常常不理解其中一些关键词句的意思,心里压力极大。 很幸运，我在约翰霍普金斯大学（Johns Hopkins University）攻读博士学位时，1991年4月遇到了学兄和启蒙老师John Desjarlais。听了我的苦恼后，John告诉我，Spend 45 minutes every day reading Washington Post, and you will be cruising with your written English in two years(每天花45分钟读《华盛顿邮报》,两年后你的写作能力会得心应手)。这条建议正合我意 - 我原本就对新闻感兴趣！于是，我每天上午安排完第一批实验后，都会在十点左右花一小时的时间阅读《华盛顿邮报》，主要看A版(新闻版)。刚开始，我一个小时只能读两、三个短消息或一个长篇报道，中间还不得不经常查字典看生词。但不知不觉间，我的阅读能力明显提高，1992年老布什与克林顿竞选总统，我跟踪新闻，常常一个小时能读上几个版面的消息或四、五个长篇报道，有时还把刚看到的新闻绘声绘色地讲给师兄师姐听。 阅读直接提升了我的英文写作能力。看完一些新闻后，我常常产生动笔写自己感想的冲动。92年巴塞罗那奥运会，中国游泳队取得了四金五银的好成绩，美国主要媒体纷纷指责这是中国运动员服用违禁药物，但没有任何检测的证据，完全凭美国运动员的感觉。此事让我很气愤，我生平第一次给《华盛顿邮报》和《巴尔的摩太阳报》（The Baltimore Sun）各写了一封信，评论报道的不公平。没想到两天后《巴尔的摩太阳报》居然原封不动的把我的信刊登在读者来信栏目，同事祝贺，我也洋洋得意。受到此事鼓励，我在此后三年多的日子里，常常动笔，有些文章发表在报刊上（大部分投稿石沉大海），也曾代表中国留学生写信向校方争取过中国学生的利益。有时还有意外的惊喜。95年的一天，一位朋友打电话告诉我：今天出版的《巴尔的摩太阳报》上有我的评论文章！我急匆匆赶到街头买来5份报纸，果然，在A版的倒数第二页，以15x15厘米的篇幅发表了我一个多星期前寄给报社、本以为不会发表的一篇抨击吴宏达的文章。 以上是简述我个人英文写作提升的一段过程。但是，科研论文不同于读者来信，有其专业特点、甚至是固定格式。1994年，我第一次完整地写科研论文，感觉很差。好不容易写完的文章，连我自己都不愿意读第二遍；勉强修改之后，交给了老板Jeremy Berg。他拖了三周没看我的文章，我实在忍不住了、去催他，上午9点，Jeremy告诉我：今天看！11点，我去他办公室催，秘书拦住我，说Jeremy正在办理重要事务，两点前不得打扰。我心里惴惴，不知Jeremy在干什么。下午一点半，Jeremy急匆匆过来找我，拿了一叠纸， This is the draft. Please let me know what you think. We can aim for a Science report.（这是初稿，你看看如何，我们可以试试《科学》）我仔细一看，天啊！一共7页，四个多小时Jeremy已经把文章的整体写完了，只是缺少Method和 references。让我郁闷的是，他根本没有用我的初稿。 【其实，写文章贵在一气呵成。我也沿袭了Jeremy的风格。2006年10月，在我们处于劣势的激烈竞争中，有两个课题面临被 scoop的危险，我曾经两次、一晚上赶一篇文章。10月15日，傍晚8点左右开始写、通宵，第二天早晨10点完成一篇按照《细胞》杂志格式的论文，包括abstract, introduction, results, discussion,仔细阅读一遍后于下午4点半完成网上投稿。这篇文章最终发表在12月份《自然》的子刊《结构与分子生物学》上（电子版于11月10日发表）。另一篇，10月18日，晚6点开始写、通宵，第二天早晨8点完成，上午9点半完成投稿，最终发表在12月15日的《细胞》上。当然，能通宵完成一篇文章，还有一个重要前提，就是对研究领域非常熟悉，对文章整体的大概思路已经深思熟虑，所有的Figures都事先做好了。这些前期工作即使全身心投入也需要3-4天。】 从1994年自己写第一篇科研论文的艰难到现在写起来得心应手、驾轻就熟，我总结出如下经验： 1．要写好科研论文，必须先养成读英文文章的习惯，争取每天30-60分钟。刚开始可以选择以读英文报纸、英文新闻为主，逐渐转为读专业杂志。我会在近期专门写一篇博客文章介绍一套行之有效的增强读专业杂志能力的办法。 2．写科研论文，最重要的是逻辑。逻辑的形成来自对实验数据的总体分析。必须先讨论出一套清晰的思路，然后按照思路来做图(Figures)，最后才能执笔。 3．具体写作时，先按照思路（即Figures）写一个以subheading为主的框架，然后开始具体写作。第一稿，切忌追求每一句话的完美，更不要追求词语的华丽，而主要留心逻辑（logic flow），注意前后句的逻辑关系、相邻两段的逻辑关系。写作时，全力以赴，尽可能不受外界事情干扰（关闭手机、座机），争取在最短时间内拿出第一稿。还要注意：一句话不可太长。 4．学会照葫芦画瓢。没有人天生会写优秀的科研论文，都是从别人那里学来的。学习别人的文章要注意专业领域的不同，有些领域（包括我所在的结构生物学）有它内在的写作规律。科研文章里的一些话是定式，比如 To investigate the mechanism of , we performed , These results support the former, but not the latter, hypothesis , Despite recent progress, how remains to be elucidated 等等。用两次以后，就逐渐学会灵活运用了。在向别人学习时，切忌抄袭。在美国一些机构，连续7个英文单词在一起和别人的完全一样，原则上就被认为抄袭（plagiarism）。 5．第一稿写完后，给自己不要超过一天的休息时间，开始修改第二稿。修改时，还是以逻辑为主，但对每一句话都要推敲一下，对abstract和正文中的关键语句要字斟句酌。学会用Thesaurus（同义词替换）以避免过多重复。第二稿的修改极为关键，再往后就不会大改了。 6．第二稿以后的修改，主要注重具体的字句，不会改变整体逻辑了。投稿前，一定要整体读一遍，对个别词句略作改动。记住： 学术期刊一般不会因为具体的语法错误拒绝一篇文章，但一定会因为逻辑混乱而拒绝一篇文章。 这套方法行之有效，我对所有的学生和博士后都会如此教导。我的第一个博士后是柴继杰，1999年加入我在普林斯顿大学的实验室。继杰当时的英文阅读和写作能力很差。我对他的第一个建议就是，每天花半小时读英文报纸。难能可贵的是：他坚持下来了！经过几年的努力，2004年继杰已经能写出不错的grant proposal，2006年他的第一篇独立科研论文发表在《Molecular Cell》上，随后相继在《自然》发表两篇、在其它一流学术期刊发表十多篇论文。写作能力开始成熟。 发表论文是一件值得高兴的事情，但要明白：论文只是一个载体，是为了向同行们宣告你的科研发现，是科学领域交流的重要工具。所以，在科研论文写作时，一定要谨记于心的就是：用最简单的话表达最明白的意思，但一定要逻辑严谨！其实，中文和英文论文皆如此！ 本文引用地址： http://www.sciencenet.cn/m/user_content.aspx?id=349932
首先，我声明这是我转自小木虫论坛的wandaohz，谢谢他的无私！ 本文来自: 小木虫论坛 http://emuch.net/bbs/viewthread.php?fid=125tid=2364224author=1 我并不是大牛，但也算是在外文期刊上发了几篇文章，现在我写文章2天可以写成，一周可以完稿。以前写的文章老是refuse，现在大多都是revised，摸索写文章的路真的很艰辛，研二上学期我写的4篇文章，结果改来改去的，整的快崩溃了，现在好了，写的文章能拿到1.5左右的杂志上基本就accept了。 我觉得写文章之前要先有思路，你怎么去写怎么写的和别人不同，有新意。这里面的文章很大，我也说不透，只是参透了一二，和大家分享，望大家不要耻笑。我毕竟是个硕士研究生。 我觉得论文写很简单，主要是能够发表出去。下面我简单讲下我的思路。有相同或不同见解的留下言，共同交流，一起进步。 我是材料出身，搞的是催化，文章的第一步要有图，也就是说首先把图做的漂漂亮亮的，不管是SEM，TEM，Uv-vis，FTIR，还是催化效果图。、图片放到你的文章里就是你的思路，图片放好了 你的思路就出来了，这是就关键的过程，放图的过程中你要考你怎么写，你的文章新的地方在哪？；图做好了也放好了，就是写文章了，写文章也很快了，因为思路有了你的文章也构思好了。我在这里给出我写文章时的程序。对于文章主体部分，我觉得先写 Results and discussion，写完了根据其内容下个Conclusion，然后根据Conclusion写Abstract（因为它们俩有些许的类似），而后补充Experimental。最后也是最难写的地方Introduction，这个让审稿人一看就能知道你的文章的水平，所以写好Introduction是关乎论文是否收录的关键所在。我和外国审稿人专家关于审稿交流过意见，他们也是这样认为，他们也认为Introduction是整个文章的脸面，这是他们主要审的地方，在这里能看到你的创新点，创新点不够直接refuse；Introduction写的还可以的话，就看Results and discussion，这部分其实主要看的是图，你的图的清晰度质量，以及性能图。我审过一篇Journal of Hazardous Materials上面的文章，我也是这样审的。当然是咱们国内某名牌大学的文章，做的是催化，我也是做这个的不知为什么编辑发来让我审，我也感觉很莫名。后来编辑告诉我和我的文章有些类似还称我是专家，教授 下面我引用了一些总结的写作经验，我觉得很有用。大家认真看看，在此先祝福大家论文高中，硕果累累不减当年勇时： 1. 前言部分 1.1 如何指出当前研究的不足以及有目的地引导出自己的研究的重要性 通常在叙述了前人成果之后，用However来引导不足，比如 However, little information... little attention has been devoted to little work... little data / little research or few studies / investigations/ few attempts have been don on or none of these studies has (have) been less done on ... / focused on / attempted to conducted / investigated / studied (with respect to) ORTo the author's knowledge... There is little information available in literature about... Until recently, there is some lack of knowledge about... Previous research (studies, records) has (have) failed to consider ignored misinterpreted neglected to overestimated, underestimated misleaded thus, these previous results are inconclusive / misleading unsatisfactory / questionable /controversial.. Uncertainties (discrepancies) still exist ... 一定要注意绝对不能全面否定前人的成果，即使在你看来前人的结论完全不对。这是前人工作最起码的尊重，英文叫做给别人的工作credits. 所以文章不要出现非常negative的评价，比如Their results are wrong, very questionable, have no commonsense, etc. 可以婉转地提出： Their studies may be more reasonable if they had considered this situation. Their results could be better convinced if they ... Or Their conclusion may remain some uncertainties. 1.2.之后引导出一种新方法，或者一种新方向。 如果研究的方法以及方向和前人一样，可以通过下面的方式强调自己工作的作用： However, data is still scarce rare less accurate there is still dearth of We need to / aim to /have to provide more documents /data / records / studies increase the dataset Further studies are still necessary... / essential... 为了强调自己研究的重要性，一般还要在However之前介绍自己研究问题的反方面，另一方面等等, 比如： 1)时间问题 如果你研究的问题时间上比较新，你就可以大量提及对时间较老的问题的研究及重要性，然后说(However)，对时间尺度比较新的问题研究不足 2)物性及研究手段问题 如果你要应用一种新手段或者研究方向，你可以提出当前比较流行的方法以及物质性质，然后说对你所研究的方向和方法，研究甚少。 3)研究区域问题 首先总结相邻区域或者其它区域的研究，然后强调这一区域研究不足 4)不确定性 虽然前人对这一问题研究很多，但是目前有两种或者更多种的观点，这种uncertanties, ambiguities，值得进一步澄清 5)提出自己的假设来验证 如果自己的研究完全是新的，没有前人的工作进行对比，在这种情况下，你可以自信地说，根据提出的过程，存在这种可能的结果，本文就是要证实这种结果。 We aim to test the feasibility (reliability) of the ... It is hoped that the question will be resolved (fall away) with our proposed method (approach). 1.3. 如何提出自己的观点 We aim to This paper reports on provides results.. extends the method focus on.. The purpose of this paper is to.. Furthermore, Moreover, In addition,, we will also discuss... 1.4.圈定自己的研究范围 前言的另外一个作用就是告诉读者包括(reviewer)你的文章主要研究内容。如果处理不好，reviewer会提出严厉的建议，比如你没有考虑某种可能性，某种研究手段等等。为了减少这种争论，在前言的结尾你就要明确提出本文研究的范围： 1)时间尺度问题 如果你的问题涉及比较长的时序，你可以明确地提出本文只关心这一时间范围的问题。 We preliminarily focus on the older (younger)... 或者有两种时间尺度的问题 (long-term and short term)，你可以说两者都重要，但是本文只涉及其中一种 2) 研究区域的问题 和时间问题一样，明确提出你只关心这一地区 1.5. 最后的原场 在前言的最后，还可以总结性地提出，这一研究对其它研究的帮助。 或者说，further studies on ... will be summarized in our next study (or elsewhere) 总之，其目的就是让读者把思路集中到你要讨论的问题上来。减少争论(arguments). 2. 怎样提出观点 在提出自己的观点时，采取什么样的策略很重要。不合适的句子通常会遭到reviewer的置疑。 1)如果观点不是这篇文章最新提出的，通常要用 We confirm that... 2)对于自己很自信的观点,可用 We believe that... 3)在更通常的情况下，由数据推断出一定的结论， 用， Results indicate, infer, suggest, imply that... 4) 在及其特别的情况才可以用We put forward (discover, observe..) .. for the first time. 来强调自己的创新。 5) 如果自己对所提出的观点不完全肯定，可用 We tentatively put forward (interpret this to..) Or The results may be due to (caused by)/attributed to / resulted from.. Or It seems that .. can account for (interpret) this.. 要注意这些结构要合理搭配。如果通篇是类型1)和5)，那这篇文章的意义就大打折扣。如果全是2)，肯定会遭到置疑。所以要仔细分析自己成果的创新性以及可信度。 3. 连接词与逻辑 写英文论文最常见的一个毛病就是文章的逻辑不清楚。解决的方法有： 1)句子上下要有连贯，不能让句子之间独立 常见的连接词语有, also, in addition,afterwards, moreover, Furthermore, further, However, although, unlike, in contrast, Unfortunately, Similarly, alternatively, parallel results, Compared with other results, In order to, despite, For example consequently, thus, therefore... 用好这些连接词，能够使观点表达得有层次，更加明确。 比如，如果叙述有时间顺序的事件或者文献， 最早的文献可用AA advocated it for the first time. 接下来，可用Then BB further demonstrated that.. 再接下来，可用Afterwards, CC.. 如果还有，可用More recent studies by DD.. 如果叙述两种观点，要把它们截然分开 AA put forward that........In contrast, BB believe or Unlike AA, BB suggest or On the contrary (表明前面的观点错误，如果只是表明两种对立的观点，用in contrast)， BB.. 如果两种观点相近,可用 AA suggest .. Similarly ( alternatively),BB.. Or Also, BB or BB also does 表示因果或者前后关系，可用 Consequently, therefore, as a result, 表明递进关系，可用furthermore, further, moreover, in addition, 当写完一段英文，最好首先检查一下是否较好地应用了这些连接词。 2) 段落的整体逻辑 经常我们要叙述一个问题的几个方面。这种情况下，一定要注意逻辑结构。 首先第一段要明确告诉读者你要讨论几个部份 ...Therefore, there are three aspects of this problem have to be addressed. The first question involves... The second problem relates to The third aspect deals with... 上面的例子可以清晰地把观点逐层叙述。 Or, 可以直接用First, Second, Third..... Finally,.. 当然,Furthermore, in addition等可以用来补充说明。 4. 正文部份的整体结构 小标题是比较好的方法把要讨论的问题分为几个片段。 一般第一个片段指出文章最为重要的数据与结论。补充说明的部份可以放在最后一个片段。 一定要明白文章的读者会分为多个档次。文章除了本专业的专业人士读懂以外，一定要想办法能让更多的外专业人读懂。所以可以把讨论部份分为两部份，一部份提出观点，另一部份详细介绍过程以及论述的依据。这样专业外的人士可以了解文章的主要观点，比较专业的讨论他可以把它当成黑箱子，而这一部份本专业人士可以进一步研究。 5. 关于abbreviation 如果文章用了很多的Abbreviation, 两种方法加以解决 1) 在文章最好加上个Appendix，把所有Abbreviation列表 2) 在不同的页面上，不时地给出Abbreviation的含义，用来提醒读者。 总之，写文章的目的是要让读者读懂，读得清晰，并且采取各种措施方便于读者。 5. Discussion 部分 5. 1时态 (a) 指出结果在哪些图表中列出，常用一般现在时。如：Figure 2 shows the variation in the temperature of the samples over time. (b) 叙述或总结研究结果的内容为关于过去的事实，所以通常采用过去时。如：After flights of less than two hours, 11% of the army pilots and 33% of the civilian pilots reported back pain. (c) 对研究结果进行说明或由其得出一般性推论时，多用现在时。如：The higher incidence of back pain in civilian pilots may be due to their greater accumulated flying time. (d) 不同结果之间或实验数据与理论模型之间进行比较时，多采一般现在时（这种比较关系多为不受时间影响的逻辑上的事实）。如：These results agree well with the findings of Smith, et al. 6. 讨论部份包括什么内容? 6.1 主要内容 1) 主要数据特征的总结 2) 主要结论以及与前人观点的对比 3) 本文的不足 第三点，在一般作者看来不可取。事实上给出文章的不足恰恰是保护自己文章的重要手段。如果刻意隐藏文章的漏洞，觉得别人看不出来，是非常不明智的。 所谓不足，包括以下内容: a) 研究的问题有点片面 讨论时一定要说， It should be noted that this study has examined only We concentrate (focus) on only... We have to point out that we do not Some limitations of this study are... b) 结论有些不足 The results do not imply The results can not be used to determine be taken as evidence of Unfortunately, we can not determine this from this data Our results are lack of ... 但是，在指出这些不足之后，随后一定要再一次加强本文的重要性以及可能采取的手段来解决这些不足，为别人或者自己的下一步研究打下浮笔。 Notwithstanding its limitation, this study does suggest However, these problems could be solved if we consider Despite its preliminary character, this study can clearly indicate 用中文来说，这一部份是左右逢源。把审稿人想到的问题提前给一个交代，同时表明你已经在思考这些问题，但是由于文章长度，试验进度或者试验手段的制约，暂时不能回答这些问题。但是，这些通过你的一些建议，这些问题在将来的研究中游可能实现。 P.S. 坚信观点的真实性：prove, demonstrate 不确定性： show，indicate，found 表示推测:imply，suggest 6．2 关于结论中的时态: (1) 回顾研究目的时，通常使用过去时。如：In this study, the effects of two different learning methods were investigated. (2) 如果所概述结果的有效性只是针对本次特定的研究，需用过去时；如果具有普遍的意义，则用现在时。如： In the first series of trials, the experimental values were all lower than the theoretical predictions. The experimental and theoretical values for the yields agree well. (3) 阐述由结果得出的推论时，通常使用现在时。如：The data reported here suggest (These findings support the hypothesis, Our data provide evidence) that the reaction rate may be determined by the amount of oxygen available. Some points of style (摘自一个老外的Writing a Paper, 第一点和最后一点是我们经常用错的) ? Do not use nouns as adjectives （不要把名词当作形容词用） Not: ATP formation; reaction product But: Formation of ATP; product of the reaction ? The word this must always be followed by a noun, so that its reference is explicit. （This 后面必须跟一个名词） Not: This is a fast reaction; This leads us to conclude.., But: This reaction is fast; This observation leads us to conclude ? Describe experimental results in the past tense.（试验结果用过去时） Not: Addition of water gives product. But: Addition of water gave product. ? Use the active voice whenever possible.（尽可能使用主动语态） Not: It was observed that the solution turned red. But: The solution turned red. ORWe observed that the solution turned red. ? Complete all comparisons. （使用完整的比较形式A is higher than B） Not: The yield was higher using bromine. But: The yield was higher using bromine than chlorine Beginning l In this paper, we focus on the need for l This paper proceeds as follow. l The structure of the paper is as follows. l In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts l To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introduction l This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined. l Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections. l In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non?fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered. Review l This review is followed by an introduction. l A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2. l In the next section a brief view of the .... is given. l In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ... l Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx. l Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods. Body l Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance. l Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision?making logic. l Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxx l Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding. l Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time?window l Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ... l Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance. l Section 3 describes a new measure of xx. l Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx. l Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision. l Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rules l The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies. l Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model. l Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set?based approach to cost variance investigation. l Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx. l Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process. l Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3. l Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data. l Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model .. l Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work. l Section 6 illustrate the model with an example. l Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2. l In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM system l In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy. l In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order?dense. l In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions. l In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments... This Section l In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described. l We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results. Next Section l The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements. l However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section. l The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use. l We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections. l The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xx Summary l This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5. l Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation. l Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research. l Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper. l Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized l The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn. l Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper. Chapter 0. Abstract l A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables. l This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures. l This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx. l The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations. l The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision. l The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms. l The usefulness of xx is also considered. l A brief methodology used in xx is discussed. l The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem. l A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices. l Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified. l The use of the method is discussed and an example is given. l Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique. l This paper analyses problems in l This paper outlines the functions carried out by ... l This paper includes an illustration of the ... l This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching l Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated. l The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xx l Our proposed model is verified through experimental study. l The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xx l The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables. l A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure Chapter 1. Introduction Time l Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive l Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world l The advent of ... systems forhas had a significant impact on the l The development of ... is explored l During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions, l The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent years l There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ... l A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve... l A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena. l At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xx l Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed. l The pioneer work can be traced to xx . l To date,none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems. Objective / Goal / Purpose l The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows: l The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non?experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer?aided instruction for xxx. l The paper concerns the development of a xx l The scope of this research lies in l The main theme of the paper is the application of rule?based decision making. l These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ... l The objectives of the... operations study are as follows: l The primary purpose/consideration/objective of l The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide l The main objective of such a ... system is to l The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution. l In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements: l In order to take advantage of their similarity l more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completed l In this trial, the objective is to generate... l for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues l A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx. l For an illustrative purpose, four well?known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx. l A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methods l This illustration points out the need to specify l The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive. l Chapter 2. Literature Review l A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xx l A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decade l A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx. l There is considerable amount of literature on planning l However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx. l Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications. l Many research studies have been carried out on this topic. l Problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis. l Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated. l Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature. l The central issue in all these studies is to l The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches. l Applied ... techniques to l Characterized the ... system as l Developed an algorithm to l Developed a system called ... which l Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce l Emphasized the need to l Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology l A comprehensive study of the .. has been undertaken l Much work has been reported recently in these filed l Proposed l Presented l State that l Point out that the problem of l Described l Illustrated l Indicated l Has shown / showed l Address l Highlights l A study on ...was done / developed by and is l The system developed by l ' model draws attention to evolution in human development l . l Studies have been completed to established l The ...studiesindicated that l Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking. Problem / Issue / Question l Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model.They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects. l Remedy / solve / alleviate these problems l ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolved l Two major problems have yet to be addressed l An unanswered question l This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution. l An additional research issue to be tackled is .... l Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussed l The three prime issues can be summarized: l The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ... l There have been many attempts to l It is expected to be serious barrier to l It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem. l There are several ways to get around this problem. l As difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new. l The problem is to recognize xx from a design representation. l A xx problem can trace its roots to xx. l xx used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem. l Several problems are associated with them. l Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized. l Most problems in practice are complicated l More problem surface here. l Hamper effort toward a xx system l In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xx l The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to develop l This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination. l However, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems. l It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real?world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx. Chapter 3. Proposed methodology Assumption l In the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, i.e. given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied. l We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state?dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature. l An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress. l Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent. l Main simplifying assumptions are: l This, in our view, is a questionable assumption. Outline / Structure / Module l An outline of the research l Information is incorporated within the scheme l Is built into ... structure l A nice modular structure. l The principles of ... are applied as modularized criteria Classification l A xx system comprises three main components: l Must decompose the original .. into a set of .. l Consists of the following steps: l This is summarized in the following steps: l Can be broadly classified into the following areas: l Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing the l Can allow further breadth of application of ...into more l The following steps should be followed l xx can be classified by a different ways. l Based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following: l This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing. System l Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal wit h problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer. l The system consists of both ... and ... l The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels. l expert system domains are area of expertise l To develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered: l The system has been developed / designed to determine l The system has proven to be able to l The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domain l The system comprises a ... with l The system is / based on the ... technique l The system environment must be relatively stable l The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve ... l The development of a xx system has two stages:xx stage and xx stage. l The most essential part of .. system is the ... l The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in the development of l An automated system was developed for l In this case, the system can be considered to be generative. l An interactive automatic ... system l A .. is commonly thought of as a truly integrated .. system l Should be capable of being generated from a ... system l xx is an important part of the integrated system. l The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision. l The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin?like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base. l The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule. Computer System l The system has been implemented using Prolog language in an MS?DOS environment.Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented. l The current version of the xx program when compiled with WATFOR77 result s in an executable code of about 270K bytes.Typical run time, when run on a XX computer (an IBM compatible machine) operating at 4.77 Mhz with 640K RAM, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size (or complexity) of the problem. l Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C?language and directly linked to the Prolog environment. l The xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds. l It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386#8 209;based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co?processor. l The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler that supports the math co?processor. l Lisp, Prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time. l Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer. l An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this study l Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations. l While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria -- the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min. l This combination is being implemented in an objected?oriented programming environment (Smalltalk?80 system) to solve problems encountered in construction xxx. Method / Approach / Study / Process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formula / Technique l A discussion is presented of a problem-solving system l To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied. l In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of the l Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report. l This can be accomplished by l This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows: l The above preliminary analysis has provided important information l Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum... l These concepts have been applied to l On the basis of the concept mentioned above, l This can be achieved by l This fact suggests that a new concept l This was accomplished by taking ... l The preparatory stage is very time consuming process. l Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibility l There is little hope of achieving successful ... l There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most ..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception of l Only a few studies can be found. l It is a very tedious process to go through l It is only when .. has been completed that .. may be effected l The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head. l These approaches are sometimes very tedious. l Several techniques can be used l A polynomial parametric model can be written as / : l A xx model is constructed/formulated using xx. l A xx model represents an xx by its xx. l A process decision model captures the logic essential to l From the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the ... l The validity of a xx model can be checked using Euler's formula. l Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether ... or ... l Equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system. l A number of heuristic rules have been developed for l Optimum .. techniques can be made more reliable by ... so that l An algorithm based on the characteristic ... is used to determine l Euler's formula states the following: l The completed model should agree with the formula. l For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessary l Engineering design models are very well defined; therefore, l To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful. Point of View l from an implementation standpoint, l From the point of view of this application, l From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx (CRI for short). l Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions. l From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm. l The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw Justification l We choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and can l Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented. l The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate. l This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement. l A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell?shaped function, etc.Such functions are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic. l It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature.Seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis. l Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge.This explains why most FLCs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy if?the rule. Chapter 4. Examples Example/ Data l The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique. l The data consists of over xx measurements. l An example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xx l Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc. l The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed. l This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods. l There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail. l Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper. Comparisons l As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed. l The method of using xx to implement xx described by Zadeh (1973) appeared more suitable l As discussed / , Relation l We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping. l The relationships appear very complicate l Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics. l These methods are based on the relationship between ... and ... l The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships. l This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former. l The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product. Importance l The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making. Consideration / Attention l Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l Such a formulation does not change further considerations. l Considerable attention has been paid to l Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation. l Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid ... l Primary consideration is given to ... components, though others can be accommodated l After ... has been defined by ..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determine l A number of factors such as ...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision. l It should be noted that l It is important to point out that ... l These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing ... l We should stress the fundamental importance of the xx Chapter 5. Results. Advantages / Disadvantage l One of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study of l One advantage of using a .. is the ease of preparing it. l The xx system is versatile l It has a very fast decision making process l All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations. lIt can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor?based environment. l It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch. l The advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following: l However, xx is not without its shortcomings. l In most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx. l Compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%. l The best case results shows a savings of 6% to 9%. l Most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx . l Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx. l Some other advantages of xx are the following: l The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts. l It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice. l There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches. l This combines the best features of both techniques l Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities. Results l An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data provided l Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this review l Based on the information contained in this l The result can be categorized into nine classes l The results are illustrated by an example l The experimental results for each xx time are reported in Table 2. l From the results obtained so far, it seem that l Because of the inaccuracy of the ..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion. l The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs. l Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed. Chapter 6. Conclusion l From the discussion, one may conclude that ... l Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l The conclusions drawn are also valid l In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in... l We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets. l Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this area l A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise data l Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible. l This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept. l The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work. l The scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method. l In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment. Future Research l Thus, first extension of the approach could be, l Present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory application to l Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity. Tables and Figures l Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships. l The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1. l The xx may be depicted as in Figure 1. l Figure x shows the schematic diagram ofthe l Figure 1 though 2 provide a ... that l the architecture of this expert system for .... is illustrated in Figure 2. l Figure 2 gives the outline of an ... system l Table shows the l as shown in Table 1 and 2 l This concept is illustrated in Figure 2 l At the top of Table xx are shown two blocks of data. l Each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row?headings, xx through xx as column?headings. l A table of .. is developed and significant recommendations are made. CONJUGATION To Indicate Addition l additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speaking To Indicate Cause and Effect l accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, truly To indicate Comparison l in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternatively To Indicate Concession l after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , I admit, naturally, of course To Indicate Contrast l and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately, To Indicate Time Relationships l after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, while To Indicate Special Features or Examples l for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / above To Indicate Summary l in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude , in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately, VERB PHASE l build a .. model l build up the key link l began a new era in ... l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained through l can result in l carries out... tasks l production information in order to simultaneously l contains all information necessary to describe l do not make use of production information l deals with l end with failure l fetch the information from the model directly l has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of/ been recognized as l BE aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a compo site component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to/ more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of/ shown in/ used to effectively guide the search l makes use of l make up l meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon it l must be justified l point out l play an important role l relates to l rely on l satisfy the needs l determine the total requirements for the ... l uses ... as a key to search for... l without relying on l will be available/ performed/ overlooked NOUN PHASE l a basic technical function of l a critical need l a key / principle feature of l a substantial impact on l an intensive review was conducted l an increasing need for expanding the application of .... l an important component / function / aspect / issue l each rule is numbered in sequence l each of these involves l for this calculation, it is necessary to define l in the physical environment / integration of l in the reality of situations where l many aspects of l most past efforts have been spent on ... l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field. l sources of additional information on ... are listed l systematic and rationally structured format l the basis on which arange of ...operations can be established is shown l THE basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of... has attracted wide interest /function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l the number of parts needed to l the above statement means that l the output data is passed to l the proposed method /underlying principle l the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, should l this information resides in l this process is composed of ... different ... operation l along with the use of l concerning general aspects of l due to l for later use in generating..., l in turn, l IT IS believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important to l it can be claimed/concluded that l it demonstrates the decisions required of l it also provides information to .. l it becomes essential to l let ... be the probability that l once... is written, it is compiled into... l suppose it is observed that l this is because l this results in a l upon completion of the ... analysis, l when the knowledge is of mathematics or quantum physics, it will also be recorded in books and papers l selection of rules for using the tools, for generating operation plans, is another matter of preference, since practice varies greatly. l for the sake of convenience l correct decision to be reach l keeping the number of rules to a minimum. l a good process plan will result exhibiting several characteristics: 以下转自 http://www.sciencenet.cn/m/user_content.aspx?id=386423 曾老师的博客，只是因为很有用，留给自己参考。望曾老师勿怪！ 不管是说英文的外国人还是说中文的中国人，用英语进行写作都有很大的难度，因为写作是有规则的，违背这些规则就等于犯错。英文写得好不好，首先要看是不是符合语法，其次是看用词是否恰当，搭配是否合理。因此，如何用英语写作其实是一门高深的学问，一辈子学习都嫌不够。 我本人的英语写作刚入门，而且仅限于科技英语写作。在这里不想班门弄斧谈如何写作英语科技论文，只是根据自己的体会，总结一下在英语科技论文写作中的几个小窍门，仅供广大青年学子参考，恐令学者们见笑。 一、时态的使用 有人在一篇文章中时态的使用很混乱，前后不一致，可能是因为不能活学活用英语语法的缘故。虽然时态错用并不会严重影响读者对文章内容的理解，但体现了作者的写作手法不规范，表达不严谨。一般而言，在Introduction和Discussion中提到一些普遍的认知或常识时，应该用现在时，如Cancer is a disease that fails tocontrol cell division。如果提到别人的发现或报道，可以使用现在完成时，如Those authors have found that 、Someone has reported that 。在Materials and methods和Results中，若涉及动作，通常用过去时，如The wavelength was measured after 10 min。 二、从句的使用 过去分词短语可以放在名词后作定语，但当这个过去分词出现在作谓语的动词之前时，容易被误认为就是句中的谓语，此时宜将过去分词短语改用that引导的定语从句修饰，如There are isoprenoid products used in cancer therapy中的过去分词短语在下面的句子中宜改为that引导的定语从句：Isoprenoid products that are used in cancer cells have not been fully explored。又如：The enzymes that maintain tight control over the carbocation species will produce a single dominant product。 三、被动式的使用 众所周知，科技英语中多使用被动语态，以避免主观表述之嫌。但是，若分不清及物动词还是不及物动词就容易出错，如A fresh idea occurred to him容易误写成A fresh idea was occurred to him。 四、The的使用 何时用the、何时不用the是个最令人头痛的选择，而知道用the和不用the却最能体现英语水平的高下。一般来说，单数名词要用the，复数名词可省略the，但在动宾关系句里即使复数名词也要用the：We identify the relevant genes in the present study。以下复数名词前都加the：The enzymes often lack the characteristic aspartate-rich motifs，因为其中的the有those的含义。位于of之前的名词要用the，但当名词位于句首并有动宾关系时可省略the：Production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide is achieved by photosynthesis。 五、选词 英语不喜欢重复，单词也是如此。这样就要求用英语写作时必须要有很大的同义词词汇量，否则就会理屈词穷。例如demonstrate、indicate、elucidate、reveal等用来引出某种客观结果，可以交替使用。 六、搭配 有主谓一致的问题，如200l of the diluted cell suspension was placed at 37?C中的was应为were，也有动宾搭配的问题，如reply the question应为reply to the question。还有一些固定搭配，如pave the path、raise the question、share the homology等。 七、拉丁语 科技英语中经常使用拉丁语，一般用斜体表示，如动植物及微生物的拉丁学名、 in vivo （活体内）、 in vitro （试管中）、 in situ （原位）、 per se （本身）等。注意：这些外来词用来修饰名词时放在名词前，修饰动词时放在动词后。注意区分They haveintroduced the in vivo synthesis of vitamin D和Microorganisms are not ordinarily destroyed in vivo by bacteriostatic drugs。不过，有些拉丁词已被当做英语词汇使用，在文章中出现时不用斜体，如et al.和e.g.等。 八、专有名称 基因与蛋白质的名称一般用相同词汇表示，但基因名称要用斜体，蛋白质名称要用正体。大小写的规定似乎不严格，但基因名称用小写、蛋白质名称用大写较常见。另外，基因工程中的限制性内切酶名称要用斜体，而且第一个字母要大写，但表示菌株来源及酶编号的英文字母及罗马数字用正体，如 Eco RI、 Bam HI等。
最近又开始写论文了，尽管已经发表过几篇英文文章，但是老板还是对我的英文不满意，回邮件说you should tell us a good story and explain the results completely . 作为我们英语不是母语的人来说，可能提高英文写作水平和表达，是相当长时间的一个任务，感觉上，中文和外文写作套路和表达习惯还是很大不同的！前段时间，看过马臻老师一篇博文提供的链接，分析如何提高英文写作水平，如何自我修改论文，觉得很有用！ 借此分享一下！其它博友有什么经验的，还望赐教！ 中国人英文写作的常见错误
转载自理文编辑 Dr.DanielMcGowan 的一篇博客文章， http://www.sciencenet.cn/m/user_content.aspx?id=286482 我读后深以为然，遂转载过来作为传播收藏。后来在翻译过程中，更是体会到了 McGowan博士所表达的科学心：我们科研工作者是在为人类知识库添加信息，不能唯SCI是从。所有的人类知识都应该按照科学的标准去记录，这样才能传承进步，为整个人类共享。我想这可能也是为什么西方医学发展远远快于我国的中医学的一个缘由吧。 同行评议标准究竟如何影响着期刊影响因子 中文引言： 影响因子较低的刊物接收的文章水准必定不高？ 刊物影响因子较低的原因有哪些？ 稿件被拒，仅仅通过改投影响因子较低的刊物就能发表？ Dr. Daniel McGowan 将给出哪些积极建议？ 博客原文： It has recently come to my attention that many scientistauthors in Asian countries, and perhaps also in Western countries, hold the idea that low impact factor journals will accept papers of a lower overall standard than high impact factor journals. This is largely a fallacy. Although some (hopefully very few) journals with low impact factors may indeed accept and publish papers describing research that has been poorly thought out, conducted and/or reported, it would be foolish to assume that this is commonplace. There are numerous reasons why a given journal might have a low impact factor: it might only describe research in a very narrow, specialized field, or relating to a particular geographic area or patient group, it might be relatively new, or it might publish a large proportion of theoretical papers requiring few references to the literature. However, all journal editors should be striving to protect and improve their journals image in the relevant scientific community, and this means holding submitted manuscripts to the same standards that the editors of journals with much higher impact factors apply to the submissions they receive. Ultimately, studies need to stand up to peer review before entering the collective knowledge as part of the literature, and this means that criteria regarding technical rigour, novelty and accurate unbiased reporting need to be met, regardless of the impact factor of the target journal. At Edanz/Liwen Bianji, we are frequently approached by would-be clients asking us to help them to rewrite their paper following rejection from a journal and negative peer review. In many cases we can work with the client to address the concerns of the journal editor and reviewers and help them prepare a re- or new submission. However, where there are major flaws in the study design or analysis that will prevent publication in any journal, even those with low impact factors, regardless of the any rewriting, we are obliged to tell them that more than rewriting is required: reanalysis of data, or worse, repeating whole experiments. Authors unwilling to do this need to be aware that there is no place in the literature for poorly planned and executed research, that journals with low impact factors do not exist to publish incomplete or deficient studies. And that is the purpose of this blog post: to dispel the myth that impact factor correlates with the rigor that your paper will be subjected to during peer review. My advice is to avoid major problems at the peer review stage by planning well ahead. Ensure that your experiments are well designed with appropriate controls before conducting them; ensure that you have a large enough sample; use the correct statistical tests ; and report the results in an accurate and appropriate manner. Getting these things right before and during the research will save you time, money and potential heartache later on. 翻译： 最近我注意到很多科学家－特别是在亚洲国家，可能还有少数西方国家的作者，他们认为低 SCI 影响因子的期刊接受文章的标准会低于高分期刊。这是极大的谬论。诚然有少数低分期刊（希望是极少数）的确接受和发表了一些想做写很差的文章，但是如果据此认为这是低分期刊的特点那就是愚昧了。 一份期刊影响因子低有很多原因：可能这份期刊的文章定位在比较专业和狭窄的特殊领域，或者是跟某个特别的地理生态环境相关，或者是与特殊的疾病群体相关；或者这份期刊创刊不久相关领域较新知名度还没有建立起来；或者这份期刊发表的文章大部分是原创性较高所以可引用的文献较少的理论性文章。但是不管是什么情况下，期刊的编辑都将会竭尽全力的维护和提高期刊在相关科学团体中的学术形象，这就意味着他们肯定会用高分期刊同样的学术标准来衡量所有来稿。最终，研究者都必须经受住严格的同行评审才能够作为文献进入人类知识库，这就是说不管期刊的影响因子的高低，相关技术的难度和先进程度以及精确客观的实验描述这些学术标准都是一致的！ 在 Edanz 中国的课题组内，我们常常接触到一些客户要我们帮他们重写被拒被批的文章。大多数情况下，我们能够帮助客户阐述清楚期刊编辑和评审的问题，帮他们再投或重投。但有些时候，文章中有些设计和分析上大的纰漏，不管如何写不管投多低，都不可能被期刊接受。我们不得不告诉投稿人：写作不能解决这些问题，必须要重新分析结果甚至是重做整个实验。不愿意接受这个事实的作者必须清楚：科学界没有专门放烂实验的地方，低分期刊绝对不是发表不完整和有缺陷文章的地方。而这也是我写这篇博客的目的：不要天真地以为你的文章被同行评审时的标准与你所投期刊的影响因子正相关。（同行评审只有一个标准，那就是科学的标准） 要避免在同行评审时遇到这些大问题我的建议是实验要预先计划好再做。确保你的实验设计的完备有充分的对照；确保你有足够多的实验样本，而且安排实验样本的统计学分析是正确的；精确而合适地报道你的结果。在实验前和实验中把这些事情做好将节省你的时间金钱以及以后少些头痛。
出处: http://www.sciencenet.cn/bbs/showpost.aspx?id=33230 1 The Most Common Habits from more than 200 English Papers written by Graduate Chinese Engineering Students By Felicia Brittman This paper presents some of the most common Chinese-English habits observed from over two hundred English technical papers by Chinese writers. The habits are explained and in most cases, example text from an actual paper is given along with preferred text. An attempt is made to explain how to correct and prevent such mistakes. In some cases a possible explanation of why the habit occurs is also given. This paper can serve as an individual guide to editing technical papers especially when a native English-speaking editor is unavailable. Introduction Most Chinese universities require their doctoral and master candidates in technical and scientific fields to publish at least one English paper in an international journal as a degree requirement. However, many factors make this task difficult to accomplish. First, previous English studies may not have focused enough on writing, let alone technical writing. Current studies may not include English, causing the writers English fluency level to decline. Second, most writers have never lived in an Englishspeaking country. Third, due to the special aspects of technical writing, even native English-speaking engineering students have a technical writing course as part of their study. Too often, students papers are returned unaccepted because of poor English. If available, students may have their papers edited by a native English speaker. However, this can get expensive for a department that has many students with each paper typically needing to be edited twice. Hiring someone to edit papers is difficult, costly and only puts a patch over the problem. A native English speaker can do a good job at getting rid of most of the grammatical mistakes. However, if this person does not have a technical background, particularly in the area of the papers he is editing, he is unable to get rid of all of the mistakes and make sure that the meaning is clear. He cannot recognize the incorrect translation of technical terms for which there is a standard word. Such mistakes will not be picked up by the processors spelling and grammar checker. In addition, if they are not familiar with the topic or field, they may not grasp the meaning of the entire article and fail to make critical edits. Hiring a person with a technical background similar to that of the papers being edited is a better option. Nevertheless, while a person with a technical background may be able to edit the paper sufficiently, he may not be able to explain to the writer how to prevent such mistakes in the future. Besides, it is difficult for most Chinese universities to hire such staff simply for editing. Universities may consider inviting a visiting scholar who will edit papers in addition to doing research or teaching as part of an exchange. Although editing may be the fastest way to publish papers, it does little in the way of teaching the writers how to prevent common mistakes and colloquial habits that prevent a clear understanding of the writers ideas. Writers who have already obtained an 2 impressing command of the English language can only truly benefit if they are made aware of their common mistakes and colloquial habits and how to prevent them. Purpose The purpose of this report is to introduce the most common habits in Chinese- English writing as noted from the over two hundred papers I have edited. The habits include grammar mistakes, colloquialisms, and formatting problems and in most cases prevent a clear understanding of the writers ideas. A few of the habits, such as writing extremely long sentences, can be corrected with careful use of the MS Word grammar and style checker. However, most habits, such as missing articles, go unnoticed by automatic grammar checking devices. Still, Chinese-English colloquial habits are not recognized by such software tools. Structure The common habits are presented in two sections. The first section lists the habits that, in my opinion, need the most attention. These habits interrupt the flow of the paper making it difficult to understand and occur most frequently. In this section, the habits are explained, example sentences from actual papers are given to show the habits, and the sentences are rewritten to show the correct way to write them. In the case of missing articles, a flow chart is also given to aid in choosing the correct articles. In the second section, an additional list of habits is given. In some cases, example sentences are given. In other cases, advice is given. The second section is very useful in becoming familiar with small nuances. Not all of the common habits I observed are presented mainly because they can only be dealt with on an individual basis. For example, writers had difficulty titling their papers and naming new technical ideas to express their contents and functions concisely. This problem frequently occurred but it can only be addressed individually. Once writers are aware of their habits, they would be able to write better technical English articles. Section 1 a, an, the The single most common habit is the omission of articles a, an, and the. This occurs because Mandarin has no direct equivalent of articles and the rules for using them are somewhat complicated for a non-native speakers. Articles signal that a noun will follow and that any modifiers between the article and the noun refer to that noun (a big blue bicycle / the first award). A and an are indefinite articles; the is a definite article. Every time a singular noncount noun, a common noun that names one countable item, is used the noun requires some kind of determiner. 3 Mistake: The, a, and an are 1) omitted where they are required, 2) used where they are not needed or contribute to wordiness 3) used wrongly in place of the correct article. Examples of incorrect usages: Incorrect Figure 2 shows the distribution of relative velocity on surface of main and splitter blades.15 Correct Figure 2 shows the distribution of relative velocity on the surface of the main and splitter blades.15 Incorrect The software PowerSHAPE is chosen to be a 3D modeling tool; it is good at dealing with free surfaces and curves.4 Correct The software PowerSHAPE is chosen to be the 3D modeling tool; it is good at dealing with free surfaces and curves.4 There was only one 3D modeling tool used in this study, therefore 3D modeling tool is specific and requires the article the. Incorrect A theoretical method for calculating the inner flow-field in centrifugal impeller with splitter blades and investigation of the interactions between main and splitter blades is presented in this paper. The vortices are distributed on the main and splitter blades to simulate the effects of flows. Systematical study of number and distribution of vortices is conducted.15 Correct A theoretical method for calculating the inner flow-field in a centrifugal impeller with splitter blades and an investigation of the interactions between main and splitter blades is presented in this paper. The vortices are distributed on the main and splitter blades to simulate the effects of flows. A systematical study of the number and distribution of vortices is conducted.15 Incorrect Theoretically, remanufacturing could fully take advantage of resources contained in EOF product thereby minimizing impact on environment to the greatest extent compared to landfill or recycling of materials; consequently it contributes greatly to resource conservation.16 Correct Theoretically, remanufacturing could fully take advantage of resources contained in an EOF product thereby minimizing the impact on the environment to the greatest extent compared to landfill or recycling of materials; consequently it contributes greatly to resource conservation.16 Definitions: Articles Also called determiners or noun markers, articles are the words a, an, and the. A and an are indefinite articles, and the is a definite article. Articles signal that a 4 noun will follow and that any modifiers between the article and the noun refer to that noun. ( a cold , metal chair/ the lightning-fast computer). Determiners A word or word group, traditionally identified as an adjective, that limits a noun by telling how much or how many about it. (expression of quantity, limiting adjective, marker) They tell whether a noun is general (a tree) or specific (the tree). The is a definite article. Before a noun, the conveys that the known refers to a specific item (the plan). A and an are indefinite articles. They convey that a noun refers to an item in a nonspecific or general way (a plan). Common nouns A noun that names a general group, place, person, or thing: dog, house. Count noun A noun that names an item or items that can be counted: radio, streets, idea, fingernails. Noncount nouns A noun that names a thing that cannot be counted: water, time. Specific noun A noun understood to be exactly and specifically referred to; uses the definite article the. Nonspecific noun A noun that refers to any of a number of identical items; it takes the indefinite articles a , an. Very long sentences Very long sentences are especially common in Chinese-English writing because the writers often translate directly from Chinese to English. Although, in Chinese writing it is acceptable to put several supporting ideas in on sentence to show their relationship, in English, the main idea and each supporting idea is typically written in separate sentences. One can usually recognize a very long sentence by its length sixty words or more. However, sentences of smaller lengths can also be too long if they contain multiple statements that confuse the main idea. Long sentences can be avoided by limiting each sentence to one or two topics. Semicolons should be used where the writer really wants to emphasize the relationship between ideas. Too long According to the characteristic of fan-coil air-conditioning systems, this paper derives the cooling formula of fan-coil units based on the heat transfer theories and puts forward a new method to gauge cooling named Cooling Metering on the Airside, which can monitor the individual air-conditioning cooling consumption during a period of time by detecting the parameters of inlet air condition temperature and humidity of the fan-coil air-conditioning system as well as the parameters of inlet cooling water provided by the chiller. 5 Correct This paper derives the cooling formula of fan-coil units based on the characteristics of fan-coil air-conditioning systems and heat transfer theories, and puts forward a new method to gauge cooling called Cooling Metering on the Air-side. The new method can monitor individual air-conditioning cooling consumption during a period of time by detecting the condition of inlet air temperature and humidity of the fan-coil air-conditioning system as well as the parameters of the inlet cooling water provided by the chiller. Too long The gear transmission is grade seven, the gear gap is 0.00012 radians, the gear gap has different output values corresponding to any given input value, nonlinearity of the gear gap model can be described by using the phase function method, the existing backlash block in the non-linear library of the Matlab/zdimulink toolbox can be used, the initial value of gear gap in the backlash block is set to zero.9 Correct The gear transmission is grade seven. The gear gap, which is 0.00012 radians, has different output values corresponding to any given input value. The nonlinearity of the gear gap model can be described by using the phase function method. The existing backlash block in the non-linear library of the Matlab/zdimulink toolbox can be used; the initial value of gear gap in the backlash block is set to zero. Another type of super-long sentence that frequently occurs in technical papers is that of a list. The writer wants to give a large amount of data, usually parameter values, and puts this information into one long, paragraph-sized sentence. However, the best way to give such type and quantity of information is to tabulate it (put it in a bulleted list). Too long where m is the mass of the heavy disk mounted at the mid-span of a massless elastic shaft, e is the eccentricity of the mass center from the geometric center of the disk, is the angle between the orientation of the eccentricity and the axis, k and k are the stiffness coefficients in two principal directions of shaft respectively, c is the viscous damping coefficient of the shaft and the disk, ci is the inner damping coefficient of shaft, is the rotating speed, s and s are the components of initial bend in directions of , axes respectively: s = rb cos ,s = rb sin .1 Correct Where m is the mass of the heavy disk mounted at the mid-span of a massless elasticshaft, e is the eccentricity of the mass center from the geometric center of the disk, is the angle between the orientation of the eccentricity and the axis, k and k are the stiffness coefficients in the two principal directions of the shaft, 6 c is the viscous damping coefficient of the shaft and the disk, ci is the inner damping coefficient of the shaft, is the rotating speed, s and s are the components of initial bend in directions of , axes, respectively: s = rb cos ,s = rb sin . Too long The clear height of the case is 6.15 meters; the thickness of the roof is 0.85 meters; the thickness of the bottom is 0.90 meters, the overall width is 26.6 meters, the overall length of the axial cord is 304.5 meters, the length of the jacking section is about 148.8 meters; the weight of the case is about 24127 tons.3 Clear Case clearance height 6.15 meters Roof thickness 0.85 meters Bottom thickness 0.90 meters Overall width 26.6 meters Overall length of the axial cord 304.5 meters Length of the jacking section 148.8 meters (approx.) Weight of the case 24127 tons (approx.) Prefacing the main idea of a sentence by stating the purpose, location or reason first Chinese writers often preface the main topic of a sentence by first stating the purpose, location, reason, examples and conditions as introductory elements. However, this has the effect of demoting the importance of the main idea and making the reader think the author is indirect. Bring the main idea to the beginning of the sentence stating any locations, reasons, etc., afterwards. Incorrect For the application in automobile interiors, this paper studies the nesting optimization problem in leather manufacturing. 5 Correct This paper studies the nesting optimization problem in leather manufacturing for application in automobile interiors. Incorrect Especially when numerical control (NC) techniques are widely used in industry and rapid prototype methods bring a huge economical benefits, the advantage of constructing 3D model becomes extremely obvious.2 Correct The advantage of constructing a 3D model becomes extremely obvious especially when numerical control (NC) techniques are widely used in industry and rapid prototype methods bring a huge economical benefits. Incorrect Inside the test box, the space was filled with asbestos.15 Correct The space inside the test box was filled with asbestos. 7 Incorrect In practice, we employed this approach to dispose of a wheelhouse subassembly of one kind of auto-body, and the results show that this method is feasible.16 Correct We employed this approach to dispose of a wheelhouse subassembly of one kind of auto-body, and the results show that this method is feasible. Incorrect To ensure sheet metal quality as well as assembly quality, CMMs are widely used in automotive industry production.16 Correct CMMs are widely used in automotive industry production to ensure sheet metal quality as well as assembly quality. Tendency of placing phrases which indicate time at the beginning of a sentence Incorrect When U is taken as the control parameter, the BDs for =0.0, 0.001, 0.005 are shown in Fig. 8. Correct Figure 8 shows the BDs for =0.0, 0.001, and 0.005 when U is taken as the control parameter. Place the most important subject at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis Incorrect Based on the triangulation structure built from unorganized points or a CAD model, the extended STL format is described in this section.4 Correct The extended STL format is described in this section based on the triangulation structure built from unorganized points or a CAD model. Incorrect The 3D dentition defect and restoration element models are designed precisely with complicated surfaces.4 Correct The 3D dentition defect and restoration element models with complicated surfaces are designed precisely. which/ that The antecedent (noun or pronoun) to which which refers is not specific, causing confusion. Antecedent The noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers. The Shijiazhuang south road underground bridge possesses the largest jacking force, which is built at 1978(10680t). Correct The dynamic characteristics of a rotor with asymmetric stiffness or with initial warp have been studied before . Incorrect The inlet and outlet temperature of the air cooler were measured using two thermocouples respectively.17 Correct The inlet and outlet temperature of the air cooler were measured by using two thermocouples. In this paper, in this study Two errors occur when these phrases are used. The first is overuse. In some papers written by Chinese, these phrases can occur as much as twice per page. In papers written by native English writers these phrases are reserved for primarily two uses 1. In the introduction and conclusion to emphasize the content of the paper. 2. In the body of the paper, after referring to work not done by the author such as in other journal articles or in standard. Therefore, if either phrase occurs more than three times in a paper, its use is questionable. Actually, the reader is aware that the work presented is by the author (unless the author states otherwise) so there is no reason to repeat these phrases. The second error is more subtle. The two phrases are interchanged. Awkward In this paper, IDEAS was used to . Correct In this study, IDEAS was used to. Awkward In the paper, a SZG4031 towing tractor is used as the sample vehicle, it components equivalent physical parameters are obtained by UG design and testing.9 Correct In this study, a SZG4031 towing tractor is used as the sample vehicle, it components equivalent physical parameters are obtained by UG design and testing. 10 The study is the work the author/s did. The paper is the mode to present this work and is what the reader is holding/ reading. Keep in mind the writer can also use other phrases such as in this research, and this paper present. Numbers and Equations Two very common errors are those concerning the presentation of Arabic numerals, and equations. Chinese writers usually write Arabic numerals instead of spelling out the word. The use of Arabic numerals, itself, is not an error however; they should never be used at the beginning of sentences. Incorrect 12 parameters were selected for the experiment. Correct Twelve parameters were selected for the experiment. In addition, Arabic numerals are overused. Arabic numerals should be used to give data in technical papers, however they should not be used to give general information. Incorrect All 3 studies concluded that the mean temperature should be 30C. Correct All three studies concluded that the mean temperature should be 30C. This probably stems from the fact that Mandarin is a symbolic language and not alphabetic. Thus, the writer will find it easier to write a symbol that expresses the idea instead of the word. This problem is even more serious when equations are used in place of words in a way that is not practiced by native English speakers. Consider the following examples. Equations should be introduced as much as possible, not inserted in place of words. Most journals, like the International Journal of Production Research, discourage the use of even short expressions within the text. Incorrect If the power battery SOC SOClo and the driving torque belongs to the middle load, Correct If the power battery SOC is greater than SOClo and the driving torque belongs to the middle load, Incorrect All 3 studies concluded that the mean temperature should be 30C. Correct All three studies concluded that the mean temperature should be 30C. Format Paragraphs A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or thought. Paragraphs are separated to indicate the end of one idea or thought and the beginning of another. All English paragraphs start on a new line with an indent of about one inch or 11 with an extra line between the two paragraphs. The latter is more typical for business writing. Chinese students are often puzzled by separating paragraphs; the may perform one of two error. One error occurs when the writer fails to distinguish between two paragraphs. Although the new paragraph starts on a new line, there is no indentation, therefore, the reader in is not aware of the change in paragraphs or ideas. The second error occurs when a paragraph is preceded by a single sentence on a single line. The single line is indented along with the succeeding paragraph as in example #. This commonly occurs in Chinese texts but is never done in English. Figure and Table The abbreviations for figure and table are Fig. and Tbl, respectively. However, the abbreviation of table is rarely seen in text. One can also write fig. for figure. However, one should choose one convention and use it throughout the paper. You should not switch between, Figure, figure, Fig, or fig. In addition, abbreviations are not used at the beginning of sentences and a space belongs between the word/ abbreviation and the number. Incorrect Figure.6, Figure6, Fig.6, Tbl10 Correct Figure 6, Fig. 6, Tbl. 10 Variables Variables, especially those of the English alphabet, should be italicized in technical papers to distinguish them from English words. Of course, this depends on the style required by the journal. Capitals Be careful that capitals are not in the middle of the sentence. Incorrect In table 1, The mark Correct In table 1, the mark such as and etc. Such as and etc. are commonly misused by Chinese-English writers. Such as means for example and implies that an incomplete list will follow; etc. means and so on and is used at the end of a list to show it is not complete. Therefore, using such as and etc. together is redundant. Incorrect Studies of methodology and process of implementing remanufacturing mainly focus on durable products such as automobile motors, printers, and etc.11 Correct Studies of methodology and process of implementing remanufacturing mainly focus on durable products such as automobile motors, and printers. Such as means that an incomplete list will be given and should not be used when a complete list is given. 12 Incorrect Compared to traditional industry, Micro-electronic fabrication has three characteristics such as high complexity, high precision and high automation. Correct Compared to traditional industry, Micro-electronic fabrication has three characteristics: high complexity, high precision and high automation. Section 2 1) Some words have identical singular and plural forms and do not need an s added on to make them plural. These words include: literature (when referring to research) equipment, staff (referring to a group of people) faculty 2) Avoid redundancy in the following types of phrases frequently used by Chinese English writers Instead of Say Or say Research work Research Work Limit condition Limit condition Knowledge memory Knowledge Memory Sketch map Sketch map Layout scheme Layout scheme Arrangement plan Arrangement plan Output performance Output performance Simulation results results simulation Knowledge information Knowledge information Calculation results results calculation Application results Results Application 3) Certain words demand that the noun they modify is plural. These include different, various, and number words. Dont write Instead write Different node Different nodes Various method Various methods Two advantage Two advantages Fifteen thermocouple Fifteen thermocouples 4) Never begin an English sentence with abbreviations and Arabic numerals such as Fig. and 8. Instead write Figure and Eight. 5) Do not write by this way. Instead write by doing this, or using this method. 6) Never write How to at the beginning of a sentence. (Dont say it ither.) 13 No How to find the optimal parameter is the main objective. Yes Determining how to find the optimal parameter is the main objective. 7) Do write the results are shown in Figure 2. Do not write the results are showed as Figure 2. 8) Italicize variables appearing in the text to differentiate them from words. This is especially important when the variables are English alphabets. Write The graph shows t, a, and C as a function of time. Do not write The graph shows t, a, and C as a function of time. 9) Refrain from using the word obviously in a technical paper in the following way No Obviously, detecting regimes by means of PMH maps is a novel method.8 Yes Detecting regimes by means of PMH maps is a novel method.8 10) International papers should not use location dependant terms such as at home, abroad, here, our country because the reader most likely is not Chinese and not in China. Instead, write in China. 11) Avoid overusing the phrases that is to say and namely. Instead, try to convey your meaning in one sentence. 12) Do not use too at the end of a written sentence, especially in a technical paper. 14 Appendix A 15 1. LIN Fushen, MENG Guang, Dynamic Behavior of an Unbalanced and Warped Jeffcott Rotor with Asymmetric Stiffness, The State Key Lab of Vibration, Shock and Noise Shanghai JiaotongUnversity, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China, Institute of Vibration Engineering Northwester Polytechnic University, Xian 710072, CHINA, 2003 2. ZHANG Yuping, JIANG Shouwei, Review and Analysis of 3D-Model Reconstruction and Application, Shanghai Jiaotong University, School of Mechanical and Dynamic Engineering, 2003 3. DU Shouji, Long Distance Box-bridge Jacking Research: Report of Starting Research, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shijiazhuang Municipal Traffic Project Provided a loan by World Bank, Contract number: TA3.1.4, 2003 4. ZHANG Wenqiang, YAN Heqing, HUANG Xuemei, WEI Bin, and WANG Chengtao, 3D Modeling and Rapid Prototyping for Dentition Defect Restoration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai JiaoTong University, Shanghai 200030, China, The Ninth Peoples Hospital, Attached to Shanghai Second Medical University, Shanghai 200011, China, 2003 5. ZHANG YuPing, JIANG Shouwei, YIN Zhongwei, A Generic Approach for Leather Nesting with an Heuristic Simulated Annealing Based Genetic Algorith, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Mechanical Dynamic Engineering, Huashan Road 1954, Shanghai, 200030, 2003 6. HU Xin, XI JunTong, JIN Ye, Shape analysis and parameterized modeling of a hip joint, Institute of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Post Code 200030, Shanghai, China, 2003 7. LI LiJun, JIN XianLong, LI YuanYin, WEI JinQiao, WU WeiWei, A Parallel Solver for Structural Modal Analysis, High Performance Computing Center, Shanghai JiaoTong University, Republic of China, 2003 8. CHEN YongGuo, TIAN ZiPing, MIAO ZhengQing, Application of Time-frequency Analysis to Fluidization Regimes Recognition in Circulating Fluidized Beds, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Dongchuan Road 800, Shanghai, P.R. China, 200240, 2003 9. REN ShaoYun, ZHANG JianWu, GAO ChangYun, Modeling and Simulation Analysis of the Torsional Vibration of a FR Driveline System, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 2003 10. WU LiJun, CHEN HuiEr, Mathematical Model for on-line Prediction of Bottom and Hearth of Blast Furnace by Particular Solution Boundary Element Method, Department of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai JiaoTong University, Shanghai, 200030, Peoples Republic of China, 2003. 11. JING XueDong, ZHANG GuoQing, PU GengQiang, WANG ChengTao, XU BinShi, ZHU Sheng, Study on Architecture of Remanufacturing System, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China, Surface Engineering Institute, Beijing, China 12. CAI XiaoPing, JIN Chen, WU JunBiao, HIRAOKA Sumito, CHEN ShaoLin, Application of Partial Singular Value Decomposition Analysis to Location of Vibration Sources of Elevator, 1. State Key Laboratory of Vibration, Shock Noise, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China, 200030, 2. Fujitec CO., Ltd. Osaka, 547-8510, Japan, 2003 13. YE Yao, LIAN ZhiWei, HOU ZhiJian, Heat Exchange Analysis of Cooling Coils Based on a Dynamic Model, Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China 14. NIU XinWen, DIN Han, XIONG YouLun, Assembly Plans Generation Based on Precedence Graphs, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai JiaoTong University, Shanghai 16 200030, China, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China 15. LIU ZhengHua, TONG TieFeng, Critical Heat Flux of Steady Boiling for Subcooled Water Jet Impingement on the Flat Stagnation Zone, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, 200030, P.R. China, 2003 16. WANG Jian, LIN ZhongQin, ZHANG YiZhu, Matching Clearance Analysis for Sheetmetal Assembly, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2003 17. DENG D. Q., XU L., Experimental investigation on the performance of an air cooler under frosting conditions, Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 1954 Huashan Road, Shanghai, 200030, P.R. China, 2002 18. YIN ZhongWei, JIANG ShouWei, Iso-phote based adaptive surface fitting to digitized points and its applications in region-based tool path generation, slicing and surface triangulation, 2003 19. GU ZhengLing, WANG LiYa, QIAN ShanYang, An AHP-based Method for Improving the Manufacturing Processes of Mass Customization, Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China, 2003 20. XU Jie and GU ChuanGang, Numerical Calculation of the Flow-Field in a Centrifugal Impeller with Splitter Blades, School of Power and Energy Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 20003. 21. Zhu ZhengLi, YIN ChengLiang, ZHANG JianWu, Matching and Optimization of HEV Powertrain Based on Genetic Algorithm, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030 . Is the word a noun? (person, place or thing) When to use a, an, and the Start Is the noun countable? Count Non-count Is the noun singular? (refer to only one thing) Is the noun countable? Count Non-count Does the noun begin with a consonant or a consonant sounding h? (i.e. house, half)? Requires a, an, or the. Is the noun specific? Is the plural, countable noun specific? Is the noun already preceded by a determiner below? one, any some, every, each, either, neither another, the other my, our, your, his, her, its, their, nouns with s or s this, that one, no, the first, the second, etc. Is the plural countable noun already preceded by a determiner below? some, any, both, many, more, most, few, fewer, the fewest, a lot of, a number of, other, several, all, all the my, our, your, his, her its, their, nouns with s or s these, those no, two, three, etc.; the first, the second, the third, etc. The noun must begin with a vowel or vowel sounding h (i.e. hour, hierarchy) and therefore requires an an. th e th e a yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no, plural no no no no no no end no end end end end
标签: 英文写作
