Telic features in the semantics of English nominal compounds 29 November 2013 7:58 AM , Tomek Vitaly V. Tur, Minsk State Linguistic University Abstract. The paper presents the results of research on the semantic combinability of constituents of English nominal compounds. In the present study we proceed from the assumption that the generation of a compound occurs due to the actualization of some parts of the meaning of its constituents which are not always given explicitly in the surface grammar. In the course of the research conceptual analysis of the compounds has been done for the purpose of finding out the cases of profiling implicit information about the denoted objects that specifies their telic roles (their functions, the ways they may typically act or be affected, the purposes they may have in performing an act, and so on). The study results allow the argument that the system of nominal compounds has a set of principles and regularities in profiling telic features in the semantics of their constituents. The principles that have been determined in the course of the study find their description in the paper we present. Keywords: compositional semantics, nominal compounds, qualia structure , telic role 1. Introduction One of the most striking features of English nominal compounds is the discrepancy between the simplicity of their syntactic structure and the considerable variety of semantic relations they may express. It is surprising that nouns combined in a phrase generate a new compositional unit the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the sum of the lexical meanings of its constituents. It is even more surprising that in most cases speakers hardly seem to have any difficulty in determining the plausible semantic functions of a compound and interpreting its compositional meaning. So how do the constituents of a compound interact within its semantic structure? Where does an extra part of the meaning of a compound come from? What semantic rules enable speakers to recover this meaning, even though it is not given explicitly in the surface grammar? Recent research on the semantics of compounds offers a new alternative view on the stated problems. The idea is that the meaning of a compound is not necessarily confined to the lexical meaning of its elements: the semantics of a compound may include various types of encyclopaedic and pragmatic information associated with its denotata; thus, an adequate semantic description of compounds requires consideration of this information. In the present paper I focus on the semantic structure of English nominal compounds whose compositional meaning requires actualising telic features associated with the denotata of their constituents (their built-in function, effects they may cause, ways they can be affected and so on). The aims of the described research are, firstly, to find out the kinds of telic features of the constituents which contribute to the compositional meaning of compounds; secondly, it is to determine the semantico-syntactic types of the compounds which require actualising this kind of semantic information. 2. Theoretical issues Semantics has always been “the greatest area of confusion and disagreement” (Ryder 1994: 16) within the framework of the study of English noun-noun compounds. Although a lot of research has been done on finding ways to describe the meaning of English compounds (Jespersen 1909, Bloomfield 1933, Hatcher 1960, Marchand 1969, Lees 1963, Brekle 1970, Gleitman and Gleitman 1970, Adams 1973, Downing 1975, Bauer 1978, Levi 1978, Warren 1978, Selkirk 1982, Hacken 1992, 1994, 2000, 2004, Ryder 1994, Coulson 2000, Booij 2005, 2010, Benczes 2006, Heinz 2009, Lieber 2009, Jackendoff 2010), the semantic nature of compounding is still far from being fully explained. The earliest studies on the semantics of compounds were done within the generativist framework (Lees 1963, Bauer 1978, Levi 1978, Warren 1978 and others). It was argued that semantic relations between the elements of nominal compounds were formed on the bases of implicit predicates in their deep structure, which were deleted on the surface but could be reconstituted by transformational procedures ( dust ball = ball made of dust (Warren 1987: 113)). However, in spite of all the advantages of the generativist approach, it suffered from a number of serious drawbacks. Firstly, one and the same compound could imply various predicates (consider Ryder’s example of dirt-machine, which can imply about ten different predicates: grind , pick up , move , suck up , produc e, work with and so on (Ryder 1994: 435). Secondly, the recovered predicates were in most cases too abstract and vague to convey the exact meaning of the compounds. Thus, for example, S. Coulson points out that the compounds fertility pills and headache pills , which according to Levy’s model both entail the predicate FOR (Levi 1978), have significant difference in their meaning: pills to increase fertility , pills to reduce headache (Coulson 2000). The problems of the generativist approach have shown that the interpretation of the meaning of a compound cannot be realised only by determining the semantico-syntactic relations between its constituents, but also presupposes some ‘world knowledge’ associated with them; thus, the explanatory power of any semantic theory would depend on its ability to account for it. One of the first attempts to formalise this knowledge was taken by L. Bauer. In Bauer’s view, the meaning of a compound can be specified by the semantic description of its constituents (for example, the meaning of wind contains ‘force’ which helps us to interpret windmill as ‘a mill powered by wind’ (Bauer 1979: 48)). E.S. Kubryakova develops the idea of semantic description of the elements of compounds, and argues that it is not the recovering of the implicit predicate that lies in the nature of the interpretation of a compound but rather the interaction of some parts of the meaning (units of information) of its constituents which are selectively actualised in the process of compounding (Kubryakova 2002: 22). To illustrate the idea E.S. Kubryakova brings the example of the Russian compounds lesnaja polyana ‘forest meadow’, lesnye materialy ‘forest product’, lesnoe hozyajstvo ‘forest industry’. She points out that different parts of the meaning of the modifier forest are actualised depending on the meaning of the head noun it is combined with. Thus, forest in forest meadow actualises the information about its territory with no trees on it; in forest product , vice versa, the knowledge about trees is relevant while the information about the territory is reduced; comprehension of forest industry presupposes actualising implicit information about the role of the forest in human life and so on. The same idea is also expressed by Z.A. Kharitonchik. Consider her examples of the Russian word combinations vishnevyj sad ‘cherry garden’, vishnevoe platje ‘cherry dress’, vishnevoe varenje ‘cherry jam’, where different pieces of semantic information are profiled from the meaning of the modifier (Kharitonchik 2004: 275). One the most recent attempts to combine the semantic analysis of the compounds with the semantic analysis of their constituents has been made by R. Jackendoff. The author considers the tranformationalist approach misguided. He claims that “compounding is only barely syntactic” (Jackendoff 2009: 115) and the semantic function of the compound is profiled from inside the meanings of its constituents (Jackendoff 2009: 122). R. Jackendoff focuses on different aspects of the compound meaning that come from the semantics of constituents, underlining the role of the principle of co-composition in the process of compounding. In his study R. Jackendoff dwells on the aspects of the meaning of the constituents that become relevant in the process of generating the complex meaning of a compound. Thus, comparing helicopter attack and attack helicopter, he points out that in the latter case the modifier serves as an explication of a proper function of helicopter being the essential part of its lexical meaning. The notion of proper function is very close to J. Pustejovsky’s telic function in the qualia-structure of the meaning of nouns (Pustejovsky 1991), both used to formalise the process of lexical combinability. The suggested approach to the nature of compounding, which focuses on how the meaning of two nouns contributes to the meaning of the word combination, offers the challenge for further research within the framework of the semantics of compounds. This approach has been chosen as a theoretical background for the semantic research of the compounds described in the present article. In this paper I will focus on the regularities of actualising telic features in the semantic structure of the constituents of English noun-noun compounds. Pustejovsky’s notion of telic features seems appropriate here because, unlike proper function , it can be applied not only to the class of artifacts and parts of organisms but to a wider range of objects. Following J. Pustejovsky, by the terms telic features or telic role I mean any type of semantic information in a lexeme about the denotatum that specifies the ways it can function or typically be affected, the knowledge about its proper function, the purposes it may have in performing an act, and so on. In other words, the telic role is a complex of qualities in the semantic structure of a substantive that in most cases allows it to be used in the role of the performer (causer) or the addressee of the action in the propositional structure of a compound. Thus, as can be seen from the definition, the difference between the notions of telic role and proper function is that the former serves as an umbrella term which includes the latter as an individual case among other possible functions. The study involved the semantic analysis of 4000 nominal compounds. The methodological basis of the research that helped to formalise the analysis is the introduction of the semantics of nominals in terms of Qualia-structure, suggested by J. Pustejovsky. Qualia-structure is a set of four main classes of properties and qualities (roles) associated with a given lexical item: constitutive role (the relation between an object and its constituents, or proper parts), formal role (distinguishes an object within a larger domain: its orientation, magnitude, shape, etc.), telic role (purpose and function of the object, the ways it can act or be affected, etc.), and agentive role (factors involved in the origin of the object). Thus, for example, the Qualia-structure of the lexemes novel and dictionary is presented in the following way: Novel Const: narrative Form: book/disk Telic: read Agentive: artifact, write Dictionary Const: alphabetized-listing Form: book/disk Telic: reference Agentive: artifact, compile (Pustejovsky 1991: 427) According to Pustejovsky’s conception, the realization of any role is possible in the process of the generation of different complex units, including the generation of nominal compounds. As can be seen from the examples below, the semantic variations of a modifier can be analysed according to what qualia is realised in a given compound: 1) hand palm 2) hand tattoo 3) hand lotion 4) hand control. Thus, in (1) it is the constitutive role of the lexeme hand which is relevant; in (2) it is the formal role (location). (3) and (4) presuppose actualisation of different telic functions of the modifier (to be used for grasping, holding; to be cared for, etc.). The results of my research show that the telic role is actualized in about 40% of all the nominal compounds examined, either in one of their components or in both of them. Among these are the compounds with various semantico-syntactic relations, each of them described separately further in the article. 3.1. Actor – action/result The semantic interpretation of the compounds under analysis presents a number of problems which haven’t been solved in the framework of the transpositionalist approach. One of the problems can be illustrated by comparing the examples in (1): a. teakettle whistling b. wind whistles c. bird whistles d. wheel whistling Despite the fact that the head-nouns in all the compounds in (1) name one and the same action, its agents specify its meaning, which can be possible only on condition that the semantic structure of the words teakettle , bird, wind , wheel initially possess mental schemata of the named action. It suggests the idea that a head noun does not denote whatever action can be “mechanically” applied to the agent of the proposition, but rather serves as an explication of its inherent telic function . Note also that the process of whistling presents completely different types of activity for different agents in (1). Thus, for (1a), (1c) it is the realisation of the proper functions of an artifact and a living being. However, in (1d) whistling is not something that the artifact is designed to perform (consider some more examples of this kind: factory poison, cigar ashes, fridge noise , boot tracks ). In cases like these the head noun expresses a side action (result) of the modifier which is performed alongside the realisation of its proper function. For a more complex case, consider the elliptical constructions in (2): a. meteoric risk b. parental advice c. fan letters d. frost damage Semantic interpretation of the compounds in (2) requires recovering not only the deleted predicate but also the rest of the propositional structure with its implicit arguments: meteoric risk =risk of hitting the Earth , parental advice= advice to children , fan letters= letters to the object of worship , frost damage= damage to an object that can be affected by low temperatures . Thus, not only the information about the possible functions of an actor but also about the objects which can be affected by it becomes relevant in the process of compounding. Another semantic problem to be considered here can be illustrated by the examples in (3) and (4): a. tree trunk water conducting function b. tree trunk function was to bridge the chasm and the head of the top a. presidential directive that could change the world b. rumors of presidential divorce flood France In (3a) and (4a) the compositional principles are clear as the heads water conducting function and directive express the proper functions of tree trunk and president . But what about (3b) and (4b)? Obviously, the functions here cannot be considered the proper ones for the named agents. Neither can they be considered their side functions, because divorce and the process of being used as a bridge have nothing to do with performing the proper duties of the president and the functions of the part of a living organism whatsoever. It seems that to interpret such combinations one must bear in mind that one and the same object may simultaneously belong to several taxonomic groups of different levels of abstraction. As a result it may involve several families of telic functions typical of different taxonomic categories. Thus, for instance, the semantic structure of the lexeme president includes the information about the proper functions of the specific post/position ( presidential decision , presidential duties ), the proper functions of the president as a kind of employment in general ( presidential retirement ), the functions of a human-being in general ( presidential hobbies , presidential divorce ). Consider some more examples of this kind: elephant games (animal) – elephant shade (physical object), ambassadorial duties (position) – ambassadorial suicide (human). Thus, the determination of the relations in the semantic structure of English “actor – action/result” compounds requires the following information about the actor expressed by the modifier: 1) the set of taxonomic categories it belongs to, 2) the set of the proper functions of the actor (as a potential member of different taxonomic categories), 3) the set of its side functions, 4) possible effects it may have on other objects (as potential implicit arguments in the propositional structure of a compound). Here is a list of the semantic models for English “actor – action/result” compounds in which all of the mentioned aspects of meaning of their constituents are taken into account: 1) artifact performs the proper function/result ( bullet wounds , torch lights , ferry expedition , taxi ride ); 2) artifact performs a side action/result ( car exhaust , cigarette ash , boot tracks , fridge noise ). 3) artifact fails to perform its proper function ( boiler explosion , car accident , plane tragedy ); 4) human occupation – realisation of the proper function ( officer directing operations , detective operations , police investigation ); 5) human occupation – failure of the proper function ( driver error ); 6) natural object performs the proper function/has an effect on other objects ( volcanic eruption , volcanic risk , meteoric risk ); 7) parts of organisms perform the proper function ( hand motions , heart beat ); 8) living-being performs the proper function (result)/has an effect on other objects ( spider silk , bee pollination , germ disease , locust damage ); 9) natural phenomenon performs the proper function/has an effect on other objects ( wind whistles , snow damage ). 10) physical object performs the proper function ( tree trunk barricades , lime shade ). 3.2. Actor – affected object According to the data of the research, the “actor – affected object” type of compound is much less frequent in the corpus. In all the examples the head-noun names an artifact, so the only type of semantic relations that can be expressed within the pattern can be defined in the following way: “the artifact which is expressed by N2 is designed in such a way that the performance of its proper function presupposes the assistance of the function of N1”. Here are the examples from my corpus: horse carriages , steam organ , atom lamp , water mill , gasoline engine , gas turbine , turbine engine . 3.3. Affected object/result – actor Although the tranformationalist approach enabled the singling out of the “affected object – actor” pattern, it failed to notice significant semantic distinctions between the compounds that comply with it. S. Coulson’s example that has been mentioned above ( fertility pills – headache pills ) is just one of many that can be given here to show the diversity of possible semantic relations within the pattern, but before I dwell on the meaning of the compounds as a whole let me focus on the meaning of their constituents. The head-nouns of most of the “affected object – actor” compounds in my corpus denote either artifacts or human occupations. The semantic structure of these compounds is such that the object denoted by the head-noun realises its proper function upon the object named by the modifier: heat shield (the proper function of shield is to provide protection against something), fly trap (one of the proper functions of trap is to catch somebody or something) . In a fair number of examples, however, the proper function of the head-noun is unclear due to the general meaning of the lexeme. In this case the telic function of the modifier enables us to determine the possible types of the semantic relations between the constituents: camera man (the proper function of camera is to be used for shooting; thus, man performs the role of an actor that utilizes this function). In most such cases, however, the meaning of the compound is ambiguous (or promiscuous (Jackendoff 2009: 117)). Consider, for instance, the compound hen-girl that, according to E. Ryder, may express about ten different relations: a girl who 1) lives on a farm, 2) tends to hens, 3) takes care of hens, 4) raises hens, 5) works with hens, 6) picks up the hen’s eggs each morning and so on (Ryder 1994: 476). Thus, the number of relations in the semantic structure of the “affected object – actor” compounds will depend on the number of possible effects the head-noun may have upon the modifier performing its proper function. Surprisingly, the variety of these effects does not appear wild, so they can be grouped into a fairly small number of classes. Before I give a list of possible relations consider the following examples in (5) and (6): a. eye glasses b . sun glasses c . eye pencil (5a) can be traditionally transformed into “glasses for eyes” and thus can be assigned an abstract meaning of purpose. In this case no difference will become evident between (5a), (5b) and (5c) as they all comply with the same “purpose”-pattern. In fact, however, the difference is that in (5a) the proper function of glasses is to assist the proper function of eyes , in (5b) it is to resist the proper function of sun , while in (5c) the proper function of pencil has nothing to do with the proper function of eyes : it is to enhance its formal properties (here: outer look). a. rocket pilot b. rocket test (6) presents different types of relations in comparison with those in (5). Here N2 does not influence the proper function of N1 but exploits (6a) or obtains information about its performance (6b). In Table 1 the full list of the patterns is given that the compounds in my corpus comply with. (Reminder: X stands for the meaning of N 1 , Y is for the meaning of N 2 ) Table 1. Types of semantic relations in the “affected object – actor” compounds. Properties of N1 affected Type of effect Frequency of occurrence Examples Effect upon telic functions Y resists a telic function of Х 14.7% lightning rod , shock gear , heat shield Y assists a telic function of Х 13.8% eye glasses , liver pills, engine oil Y exploits a telic function of Х 12.7% camera man , rocket pilots Y obtains information about the performance of a telic function of Х 4% rocket tests , traffic camera Y controls a telic function of Х 1% animal charmer Effect upon physical properties Y moves Х in space 9.8% hay truck , barge pole (a pole used to guide a barge) Y changes physical properties of Х 8% hand lotion , floor varnish , dish towel , food coolers Y obtains information about the physical properties of Х 1% eclipse observer , distance meter Effect upon constitutive properties Y changes structure/contents of Х 1% book editor, meat chopper Effect upon agentive properties Y creates/causes Х 20% credit deal , shed wall , song birds , cartoon man Y obtains Х 10% tourist trap, truth drug Y destroys/annihilates Х 4% pain pills , fire extinguisher Thus, in spite of the wide lexical variety of the constituents of the “affected object – actor” compounds, their compositional meanings fall into a relatively narrow range of semantic functions; these functions are determined by the types of effect the actor (denoted by N2) may have on the properties of the affected object (N1) . 3.4. Place/time-object According to the survey results, telic role can also be actualized in the meaning of the components of locative compounds. Thus, when analyzing the meaning of the compounds (7) village street , (8) village doctor , (9) village boy it becomes evident that although all of them are traditionally considered locative, only (7) can be transformed into Y is in X. The objects denoted by the head nouns of the compounds (8) and (9) do not presuppose their immediate location in the place named by the modifier, and are connected to them by means of their proper functions: “doctor works in a village”, “boy lives/grew up in a village”. “Place/time-object” compounds, in which the head noun actualizes its telic role, can be grouped according to the type of actualised telic function (see Table 2). Table 2. Types of compositional meaning in “place/time-object” nominal compounds. Semantic relations Frequency of occurrence Examples Y performs its proper function in/on X 66.3% town cop, surface robot, bedroom slippers, army knife Y performs its proper function during X 18.8% afternoon crew, night watchman, summer lightning, night cream, summer clothes Y’s telic function is to be placed is kept/placed in X 5.7% pocket paraphernalia, wall holder, ear ring, fridge magnets Y’s telic function is to move through/to/from X 9.2% air travelers , star pilot , ocean racers , ocean wind As can be seen from the table above the most frequent are compounds in which the modifier denotes the place or time of functioning of the object named by the head noun (70.8%); the head nouns in these compounds are expressed in most cases by a noun denoting either an artifact or a human-being by his/her profession or social function (90% of all the cases). The following semantic models belong to the pattern: 1) populated area (telic: human habitat) – human (telic: social function/work): town cop , village priest , farmhouse servants , county sheriff , state police , room steward , planet police, etc. 2) organizations/institutions/enterprises/establishments (telic: proper function) – human (telic: social function/work): hospital director , college boy , school teacher , bank president , prison doctor , army guys , library steward, etc. 3) organizations/institutions/enterprises/establishments/parts of buildings (telic: proper function) – human-made object (telic: proper function): bedroom slippers , hospital bathrobe , bar stool , kitchen table , hospital gown , home uniform, etc. 4) other areas, regions, places, surfaces – human (telic: perform a social function/work): riverboat gambler , space miner , tightrope walker, etc. 5) other areas, regions, places, surfaces (telic: placement/container) – human-made object (telic: proper function): area bell , lawn chair , street sign , space boots , air apparatus , mattress topper , surface robot, etc. 6) time – human-made object (telic: proper function): night cream , night clubs , summer cottage , evening clothes , spring dresses, etc. 7) time – human (telic: perform a social function/work): night watchman , afternoon milkman , afternoon crew , morning viewers , summer friend , childhood friends , holiday mates, etc. 3.5. Object – place The group of “object-place” compounds expresses the types of complex meaning that are listed below (see Table 3). The table shows that the compounds in which the head noun denotes a container for storing the objects named by the modifier amount to more than a half of all compounds of this type. Table 3. Types of compositional meaning in “object-place” nominal compounds. Semantic relations Frequency of occurrence Examples Y’s proper function is to serve as a container for X 64% garbage cans , laundry basket , oil tanks , kitchen utensil drawer Y’s proper function is to serve as a place where X performs its proper function 24% cook unit , pilot boards , engine rooms , computer club Y’s proper function is to serve as a placement/aperture for X 12% coin slot , signature line , idea notebook , bolt holes 3.6. Proper function – object A specific place among the semantic types of compounds under analysis is held by the compounds in which a deverbal modifier names the function for the performance of which the denotatum of the head noun is designed. holding pins , replacement ferry , fishing vessels , cleaning equipment , warning sign , control button , service personnel , care nurse , research teams , cruise liner , nursing home , operating theater The meaning of such compounds can be described by the transformation Y’s proper function is to perform X. The compounds under analysis can be divided into subtypes in accordance with the semantics of the head-noun: 1) proper function – artifact: development money , sewing machine , closing shutters , heating system , test program , irrigation canals , intake pipe , protection stunner, etc. 2) proper function – place (buildings, part of buildings, natural and artificial areas used as a place of performing the action): dance floor , swimming pool , skating rink , service area , reading chair , examination table , launch site , killing zone , rest area , farming settlement , amusement hall, etc. 3) proper function – human/group of people (proper function of professions/occupations): ski team , survey teams , airshow performers , rescue party, etc. 4. Conclusion The semantics of a complex lexical unit is the result of the interaction of the meaning of its constituents. In most cases, however, it is not enough to account for the lexical meaning of the constituents as a whole in order to interpret the semantics of a compound. The meaning of a compound results from the interaction of some particular units of information associated with its constitutive elements. Telic role, which is an integral part of the meaning of nouns, appears to be semantically relevant to almost 40% of all examined compounds, being actualized either in one of its elements or in both of them. It has been shown that telic role is a general notion which consists of different kinds of semantic information. Among them is the information about 1) the proper function of a denoted object, 2) its side functions that can be realized alongside the performance of the proper one, 3) a set of objects that may be affected by it, 4) types of the effect it may have on other objects, 5) a set of objects that may have an effect on it 6) the ways it can be affected by other objects. As has been demonstrated in the article, any piece of this encyclopedic (“world”) knowledge about the denoted object may serve as a semantic link that helps the lexeme to combine with other words in a phrase. Thus, compositional semantics must account for this information in order to be able to explain the linguistic nature of compounding. References Bauer, Laurie. 1979. In the need for pragmatics in the study of nominal compounding. Journal of Pragmatics 3. 45 – 50. Coulson, Seana. 2000. Semantic Leaps: Frame-shifting and conceptual blending in meaning con-struction . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jackendoff, Ray 2009. Compounding in the parallel architecture and conceptual semantics. In: Rochelle Lieber and Pavol Stekauer (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Compounding , 105-128. Oxford University Press. Kharitonchik, Zinaida 2004. O refleksii leksicheskih znachenij componentov v semantike affiksalnyh proizvodnyh. In: Ocherki o jazyke. Teorija nominacii. Leksicheskaja semantika. Slovoobrazovanije. Izbrannye trudy. 266 – 281. Minsk. Kubryakova, Elena 2002 Kognitivnaja lingvistika i problemy kompozicionnoj semantiki v sfere slovoobrazovanija. Izvestija AN. Seria Literatury Jazyka 61 (1). 13-24. Levi, Judith N. 1978. The Syntax and Semantics of Complex Nominals . New York: Academic Press. Pustejovsky, James. 1991. The Generative Lexicon. Computational Linguistics 17(4). 409-441. Ryder, Mary Ellen. 1994. Ordered Chaos: The interpretation of English noun–noun compounds . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Warren, Beatrice. 1987. Semantic Patterns of Noun-Noun Compounds . Gothenburg: Gothenburg Studies in English 41. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis . http://www.crossroads.uwb.edu.pl/telic-features-in-the-semantics-of-english-nominal-compounds/
http://editorial.autos.msn.com/50-years-of-the-porsche-911-1#21 50 Years of the Porsche 911 1989 Porsche 911 Carrera 4 (964) The 911 Carrera received a major update for the 1989 model year. For the first time, all-wheel drive was offered in a 911; also a first were standard anti-lock brakes. The Carrera 4's engine displacement was increased to 3.6 liters, generating 250 horsepower. The 964, as it came to be known, was available for only a few years before being replaced by the 993 models, but its features signaled a new era for the 911 , and as such it is still looked at today as a benchmark in Porsche history. 1995 Porsche 911 Carrera (993) The 993-model Porsche 911 fulfilled the changes and updates begun with the previous 964. With a redesigned take on the 911 body, the 993 Carrera brought the car fully into the modern era. The 993 is revered among 911 fans for its handling and styling; the 282 base horsepower didn't hurt, either. Moreover, the 993 was the last of the air-cooled 911 models, marking a canyon-like divide in the minds of Porsche aficionados everywhere. Values on 993s have held strong on the market, with some variants already well on the rise. Next: 1996 Porsche 911 Turbo (993) The 993-era 911 Turbo is a modern legend. The flared rear fenders, redesigned tea-tray spoiler, and larger front and rear bumpers combined with elegant body lines to make for a car straight out of any 911 fanatic's dreams. The 993 Turbo's performance lived up to expectations: With twin turbochargers mounted to the 3.6-liter flat-6 engine of the time, it delivered a massive 408 horsepower, sent to all four wheels through the first all-wheel-drive system ever fitted to a 911 Turbo model. Some consider the 993 911 Turbo to be the best 911 ever made; most see it as the last triumph of the air-cooled era The 996 was immediately welcomed on the open market, but for some the bloom was off the rose and no 911 would ever be immediately acceptable again. James Tate cut his teeth in the business as a race team crew member before moving to the editorial side as Senior Editor of Sport Compact Car , and his work has appeared in Popular Mechanics
Problem: predict if a residues is a DNA-binding residues or not. Features: The information of each residue in the sliding window is constructed using evolutionary information, the torsion angles in the PBS and the solvent accessible surface (Li and Li, 2012). These features and the encoding scheme are described in Part 1 of the Supplementary Data S2. Classifier: Then, the encoded features are selected as the input parameters of the SVM Database: PDNA-62: PDNA-62 dataset contained 1215 DNA-binding residues and 6948 non-binding residues. PDNA-224: 3778 interacting residues and 53 570 non-interacting residues were projected to be present in the PDNA-224 dataset. Evaluation: In predicting DNA-binding sites, the 5-fold cross-validation test is often used to examine the effectiveness of a predictor (Wang and Brown, 2006; Wang et al., 2009, 2010; Wu et al., 2009). The performance of our predictor was also assessed by the 5-fold cross-validation test. During this test, a dataset is randomly divided into five non-overlapping sets, four of which are used for training the predictor and the accuracy of the predictor is assessed on the remaining sets. This process is repeated five times. Performance measure: The predictive capability of our method was evaluated by the sensitivity (Sn), specificity (Sp), Matthew ’ s correlation coefficient (MCC), overall prediction accuracy (Acc), strength (Str) and false-positive rate (FPR). Results: Table 1. The test results for the PDNA-62 dataset with respect to different window sizes based on the 5-fold cross-validation test Table 2. The prediction performances for the PDNA-62 dataset based on various features in the 5-fold cross-validation test Fig. 3. ROC curves for the DNA-binding sites prediction in PDNA-62 dataset by combining SVM predictor using different parameters prediction of DNA-binding sites：DNA结合位点预测 RED.doc prediction of DNA-binding sites：DNA结合位点预测.pdf
普林斯顿大学的音乐教授Dmitri Tymoczko写了一本书：音乐的几何学。在这本书里， 他创建了一种几何学，从调性音乐到无调性音乐到蓝调布鲁斯的音乐原则都可以概括其中。他把音乐几何学的概要发表在《科学》杂志上，成为了《科学》杂志一百多年以来第一篇直接关于音乐的文章。 Most listeners prefer tonal music to atonal music, but what exactly is the difference between them? In this groundbreaking work, author Dmitri Tymoczko identifies five basic musical features that jointly contribute to the sense of tonality, and shows how these features recur throughout the history of Western music. Tymoczko creates for the reader a new framework for thinking about music, one that emphasizes the commonalities among styles from Medieval polyphony to contemporary jazz. A Geometry of Music provides an accessible introduction to Tymoczko's revolutionary geometrical approach to music theory. The book shows how to construct simple diagrams representing the relationships among familiar chords and scales. This gives readers the tools to translate between the musical and visual realms, revealing surprising degrees of structure in otherwise hard-to-understand pieces. Tymoczko uses these theoretical ideas to retell the history of Western music from the eleventh century to the present day. Arguing that traditional histories focus too narrowly on the "common practice" period from 1680-1850, he proposes instead that Western music comprises an extended common practice stretching from the late middle ages to the present. Using analysis to make his argument clear, he discusses a host of familiar pieces by Bach, Mozart, Chopin, Debussy, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, and others. A Geometry of Music is accessible to a range of readers, from undergraduate music majors to scientists and mathematicians with an interest in music. Defining its terms along the way, it presupposes no special mathematical background and only a basic familiarity with Western music theory. The book also contains exercises designed to reinforce and extend readers' understanding, along with a series of appendices that explore the technical details of this exciting new theory. http://book.douban.com/subject/6772477/
Problem: Using the tumor region as a query, the authors’ CBIR system attempts to retrieve tumors of the same pathological category. Features: Aside from commonly used features such as intensity, texture, and shape features, the authors use a margin information descriptor (MID), which is capable of describing the characteristics of tissue surrounding a tumor, for representing image contents. Distance: In addition, the authors designed a distance metric learning algorithm calledMaximum mean averagePrecisionProjection (MPP) to maximize the smooth approximated mean average precision (mAP) to optimize retrieval performance. Database: The effectiveness of MID and MPP algorithms was evaluated using a brain CE-MRI dataset consisting of 3108 2D scans acquired from 235 patients with three categories of brain tumors (meningioma, glioma, and pituitary tumor). Evaluation: Two quantitative measures (e.g., mAP and Prec@10) were used to evaluate the performance of the algorithms. At the same time, precision-recall curves were drawn for some cases to enable intuitive comparison. Results: TABLE IV. Summary of retrieval performance of different distance metrics on different features (%). mAP Prec@10 FIG. 5. Comparison of mAP using different feature sets and learned distance metrics. “T,” Texture feature; “S,” Shape feature. FIG. 6. Precision-recall curves. (a) Using the distance metrics learned by MPP algorithm on different feature sets. (b) Using the different distance metric learning algorithms on the texture-shape-MID combination features. FIG. 7. mAPs of dimensionality-reduced features by LFDA and MPP. Combination of texture, shape feature, and MID is used as the image representation. FIG. 8. Precision at top k returned images of the distance metric learned by MPP for different tumor categories. retrieval of brain tumor in contrast-enhanced MRI images 12.17.doc retrieval of brain tumor in contrast-enhanced MRI images 12.17.pdf http://online.medphys.org/resource/1/mphya6/v39/i11/p6929_s1
相关下载详见 “视觉计算研究论坛”「SIGVC BBS」： http://www.sigvc.org/bbs/thread-36-1-2.html Premise: you have got a set of features(measurement) of samples. •identify those variables that do not contribute to the classification task. •find a transformation from the p measurements to a lower-dimensional feature space. •select those d variables that contribute most to discrimination. •Feature selection criteria: error rate, probabilistic distance, recursive calculation of separability measurement, criteria based on scatter matrices. • PCA方法现阶段的应用？现阶段的计算能力上再讨论PCA还有没有意义？ •降维还有没有必要？
Ecosystem News 2-2012.pdf The latest research regarding Beijing’s urban vegetation In the process of rapid urbanization, human activities play an important role in determining the urban plant species composition, origin, life form and other features of the urban landscape; in turn, urban vegetation can have a far-reaching impact on the urban ecosystem. In a recent systematic field investigation, researchers at the Beijing Urban Ecosystem Research Station studied the number of invasive and naturalized plant species in each district/county in Beijing, where they also gathered information about the factors influencing these species. The researchers then used the data from 214 sampling sites to investigate changes in plant diversity alongside the factors driving these changes through an examination of the quantitative relationships between plant diversity/abundance and land use type, geographical and socio-economic factors across the whole city. Based on the results, the researchers provided some suggestions to the related official agencies for future urban green space construction and design. Contact: Huafeng Wang The latest CEM newsletter: Ecosystem News 2-2012.pdf Map of sampling sites in Beijing
GoldenDict - designed as a StarDict successor, it supports its format, lots of other formats (Lingvo, Babylon etc), features tabbed browsing, morphology, live pronunciations, Wikipedia and so on. The program is constantly being improved and worked on. Babiloo - a free open source software developed to read offline dictionaries. Runs on most platforms. Supports StarDict and SDictionary formats. LightLang - another system of electronic dictionaries (Linux only). Some other free, but closed-source programs: Lingoes - fast and lean, but Windows only, and supports only its own format. Dicto - supports XDXF dictionaries. Windows only. Appears to be Russian-oriented. Wordnet -developed by Princeton University. The most recent Windows version of WordNet is 2.1, released in March 2005. Version 3.0 for Unix/Linux/Solaris/etc. was released in December, 2006.
http://www.temple.edu/templemag/2011_winter/f2_RemoteControl.html FEATURED WINTER 2011 ARTICLE Remote Control The Institute for Computational Molecular Science makes formerly unfathomable experimentation possible. By Brian M. Schleter ICMS Director Michael Klein (right) and ICMS Associate Directo Axel Kohlmeyer are redefining research at Temple. Photo by Joseph V. Labolito Throughout history, the greatest scientific and engineering advances have resulted from theories proven through costly, sometimes dangerous and often repetitive forms of experimentation. Advances in computer technology are changing that dynamic—rapidly. Every day, researchers use high-performance computers, capable of performing quadrillions of calculations per second, to design safer, more effective medicines; predict the effects of climate change; and search for new treatments for HIV, influenza and other diseases. Increasingly, researchers in the natural and life sciences are turning to computational science to observe video simulations of molecular activity. Now, researchers at Temple can utilize the Institute for Computational Molecular Science (ICMS) in the College of Science and Technology. ICMS was founded in 2009 by Laura H. Carnell Professor of Science Michael Klein , member of the esteemed National Academy of Sciences —one of the highest honors bestowed on a scientist—author of more than 600 publications, editor of four books and winner of the American Physical Society’s Aneesur Rahman prize for outstanding computational research. A leader in his field, Klein aims to bring Temple’s research to the forefront of science and to foster cross-disciplinary team-building through ICMS, a new valuable tool for generating new approaches to discovery of all kinds. From increasing research capabilities for students to allowing scientists to witness molecular interaction visually, ICMS’s computing will push the boundaries of what can be accomplished —and what can be understood— at Temple. “Computational science is commonly described as the third pillar of scientific discovery, beside theory and experimentation,” says Axel Kohlmeyer, associate director of ICMS and associate research professor at Temple . “We use computers to do experiments that cannot be done in reality.” A C_60 molecule (or “buckyball”) is swallowed by a bilayer of lipid molecules, a model for a cell membrane. Researchers study if the otherwise inert buckyballs can have negative effects on cell membranes. Image courtesy of ICMS. Building Bridges In today’s research landscape, anyone who needs a quick answer or has a large block of data to process needs high-performance computing. Within ICMS, a dozen Temple chemists, biochemists, physicists and computer scientists use state-of-the-art computer simulations to model molecular behaviors. Similar to the way video games simulate experiences based on data —but on a much more expansive and complex level—computer models designed by the ICMS group utilize scientific data to verify the results of experiments put forth by collaborating researchers. “Providing high-performance computing tools is a bit like being a pipefitter,” Kohlmeyer says. “There is a certain infrastructure that has to be available and maintained. If you pull a certain handle, you’ll get hot water. People without that knowledge, working by themselves, wouldn’t be able to get hot water.” Klein, a 16-year member of the chemistry faculty and director of the Center for Molecular Modeling at the University of Pennsylvania, came to Temple to found ICMS. That decision played a role in Robert Kulathinal’s decision to join the faculty last year. “Temple’s successful recruitment of the ICMS group was exemplary of the university’s commitment to both innovation and excellence,” says Kulathinal, an evolutionary geneticist and assistant professor of biology. “It confirmed that this is a place I wanted to be.” His lab plans to use ICMS’s extraordinary computing resources to construct three-dimensional protein models from genome sequence data, to understand how proteins have evolved over millions of years. Kulathinal says the modeling might lead to a new understanding of how proteins interact, resulting in more effective drug treatments. Part of Klein’s strategy is to seek seed funding for researchers to collaborate across disciplines. An example, he says, would be a pharmacologist working to develop a new compound who needs a chemist to synthesize it. The role of the ICMS would be to use computers to help in the screening of millions of possible molecules to find potential targets and thus reduce the workload of the synthetic chemist. By facilitating these conversations, the ICMS is creating an environment where “random, unexpected collisions” of this sort can occur.“ We’re trying to build bridges,” Klein says. Providing the Tools Though the work of ICMS encompasses an array of different sciences and researchers, the common theme in all of the institute’s projects is the smart and effective use of high-performance computing clusters, or HPC clusters. Just as bridges need sturdy foundations, the first order of business for ICMS is to build a state-of-the-art cyberinfrastructure at Temple. The university now has a hybrid GPU (graphics processing unit)/CPU (central processing unit) cluster computer. In Temple’s case, the HPC cluster features more than 100 nodes containing more than 1,200 processor cores, 48 Nvidia Tesla GPUs (hardware made specifically for high-perfomance computing) and 120 terabytes of storage. In other words, the HPC cluster is the equivalent of hooking up approximately 2,000 laptop computers set to process the same information. It provides more hard-drive space than 240 computers that each contain a 500-gigabyte hard drive. Beyond the astounding capacity of the HPC cluster at Temple, ICMS also is part of TeraGrid , a cyberinfrastructure of even more powerful supercomputers used for scientific research, information and data sharing, which not only encourages cross-disciplinary research, but also fosters collaboration between Temple and other TeraGrid researchers across the country. Targeting the Impossible Most of the ICMS group’s research is literally “trying to do the impossible,” Kohlmeyer notes, by putting theoretical models to the test. Because simulations are numbers-based, they know the exact state of the whole system at any point, allowing for perfectly controlled experiments. The institute’s ultimate goal—Kohlmeyer calls it the “holy grail” of computational science—is to arrive at a juncture where the molecular computer simulations built are so accurate and detailed, they render many chemical and biological experiments obsolete. Imagine a scenario in which a new drug is proven safe and effective outside the laboratory—where it currently takes years of high-cost testing—and on a computer instead, with every possible molecular interaction taken into account. Though the technology is not there yet, much of the current research at ICMS is helping researchers improve drug treatments. For example, one team is looking at the cellular binding abilities of certain anesthesia agents.“We know that anesthetics work, but we don’t know how they work on the molecular level,” Kohlmeyer explains. Understanding the molecular activity of anesthetic agents, he says, will result in safer anesthetics that can better target the area of the body they are meant to act upon. Polymer chemists in the group are using computer simulations to unlock the secrets of nano-scale materials. Mixing multiple polymers (chemical compounds) and studying the new mixture that arises on the nano level can improve drug delivery. “The purpose is to ‘package’ a drug so it can get where it needs to be, instead of ‘flooding’ the body and thus risking side effects,” Kohlmeyer explains. Another area of focus at ICMS is software development. Last summer, Kohlmeyer supervised two undergraduate students who helped improve a simulation software package. The effect enabled a postdoctoral researcher to run his calculations up to 15 times faster than before, greatly improving the researcher’s efficiency. “As I see it, the mission of ICMS, in this context, is to share our experiences with other Temple researchers and, in return, learn from their experiences,” Kohlmeyer says. “Ultimately, we want to establish collaborative efforts that can solve even more complex problems than the ones being worked on now.” As ICMS grows, so too will opportunities for groundbreaking research at Temple. “The vision for this institute is to foster collaborative, interdisciplinary, frontier research,” Klein says. “It will take time, but it will be driven largely by recruitment. We need to recruit people aggressively at all levels to staff centers and institutes, especially young people. This new generation of researchers is more adept at using computers to solve complex problems.” Brian M. Schleter is a research freelance writer based in Baltimore City, Md. FEATURED WINTER 2011 ARTICLE Remote Control The Institute for Computational Molecular Science makes formerly unfathomable experimentation possible. By Brian M. Schleter ICMS Director Michael Klein (right) and ICMS Associate Directo Axel Kohlmeyer are redefining research at Temple. Photo by Joseph V. Labolito Throughout history, the greatest scientific and engineering advances have resulted from theories proven through costly, sometimes dangerous and often repetitive forms of experimentation. Advances in computer technology are changing that dynamic—rapidly. Every day, researchers use high-performance computers, capable of performing quadrillions of calculations per second, to design safer, more effective medicines; predict the effects of climate change; and search for new treatments for HIV, influenza and other diseases. Increasingly, researchers in the natural and life sciences are turning to computational science to observe video simulations of molecular activity. Now, researchers at Temple can utilize the Institute for Computational Molecular Science (ICMS) in the College of Science and Technology. ICMS was founded in 2009 by Laura H. Carnell Professor of Science Michael Klein , member of the esteemed National Academy of Sciences —one of the highest honors bestowed on a scientist—author of more than 600 publications, editor of four books and winner of the American Physical Society’s Aneesur Rahman prize for outstanding computational research. A leader in his field, Klein aims to bring Temple’s research to the forefront of science and to foster cross-disciplinary team-building through ICMS, a new valuable tool for generating new approaches to discovery of all kinds. From increasing research capabilities for students to allowing scientists to witness molecular interaction visually, ICMS’s computing will push the boundaries of what can be accomplished —and what can be understood— at Temple. “Computational science is commonly described as the third pillar of scientific discovery, beside theory and experimentation,” says Axel Kohlmeyer, associate director of ICMS and associate research professor at Temple . “We use computers to do experiments that cannot be done in reality.” A C_60 molecule (or “buckyball”) is swallowed by a bilayer of lipid molecules, a model for a cell membrane. Researchers study if the otherwise inert buckyballs can have negative effects on cell membranes. Image courtesy of ICMS. Building Bridges In today’s research landscape, anyone who needs a quick answer or has a large block of data to process needs high-performance computing. Within ICMS, a dozen Temple chemists, biochemists, physicists and computer scientists use state-of-the-art computer simulations to model molecular behaviors. Similar to the way video games simulate experiences based on data —but on a much more expansive and complex level—computer models designed by the ICMS group utilize scientific data to verify the results of experiments put forth by collaborating researchers. “Providing high-performance computing tools is a bit like being a pipefitter,” Kohlmeyer says. “There is a certain infrastructure that has to be available and maintained. If you pull a certain handle, you’ll get hot water. People without that knowledge, working by themselves, wouldn’t be able to get hot water.” Klein, a 16-year member of the chemistry faculty and director of the Center for Molecular Modeling at the University of Pennsylvania, came to Temple to found ICMS. That decision played a role in Robert Kulathinal’s decision to join the faculty last year. “Temple’s successful recruitment of the ICMS group was exemplary of the university’s commitment to both innovation and excellence,” says Kulathinal, an evolutionary geneticist and assistant professor of biology. “It confirmed that this is a place I wanted to be.” His lab plans to use ICMS’s extraordinary computing resources to construct three-dimensional protein models from genome sequence data, to understand how proteins have evolved over millions of years. Kulathinal says the modeling might lead to a new understanding of how proteins interact, resulting in more effective drug treatments. Part of Klein’s strategy is to seek seed funding for researchers to collaborate across disciplines. An example, he says, would be a pharmacologist working to develop a new compound who needs a chemist to synthesize it. The role of the ICMS would be to use computers to help in the screening of millions of possible molecules to find potential targets and thus reduce the workload of the synthetic chemist. By facilitating these conversations, the ICMS is creating an environment where “random, unexpected collisions” of this sort can occur.“ We’re trying to build bridges,” Klein says. Providing the Tools Though the work of ICMS encompasses an array of different sciences and researchers, the common theme in all of the institute’s projects is the smart and effective use of high-performance computing clusters, or HPC clusters. Just as bridges need sturdy foundations, the first order of business for ICMS is to build a state-of-the-art cyberinfrastructure at Temple. The university now has a hybrid GPU (graphics processing unit)/CPU (central processing unit) cluster computer. In Temple’s case, the HPC cluster features more than 100 nodes containing more than 1,200 processor cores, 48 Nvidia Tesla GPUs (hardware made specifically for high-perfomance computing) and 120 terabytes of storage. In other words, the HPC cluster is the equivalent of hooking up approximately 2,000 laptop computers set to process the same information. It provides more hard-drive space than 240 computers that each contain a 500-gigabyte hard drive. Beyond the astounding capacity of the HPC cluster at Temple, ICMS also is part of TeraGrid , a cyberinfrastructure of even more powerful supercomputers used for scientific research, information and data sharing, which not only encourages cross-disciplinary research, but also fosters collaboration between Temple and other TeraGrid researchers across the country. Targeting the Impossible Most of the ICMS group’s research is literally “trying to do the impossible,” Kohlmeyer notes, by putting theoretical models to the test. Because simulations are numbers-based, they know the exact state of the whole system at any point, allowing for perfectly controlled experiments. The institute’s ultimate goal—Kohlmeyer calls it the “holy grail” of computational science—is to arrive at a juncture where the molecular computer simulations built are so accurate and detailed, they render many chemical and biological experiments obsolete. Imagine a scenario in which a new drug is proven safe and effective outside the laboratory—where it currently takes years of high-cost testing—and on a computer instead, with every possible molecular interaction taken into account. Though the technology is not there yet, much of the current research at ICMS is helping researchers improve drug treatments. For example, one team is looking at the cellular binding abilities of certain anesthesia agents.“We know that anesthetics work, but we don’t know how they work on the molecular level,” Kohlmeyer explains. Understanding the molecular activity of anesthetic agents, he says, will result in safer anesthetics that can better target the area of the body they are meant to act upon. Polymer chemists in the group are using computer simulations to unlock the secrets of nano-scale materials. Mixing multiple polymers (chemical compounds) and studying the new mixture that arises on the nano level can improve drug delivery. “The purpose is to ‘package’ a drug so it can get where it needs to be, instead of ‘flooding’ the body and thus risking side effects,” Kohlmeyer explains. Another area of focus at ICMS is software development. Last summer, Kohlmeyer supervised two undergraduate students who helped improve a simulation software package. The effect enabled a postdoctoral researcher to run his calculations up to 15 times faster than before, greatly improving the researcher’s efficiency. “As I see it, the mission of ICMS, in this context, is to share our experiences with other Temple researchers and, in return, learn from their experiences,” Kohlmeyer says. “Ultimately, we want to establish collaborative efforts that can solve even more complex problems than the ones being worked on now.” As ICMS grows, so too will opportunities for groundbreaking research at Temple. “The vision for this institute is to foster collaborative, interdisciplinary, frontier research,” Klein says. “It will take time, but it will be driven largely by recruitment. We need to recruit people aggressively at all levels to staff centers and institutes, especially young people. This new generation of researchers is more adept at using computers to solve complex problems.” Brian M. Schleter is a research freelance writer based in Baltimore City, Md.
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Discourse analysis of newspaper headlines: a methodological framework for research into national representations This article comes from: The Web Journal of French Media Studies Volume 4, Number 1, November 2001. The website is: http://wjfms.ncl.ac.uk/enframes.htm Discourse analysis of newspaper headlines: a methodological framework for research into national representations by Christine Develotte and Elizabeth Rechniewski Department of French Studies, School of European , Asian and Middle Eastern Languages and Studies, University of Sydney , Australia christine.develotte@french.usyd.edu.au and elizabeth.rechniewski@french.usyd.edu.au The discussion of the theoretical and methodological issues involved in the discourse analysis of newspaper headlines which forms the basis of this research note, arises out of a study comparing the Australian and French press at the time of the crisis in Franco-Australian relations provoked by President Chirac's decision to recommence nuclear testing in the South Pacific in June 1995. This study formed part of a larger project: 'Xenophobia and xenophilia in Franco-Australian relations', undertaken by researchers from France and Australia and coordinated by Peter Cryle, University of Queensland, and Geneviève Zarate, ENS Fontenay/Saint-Cloud, which examined the representations of the two nations in a range of media over the months before, during and after the crisis. (1) To undertake the study of the press, a corpus was constituted from coverage of the crisis in both French and Australian daily papers. One of the challenges posed by study of the press is how to arrive at valid conclusions, given that the time-consuming nature of discourse analysis makes it difficult to undertake the detailed analysis of a large number of articles. We thus sought a method which would allow us to gain an overview of an extensive corpus. The solution which we arrived at, the study of headlines, offers a number of distinct advantages which we outline in this article. A corpus of headlines facilitates quantitative analysis, for example, a longitudinal study of the frequency of headlines on a particular issue can reveal the evolution in the prominence given to a topic over time; a comparison between newspapers can reveal the relative importance each paper gave to an issue during a particular period. However this research note concentrates on the broader theoretical and methodological issues involved in using headlines in research and identifies the linguistic features which are typical of them. It argues further that headlines are particularly revealing of the social, cultural and therefore national representations circulating in a society at a given time. Our research note addresses : 1. The characteristics which justify that particular attention be given to headlines in press analysis, namely: - the prominence they acquire through diffusion; - the role they play in orienting the interpretation of the reader; - the shared cultural context which they evoke. 2. The constitution of a corpus of press headlines. 3. The typical linguistic features of newspaper headlines (using examples from our corpus) .( 2) 4. The identification of linguistic features relevant to the analysis of national representations: - designation - modality - presupposition 1. Characteristics which justify that particular attention be given to headlines in press analysis Diffusion Headlines reach an audience considerably wider than those who read the articles, since all those who buy the paper will glance, if only fleetingly, at the headlines. Moreover their impact is even wider than on those who actually buy the paper, since headlines are often glimpsed on public transport, displayed on fliers etc. This is particularly true of front page headlines, which also of course draw the casual observer to conclude the importance of a particular issue which has been given prominence in this way. The impact of headlines on the reader is likely to be all the stronger because certain linguistic features of titles make them particularly memorable and effective: impact is deliberately sought (particularly but not exclusively in the popular press) through the use of puns, (3) alliteration, the choice of emotive vocabulary and other rhetorical devices. We will discuss some of these linguistic features in more detail later. Perspective Perspective refers to the role played by headlines in orienting the reader's interpretation of subsequent 'facts' contained in the article. As Claude Abastado argues (1980: 149) headlines encapsulate not only the content but the orientation, the perspective that the readers should bring to their understanding of the article. (4) With much press news drawn from external news agencies and shared with competitors, the headline is a newspaper's opportunity to stamp its individuality on what is otherwise a mass-produced product. (5) Headlines, as they succeed each other through the newspaper, structure a particular view of the world by imposing on information a hierarchy of importance: a hierarchy from top to bottom of the page; according to size of headlines, font etc; and in order of appearance through the newspaper from front to back. We add in passing that this is even more true of section titles, which create a rigid classificatory system that imposes (highly problematic) distinctions between kinds of news items. For example, during the period of French testing the reports in Le Monde were sometimes shown under the section title ' France ' and sometimes under 'International'. The implications of such editorial choices are not merely conceptual, since section titles often imply a particular relation to the reader: for example: 'Local news' implies closeness to the readers and therefore, by implication, closeness to their preoccupations; 'International news' suggests that the issues are at one remove. (6) Repetition both through synchronicity (co-occurring headlines within one issue of a newspaper ) and diachronicity (repetition over time) 'trains' the reader to develop certain expectations and imposes certain connections and interpretations. Thus anaphoric references relate headlines to previous events and situations, creating forms of classification that group under one heading possibly disparate phenomena. Mouillaud and Tétu (1989: 120) give the example of the use of the rubric 'La crise', an anaphoric reference to a general socio-economic situation supposedly previously defined, yet whose exact definition and boundaries are almost certainly unclear to most readers. (7) A similar process is at work in the use of terms such as 'ethnic cleansing', 'violence in schools' etc. To speak of the ' proletariat', or 'la Crise' or in our case ' France ' is to presuppose a world where reality corresponds to the categories used, with their associated ideological and theoretical frameworks. This creates what Patrick Charaudeau ( 1997 : 249) calls an 'effet d'amalgame, (8) encouraging the readers to link events in ways which they might not have done otherwise. In our corpus we find that the papers frequently group together articles related (sometimes distantly) to the issue of nuclear testing under one heading, for example on pages headed 'French nuclear testing: the Fallout'. Cultural knowledge Headlines are a particularly rich source of information about the field of cultural references. This is because titles 'stand alone' without explanation or definition; they depend on the reader recognising instantly the field, allusions, issues, cultural references necessary to identify the content of the articles. (9) They thus rely on a stock of cultural knowledge, representations and models of reality that must be assumed to be widespread in the society if the headlines are to have meaning. Common shorthand in headlines such as references to the 'PM', 'le Président', 'Canberra', suppose not only a certain minimum of political and general knowledge, but also help to situate the readers within a national framework, since they must assume that the 'PM' referred to is their own. We have explored elsewhere the forms of national identification that are revealed in headlines . (10) The recognition by the reader of various types of puns and plays on words also relies on general and cultural knowledge. This wordplay is a very typical feature of headlines and is generally confined to the headlines and found far less often in the body of articles. It can take several forms : - A play on double meaning : Ondes de choc ( Libération , 7/09/95 ) Testing times leave legacy of bitterness ( Australian, 20/06/95 ) - References to specific historical events (the 'phony war' of September 1939-May 1940; Gough Whitlam's injunction in 1975 to 'maintain the rage' ) : Drle de guerre dans le Pacifique ( Libération , 2/9/95) Frustrated islanders try to maintain their rage ( Australian , 22/6/95 ) or to specific cultural items such as the title of a well-known book ( The Grapes of Wrath ) or film ( Hiroshima mon amour) : Wine merchants brace for the grapes of wrath ( Australian , 16/6/95 ) Mururoa mon amour ( Libération , 6/9/95 ) These references often involve the reworking of fixed formulae, a process which Fiala (1989) refers to as 'défigement' : Mururoa, son lagon, ses coqs, son Café de Paris ( Libération , 29/30/6) Les Franais, la bombe et le mimétisme ( France-Soir , 5/08/95) ( these headlines resemble the title of a fable by La Fontaine) Australie : les raisons de la colère ( Libération , 22/8/95) Liberty, fraternity, and not in their backyard ( SMH, 15/6/95 ) Commenting on what he refers to as PVC, 'palimpsestes verbaux culturels' Robert Gallisson (1995) argues that such reworkings of linguistic and cultural forms constitute a 'conspiratorial wink' in the direction of the reader. They help to create and maintain a sense of shared community and collective identity. (11) More generally it is clear that this may be true of all the cases in which cultural knowledge specific to a certain society must be mobilised to aid understanding: successful decoding proves that the reader is an 'insider'. It is the particular characteristic of headlines that they rely to a greater extent than the articles themselves on the reader supplying the missing cultural links. 2. Constitution of the corpus Analysis of headlines in the print media poses a number of questions in relation to the constitution of the corpus, notably : - over what period the headlines should be collected; - the choice of which newspapers to include : national and regional ? with different socio-economic readerships, political orientations etc ? - the criteria to use in the choice of headlines. A simple keyword search, involving a list of words such as 'French', 'testing' etc. will not identify all the relevant articles and headlines, precisely because of the inventiveness of the headline writers. The decisions become even more complex when the corpus is to furnish material for comparison between countries, as in the case of our project. These additional problems include : -the need to constitute a corpus of similar size in each country : this may involve gathering headlines over periods of different lengths : in our case, there was considerably more press coverage of French testing in the Australian press, than of Australian reactions in the French press. - the need to include newspapers with comparable publics in each country. Our corpus was constituted of headlines appearing over a period of one month ( Australia ) and three months ( France ) following the announcement of the decision. The different length of the periods reflected the necessity to constitute comparable corpora, since there were fewer relevant articles in the French newspapers. We arrived at a roughly similar number of headlines in each language: 296 Australian and 346 French - a total of 642. The French corpus was constituted from 5 national newspapers published in Paris : Le Monde, Libération, le Figaro, Le Parisien libéré, France-Soir - which address a range of publics. The Australian corpus drew on a national newspaper ( The Australian) and two published in Sydney : the Sydney Morning Herald and the Telegraph/Mirror . The choice of these papers gave us access on the one hand to a range of political perspectives, and on the other to diverse socio-economic publics. As to the criteria used in the identification of relevant headlines, we included all titles heading separate articles - on front page and internal pages - which addressed the nuclear testing issue, including those where Australia or France were not mentioned directly. 3. Typical linguistic features of newspaper headlines Previous research into newspaper headlines has raised the question of whether similar features can be found in the press of varying cultures and languages; studies have not however involved headlines from a wide enough range of countries to allow for conclusions to be drawn. According to Kniffka, quoted in Bell (1989: 189), headline structures appear to be very regular across languages, but his analysis involved only German and American English texts. Other studies analyse headlines from only one country: Allan Bell analyses the 'distinctive telegraphic syntax' of English newspaper headlines (1989: 185); Ingrid Mardh offers an exhaustive study of the characteristic features of the headlines of a range of English newspapers .(12) She identifies the following linguistic features as typical of headlines in English newspapers: the omission of articles; the omission of verbs and of auxiliaries (the verb 'to be' for example); nominalisations; the frequent use of complex noun phrases in subject position (in theme position); adverbial headlines, with the omission of both verb and subject (an example from our corpus: French ?... non merci ); the use of short words ('bid' instead of 'attempt'); the widespread use of puns, word play and alliteration; the importance of word order, with the most important items placed first, even, in some cases, a verb; and independent 'wh' constructions not linked to a main clause (an example from our corpus: Why the French don't give a damn ), a form not found in standard English. Mouillaud and Tétu (1989: 125) analysing Le Monde , suggest the following features as typical of headlines: a) the suppression of spatial and particularly temporal markers; b) the use of the present tense of verbs (where they are used) as opposed to - or in place of - any other tenses; c) the replacement of verbs by nominalisations; d) the suppression of declarative verbs and the disappearance of signs of speech (quotation marks; personal pronouns). (13) These studies have helped us to identify certain recurring linguistic features of the headlines in our corpus. We are not aiming here, however, to provide an exhaustive account of the linguistic features of headlines in our corpus, nor to compare French and English headlines, although our corpus allows for this possibility. Because of our research into expressions of xenophobia and xenophilia, we have sought rather to identify those linguistic features of headlines which are of particular relevance to the study of national representations . The term 'national representations' has been coined as an extension of Serge Moscovici's category: 'social representations'. In a 1973 foreword Moscovici describes social representations as: ' cognitive systems with a logic and language of their own. They do not represent simply 'opinions about', 'images of' or 'attitudes towards' but 'theories' or 'branches of knowledge' in their own right, for the discovery and organisation of reality... systems of values, ideas and practices with a two-fold function: first, to establish an order which will enable individuals to orient themselves in their material world and to master it; and secondly, to enable communication to take place among members of a community by providing them with a code for naming and classifying unambiguously the various aspects of the world and individual and group history'. (14) In a later article Moscovici (1984) emphasises the role of social representations in constructing the knowledge systems on which we rely to interpret and react to events. He argues elsewhere that this 'knowledge' does not resemble the rational, reified universe of scientific discourse, but is a common-sense, consensual universe, into which have infiltrated, certainly, fragments of scientific knowledge, but in popularised and half-understood forms, and mixed with other types of knowledge. Generated and maintained in the realm of public discourse, social representations constitute 'a whole complex of ambiguities and conventions without which social life could not exist', and 'an implicit stock of images and ideas which are taken for granted and mutually accepted'. (15) Social representations, then, 'establish an order', they make the unfamiliar, familiar, enabling the new and the unknown to be included in a pre-established category; and they enable communication to take place, communication based on a shared code. We use the term ' national representations' to refer to the knowledge systems that encapsulate knowledge about other nations and nationalities. The term can apply both to representations of one's own nation, people and country, and to representations of other nations. The interrelationship of these two categories of representation, the contrasts and binary oppositions that can be created, and the role played by representations of the other in defining one's own nationality and identity, these are issues which we have explored elsewhere (Develotte Rechniewski 2001). In this article we have given examples of representations of France and the French in the Australian press, and of Australia and Australians in the French press in order to illustrate our argument that headlines are a particularly rich source of information about the national representations circulating in a society. The advantage of analysing headlines is that they refer to and encapsulate this 'knowledge', for the reasons which we have outlined above: they rely on widely disseminated cultural knowledge in order to be understood. They thus constitute a kind of 'shorthand', a simplification and condensation of ideas. They play, moreover, both a passive and an active role: they depend on and mobilise this knowledge but also in turn help to disseminate and reinforce it, they create new associations and networks of meaning. They also seek to exploit representations for pragmatic effect. To understand how headlines perform this double role, we will examine some of the linguistic features of headlines that are particularly relevant to the study of national representations. 4. Specific linguistic features relevant to the analysis of national representations - designation - appraisal - presupposition Designation: the processes of naming For Bell (1989: 189) following Kniffka, the essential structure of a headline includes an action and an agent, though as we have seen the agent may be left unclear. The designation of the agent in a headline, where this occurs, allows for subtle and not so subtle valorisation or devalorisation : Les kangourous n'ont pas de complexes ( France Soir, 3/8/95) All Blacks et surfeurs contre les essais ( Libération, 10/7/95) Les anti-froggies se calment ( Libération , 1/7/95) In all these French examples, the terms used to describe the Australian reactions are demeaning: one can hardly take seriously protests emanating from a people better known for their sport and their strange animals. Similar processes can be identified in the Australian corpus: As Jacques would say : "Let them eat yellowcake" (title of Letters page, SMH 17/6/95 ) In this example, the use of the first name robs the president of his authority; it is possible, too, that the name Jacques/Jack is not one that can be taken very seriously in English, since it recalls expressions such as 'I'm all right Jack'. Moreover the pun on yellow cake refers, of course, to the phrase supposedly used by Marie-Antoinette and inscribed in history as symbolic of her regal indifference to the plight of the poor; here it is mobilised to portray Chirac as an arrogant monarch indifferent to the opinions of the Australians. Such headlines only work, we suggest, because Australian readers are ready to interpret Chirac's actions as an expression of arrogance. Two other aspects of the designation process are interesting in relation to the study of national representations : the processes of generalisation and personification. The examples above illustrate an extremely common procedure: designations such as 'the French', are used to refer to decisions and actions in fact taken by the French president, government or its representatives. This is a form of synecdoche, where the whole represents a part: in this case 'the French' represent the French political elite. Examples: French refuse to parley or even answer phones ( SMH , 15/6/95 ) ( in fact the article refers to staff at the French Embassy) French caught red-handed ( Telegraph , 14/6/95 ) ( refers to the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior) La reprise prochaine des essais nucléaires franais est vivement condamnée par les pays du pacifique ( Le Monde , 15/6/95) The nationality adjective can perform the same function: in the Australian press we find frequent references to the 'French tests' and the 'French decision' .( 16) A similar process is at work in the use of the nation's name: as Moscovici (1984: 43) points out in a powerful article on social representations, naming a nation creates a fictitious entity which is almost invariably then personified: L'Australie accuse la France de "bluff" ( Le Figaro , 5/8/95) France is not likely to budge ( Australian , 17/6/95 ) Moreover the motives and actions of these fictive entities are then frequently explained by recourse to ill-defined terms taken from popular psychology such as 'inferiority complex'.(17) Processes and motivations which may, perhaps, explain actions at an individual level are thus attributed to countries, to provide explanations of geopolitical phenomena. A further result of such a procedure may be to associate all members of a nationality with traits of character or actions attributed to the objectified national community, and thus to justify general retaliation: witness the discrimination that took place against French people in Australia in 1995. A further feature of headlines that tends to contribute to this kind of generalisation is the suppression of spatial and temporal markers, a feature identified by a number of the theorists already quoted: Mardh, Bell , Mouillaud and Tétu .. Two examples: Why the French don't give a damn ( SMH, 17/6/95 ) Les kangourous n'ont pas de complexes ( France Soir, 3/8/95) illustrate both the use of the present tense and the suppression of spatial and temporal markers in headlines. These characteristics tend to place the event in a dehistoricised, static present. It is thus possible to read these headlines both as a comment on a current situation and as a description of perennial attitudes. Particular events or reactions are included in a series or class of events, creating unfounded generalisations. (18) Comments about the behaviour or attitudes at a particular time are thus transformed into statements about unchanging characteristics - in this case, about national characteristics. Appraisal It is clear that the processes of naming are involved in the appraisal of the other nation. But in addition to the analysis of designation, it is necessary to identify other forms of appraisal: adjectives, verbs, adverbs which convey the perspective of the writer. In the headline: Heavy-handed Chirac shatters rapport ( Australian , 15/6/95 ) the verb continues and reinforces the allusion to Chirac as a powerful bully. The structure of the headline, placing the adjective in thematic position, draws attention to it and gives it added emphasis. A similar structure is found in: Defiant Chirac rebuffs Evans ' ( Australian , 19/6/95 ). French examples include: L'Australie accuse la France de "bluff" ( Figaro , 5/8/95 ) where the journalist chooses a verb which places Australia 's statement in a negative light. In the headline: Les anti-froggies se calment ( Libération , 1/7/95 ) appraisal results from a subtle form of code-switching: the fact that a French journalist uses a slang, pejorative term: les froggies (frogs), supposedly current in Australia , to refer to the French, denigrates not the French but those who have invented the insulting term. Presupposition A number of the features of newspaper headlines that we have discussed can also be seen as examples of presupposition. Dominique Maingueneau (1996: 67) uses the term ' le préconstruit' to refer to those elements in discourse which are presupposed, which are presented as self-evident and unproblematic. The 'préconstruit' is often found in nominalisations: an example from our corpus: A president runs rings around world nuclear consensus (title, Letters page, Australian , 16/6/95 ) presupposes the existence of a world nuclear consensus which only Chirac defies. Maingueneau (1996: 68-69) identifies two main forms of presupposition: the first is inscribed in the linguistic structure, the second derives from the relationship between the énoncé and its context and carries pragmatic significance. Linguistic presupposition : a . deriving from syntactic structure: In the headline: Why the French don't care ( SMH , 17/6/95 ) the structure of the sentence presupposes that the French don't give care: the only question to be considered is: why. Similar examples include: Why the French insist on attracting world outrage ( Australian , 15/6/95 ) Pourquoi les Franais sont des connards ( SMH 15/6/95 - in French) Pourquoi l'Australie dit non aux essais nucléaires ( Le Monde , 28/6/95) b . deriving from anaphoric/cataphoric use : Dare the French do it again ? ( SMH , 8/7/95 ): it is presupposed that the French have already done 'it' - but what is 'it' ? the reader must supply the answer. Le Pacifique pour tous ( Le Monde , 4/07/95 ) : the reader has to interpret the reference to give to the pronoun. Pragmatic presupposition: This form of the implicit relates to the action or reaction expected of the reader and derives from the relation of the énoncé to its context, including the context of the discursive 'rules' which ascribe to certain forms of language, certain pragmatic functions. Sending a frigate would maintain the rage ( SMH, 15/6/95 ) The French lepers ( Telegraph , 15/6/95 ) In the first example, the fact that information concerning the originator of the idea of 'sending a frigate' is suppressed transforms the headline into an appeal to the reader for agreement, if not action. The headline The French lepers can be interpreted as a call to boycott, avoid, or fear the French. It is difficult to draw a clear line between an informational headline and one which has a pragmatic function since much depends on the context and the readership. Headlines such as Boycott could help turn deficit round ( SMH , 15/6/95) can be taken as simply informational, or can be seen as adding to pressure for such a boycott, presented implicitly as a patriotic and commercially sound act. It is of course possible - indeed common - to find a number of forms of implicature in the same headline, as the following example illustrates: The headline : French arrogance explosive ( Telegraph , 15/6/95 ) implies: - that all French are arrogant, a presupposition that it is not necessary to argue because such a representation of the French will be 'recognised' as familiar and valid by an Australian readership; - that French arrogance explains the decision to restart tests: the title supposes an explanatory link between a character trait and the decision to resume testing; - that French arrogance is dangerous: the headline could imply a warning. The power of all forms of implicature and presupposition derives from the fact that they remove what is presupposed or implied from direct contestation. A discursive 'sleight of hand' slips the presupposition as an established fact under the guard of the co-énonciateur. Presuppositions reveal what is likely to go unchallenged: the stock of national representations circulating in a society. The advantage of working on a corpus of French and Australian newspaper headlines is that it enables the researchers to suspend the 'complicity' which normally binds the reader to the national perspective implicit in the media. It is not easy to gain such distance, since, as Billig (1995: 12) argues, 'nationalism has seeped into the corners of our consciousness; it is present in the very words which we might try to use for analysis'. A comparative study of the two constituent parts of the corpus, belonging to different national traditions, encourages the questioning of the classifications and categorisations of the world which may appear self-evident to the nationals of each country. The headlines in our corpus offer a powerful insight into the national representations circulating at a period of crisis in Franco-Australian relations: crises, Moscovici (1984: 54) argues, are particularly revelatory: 'the character of social representations is revealed especially in times of crisis and upheaval ... collective memories are stirred ... the divisions between social representations appear unadorned, private and public worlds become blurred.' In the case of the corpus of French newspaper headlines we find constant associations of Australians with the sea, with surfers, fauna ('kangourous') and sport. The representations are rather impoverished: little knowledge about Australia can apparently be assumed on the part of the French reader. In the case of the Australian corpus the network of representations of the French is richer and more complex. We find references that relate to French history: Bastille Day or Marie-Antoinette's apocryphal: 'Let them eat cake'; and more contemporary references, which are, moreover, often evocative of past conflicts: Rainbow Warrior, Greenpeace, Muroroa . The occasional use of a few words of French in headlines ( 'non ', 'merci') indicates a supposed familiarity with the language. Other headlines rely on representations of France associated with wine, cuisine or love: France's lust for la bombe ( Australian , 17/7/95 ). The range of references and their link with lifestyle and culture, the knowledge of history and language (however rudimentary) which is supposed, all these reflect the important role which France has traditionally played in the Australian imagination as 'the familiar foreign'. (19) These largely positive associations are, however, tempered by a network of representations around the themes of arrogance, portraying the French as characterised by self-interest, indifference to the feelings and opinions of others, defiance and intransigence. Importantly, such representations provide the building material for the framework of argument, opinion and explanation that are constructed by the press around the events, as the headline 'French arrogance explosive' illustrates. We see at work in the headlines an extension of networks of representations, a reformatting of mental models, as new events are 'connected up' to existing representations in a process which Moscovici (1984: 27) describes as one of the essential functions of social representations: making the unfamiliar, familiar: through the process of anchoring : 'a process which draws something foreign and disturbing that intrigues us into our particular system of categories and compares it to the paradigm of a category which we think to be suitable'(1984: 29). Thus phenomena from daily life are assigned to pre-established sets and sub-sets, are compared to paradigms and prototypes (the latter often in the form of exemplary members of the group, or ideal types), in order to make the world in which we live meaningful, so that we can function within it and satisfy physical, psychological and social needs. As we argued earlier, headlines draw at least part of their power and meaning from the pool of shared cultural, political and general knowledge on which they draw. Not only can they intrigue and awaken interest, they 'reward' the reader through the intellectual satisfaction gained in successfully decoding them. (20) They also reinforce the sense of belonging to a community, both through the references to one's own society and nation, and through stereotypical representations of other nations and peoples. The comparison of national characteristics is often held to be one of the constitutive factors in the development and maintenance of national consciousness ; if the press provides one of the most powerful vehicles for such comparison in modern society, it could be argued that headlines - because of their diffusion and visual and linguistic impact - play a key role in maintaining the constant presence of these representations in our daily lives. Footnotes (1) A number of articles relating to this project can be found in the December 2000 issue of Mots , no 64. (2) Headlines are shown throughout the article in smaller type. (3) According to Pierre Fiala the use of puns has become widespread in media discourse, and particularly in headlines and subtitles. Fiala, Pierre and Habert, Benot (1989) 'La langue de bois en éclat: les défigements dans les titres de la presse quotidienne franaise', Mots no 21, December, p. 83. (4) 'Les titres sont le moyen d'une mise en condition des lecteurs. En principe ils devraient annoncer le sujet des articles; en fait ils servent d'accrochage et orientent l'opinion.' Abastado, Claude (1980) Messages des medias , Paris: Cedic, p. 149. (5) Kniffka, Hannes (1980) Soziolinguistik und empirische Textanalyse: Schlagzeilen-und Leadformulierung in amerikanischen Tageszeitungen , Tubingen: Niemeyer, p. 41. cited in Bell, Allan (1991) The Language of News Media, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 185-6. (6) Billig, Michael (1995) Banal Nationalism , London : Sage, pp. 118-120. (7) Mouillaud, Jean-Franois Tétu (1989) Le journal quotidien , Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon. (8) Charaudeau, Patrick (1997) Le discours d'information médiatique , Paris: Nathan. (9) Maingueneau refers to this as 'encylopedic knowledge': Maingueneau, Dominique( 1996) Les termes clés de l'analyse du discours , Paris: Seuil, p. 34. (10) Develotte, Christine and Rechniewski, Elizabeth (2001) 'Expressions de l'identité nationale dans les titres de journaux: une étude comparative de journaux franais et australians pendant une période de crise', in Malewska-Peyre, H., Tanon, F. et Sabatier C (eds), Identité, Altérité, Acculturation. Perspective francophone , Paris, L'Harmattan (in press). (11) 'C'est donc ce qui donne aux interlocuteurs le moyen de se reconnatre, de baliser leur espace de communication. C'est aussi ce qui permet à l'émetteur de faire basculer le récepteur dans son camp ', Gallisson, Robert (1995) 'Les palimpsestes verbaux: des actualiseurs et révélateurs culturels remarquables pour publics étrangers' , Etudes de linguistique appliquée , n o 97, jan-mars 1995, p. 106. (12) Mardh, Ingrid (1980) Headlinese: On the Grammar of English Front Page Headlines , Malmo, p. 183. (13) ' le titre tend à effacer les marques du discours et à les remplacer par des marques de procès ou d'état', Mouillaud and Tétu (1989: 125). (14) Moscovici, Serge (1973) foreword to C. Herzlich, Health and IIlness: a Social Psychological Analysis , London, Academic Press , p.xiii . (15) Moscovici, Serge (1984) 'The phenomenon of social representations', in Farr, Robert M and Moscovici, Serge ( eds ), Social Representations , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 21. (16) There are few examples of the use of 'The Australians' in the French corpus, reflecting in part the different roles played by the two countries during the crisis. (17) In an article by Greg Sheridan published in The Australian , 15th June 1995, 'Why the French seek to provoke world outrage', Sheridan proposes an explanation of Chirac's decision by portraying France as an attention- seeking 'hooligan' : 'Now, as nothing more than a troublesome middle power, the only way France can gain the sort of attention it craves is through perpetrating acts of outrage.' His article contains a number of references to the 'strange psyche of the French'. (18) According to Mouillaud and Tétu (1989: 126): 'L'événement tend à se transformer en classe. Celle-ci produit une sédimentation du présent qui fait disparatre la dynamique de l'ouverture.' (19) Cryle, Peter, Freadman, Anne Hanna, Barbara ( eds ) (1992) Unlocking Australia 's Language Potential. Profiles of Nine Key Languages in Australia : French, Melbourne, NLLIA , introduction . (20) Gallisson (1995: 106) writes of this satisfaction in relation to the decoding of cultural palimpsests.
药效团（pharmacophore）是配体被生物大分子进行分子识别所必需的物理化学特征及其空间排布。国际纯粹化学与应用化学联合会（IUPAC）对药效团的定义是“an ensemble of steric and electronic features that is necessary to ensure the optimal supramolecular interactions with a specific biological target and to trigger (or block) its biological response”。一个药效团模型阐释结构多样性的不同配体结构如何与一个共同的受体位点相结合。此外药效团模型可以被用于通过全新药物设计或虚拟筛选鉴定将与相同的受体结合的配体。 长期以来，一直误传药效团的概念是由1908年获得诺贝尔医学奖的德国科学家Paul Ehrlich在1909年提出来的。实际上，历史上第一个提出药效团概念的是美国化学家Lemont Kier在1967年首先提出来的，并且在1971年公开出版的著作（Kier LB (1971). Molecular orbital theory in drug research（译名：药物研究中的分子轨道理论）. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 164–169.）中首先使用了这个术语。 Lemont Kier在1958年毕业于明尼苏达大学，获药物化学博士学位。作为一名美国化学家和设计药物和药物化学领域研究者，Kier是首批把分子轨道理论成功应用于药物设计和开发并建立模型的化学家之一，在这个模型里，他和他的同事发展出现在称为“Kier-Hall指数”的模型来描述分子连接性。他曾获得美国药学科学家协会2008年度药物发展与发现成就奖，目前是美国弗吉尼亚联邦大学药物化学与护理麻醉学教授。
相对大气纠正的目的是为了使得两幅影像的DN值具有可比性；变化检测的目的在于检测出两幅影像之间发生变化的像素。乍一看，相对大气纠正应该先于变化检测，因为两幅影像没有可比性的话，就没法通过比较发现变化的像素。对于全自动的相对大气纠正和变化检测程序而言，实际上两者是互相纠缠的。 全自动的相对大气纠正要求能够自动找到影像中没有发生变化的像素‘pseudo-invariant features’(PIFs)，而这就要求能有全自动的变化检测技术把发生变化的像素剔除；而全自动的变化检测技术却要求首先影像之间的像素的DN值是在统一的大气条件下。看了大量文献，一个算法能够同时做到相对大气纠正和变化检测是大势所趋，比如A. A. Nielsen和M. J. Canty的IR-MAD算法（A Method for Unsupervised Change Detection and Automatic Radiometric Normalization in Multispectral Data，2010）。以下是在我的另一种算法（暂时叫IN-AT），（没有IR-MAD源代码，没有与之比较过），胜在简单、快速。 两幅影像重叠区域变化检测： 经过相对大气纠正后的拼接：
标签: features
