接着上一篇，从此网站 http://128.197.168.195/?page_id=93 获得下列仪器的比对： Table 1: Participating TLS and their specifications. Instrument DWEL SALCA RIEGL VZ400 UMB CBL (RIT SICK) FARO FOCUS 3D Institution Boston University University of Salford, UK DSITIA TERN (University of Queensland) University of Massachusetts, Boston University of Southern Queensland Contact Alan Strahler Crystal Schaaf Mark Danson Rachel Gaulton Steve Hancock John Armston Kasper Johansen Crystal Schaaf Zhenyu Zhang Ranging Technique Time-of-flight Time-of-flight Time-of-flight Time-of-flight Phase-shift Recorded Data Waveform Waveform Multiple discrete return Waveform 1st and 2nd discrete return Single discrete return Scan Configuration 0-119 zenith 0-360 azimuth 1.6-97.6 zenith 0-360 azimuth 30-130 zenith 0-360 azimuth 0-135 zenith 0-360 azimuth 0-160 zenith 0-360 azimuth Wavelengths 1063.85 nm 1547.76 nm 1063.4 nm 1545.4 nm 1550 nm 905 nm 905 nm Angular Resolution 1 mrad 2 mrad 4 mrad 1.05 mrad zenith 1.05, 2.1, 4.2 mrad azimuth 0.04-5.03 mrad zenith 0.04-8.73 mrad azimuth 0.25 deg 0.50 deg ≥0.157 mrad Waveform Sampling Interval 7.5 cm 15 cm 30 cm N/A N/A Beam Divergence 1.25 mrad 2.5 mrad 5 mrad 0.56 mrad 0.35 mrad 15 mrad 0.16 mrad Beam Exit Diameter 6 mm 2.4 mm 3.6 mm 7 mm 8 mm 3.8 mm Detector FOV 5 mrad 2.67 mrad Not available Not available Not available Pulse Length (FWHM) 5.1 ns 5.12 ns 1 ns 3 ns 3 ns Not available N/A (CW) Pulse Energy 0.6 μJ 0.6 μJ 0.5 μJ (1664 nm) 5 μJ (1550 nm) 0.48 μJ Not available Not available Laser Class 3R 3R 1 1 3R Pulse Rate 20 kHz 5 kHz 100 kHz 300 kHz 50 Hz 25 Hz Not available Effective Measurement Rate 2,000 p/sec Not available 42,000 p/sec 122,000 p/sec Not available 976,000 p/sec Weight 22 kg 15 kg 9.6 kg 1.1 kg 5 kg Min. Range ~0 ~0 0.5-1.5 m Not available 0.6 m Max. Range 100 m (10% ρ) 150 m (10% ρ) 105 (10% ρ) 200 m (10% ρ) 120 m (10% ρ) 18 m (10% ρ) 20 m (10% ρ) 此外，文中提到比对的数据将来会放在网上，让大家自由下载、研究。
http://carnegiescience.edu/news/first_highresolution_national_carbon_map%E2%80%94panama First High-resolution National Carbon Map—Panama Monday, July 22, 2013 Watch the Carnegie Airborne Observatory make the world's highest resolution carbon map of a country (Panama) in less than one minute http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fQwv4coRR8 Washington, DC—A team of researchers has for the first time mapped the above ground carbon density of an entire country in high fidelity. They integrated field data with satellite imagery and high-resolution airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data to map the vegetation and to quantify carbon stocks throughout the Republic of Panama. The results are the first maps that report carbon stocks locally in areas as small as a hectare (2.5 acres) and yet cover millions of hectares in a short time. The system has the lowest demonstrated uncertainty of any carbon-counting approach yet—a carbon estimation uncertainty of about 10% in each hectareoverflown with LiDAR as compared to field-based estimates. Importantly, it can be used across a wide range of vegetation types worldwide. The new system, described in Carbon Balance and Management, will greatly boost conservation and efforts to mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration. It will also inform our understanding of how carbon storage can be used to assess other fundamental ecosystem characteristics such as hydrology, habitat quality, and biodiversity. The approach provides much-needed technical support for carbon-based economic activities such as the United Nations Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) program* in developing countries. Panama has complex landscapes, with variable topography, and diverse ecosystems (ranging from grasslands and mangroves to shrublands and dense forests). As a result, Panama is an ideal laboratory to develop and test a method for quantifying aboveground carbon. Lead author Greg Asner commented: “Three things make this national-scale study unique. First, Panama is an outstanding place for testing carbon mapping approaches due in part to the long-term forest studies that have been undertaken by our partners at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI). Second, we have applied the very latest techniques using high-performance instrumentation, resulting in demonstrably high accuracy at fine spatial resolution. And third the partnership permitted us to estimate our errors in a novel way, and we did so over every point on Panamanian soil.” In addition to Carnegie and STRI researchers, scientists from McGill University and UC-Berkeley combined measurement methods—an extensive and essential network of ground-based plot sampling, satellite imagery, and LiDAR measurements from the Carnegie Airborne Observatory—to achieve the unprecedented accuracy. LiDAR uses reflected laser light to image vegetation canopy structure in 3-D. The scientists calibrated the LiDAR measurements, taken at one-meter resolution throughout nearly one million acres (390,000 hectares), to the carbon density in 228 regional field plots, established and sampled by the collaborating scientists. They used 91 other plots to validate the LiDAR’s aboveground carbon density estimates. “Rarely has such a large number of field plots been available to validate LiDAR calibration independently,” remarked Asner. “Our collaboration with STRI and its partners was vital to assess the accuracy of what we achieved from the air.” Traditional carbon monitoring has relied upon on-the-ground sampling of field plots, but this approach usually represents just small areas of land and is time-consuming. “There has been growing interest in using satellite imagery to cover larger areas, but it is low resolution both spatially and in terms of the structural information about the vegetation,” described Carnegie author Joseph Mascaro. “In some parts of Panama, different global methods disagree by more than 100% at square-kilometer scale.” That’s where the airborne LiDAR comes in. It directly probes the ecosystem’s physical structure, which Carnegie scientists have repeatedly proven to be tightly linked to tropical carbon stocks. These measurements are the bedrock for mapping and estimating the amount of carbon locked up in plants from dense forests to shrublands. The researchers then were able to scale up the plot and LiDAR data with freely available satellite data on topography, rainfall and vegetation to model carbon stocks at the national level. The LiDAR and satellite combination were able to account for variations in the carbon pattern from differences in elevation, slope, climate, and fractional canopy cover over the entire country. For instance, the scientists found that highest carbon levels are in humid forests on the Caribbean side of Panama, often exceeding 110 tons of carbon per hectare (2.5 acres). In contrast, large regions were deforested to very low carbon levels, such as in the developed regions outside the protected watershed of the Panama Canal. Human activity is the overwhelming driver of carbon stock patterns in Panama. “Panama is one of the first UN REDD partner countries, and these new maps put the country at the forefront of high-resolution ecosystem management.” said co-author and STRI’s director Eldredge Bermingham, “The new carbon mapping approach could be the model for other tropical nations.” --------------------- *The objective of UN-REDD+ is to create a financial incentive for developing countries to protect their forest resources in order to offset increasing carbon emissions. By creating financial value for the carbon stored in trees, the aim is to make forests more valuable standing than they would be harvested or destroyed. The Carnegie Airborne Observatory is made possible by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Andrew Mellon Foundation, the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment, Avatar Alliance Foundation, W. M. Keck Foundation, the Margaret A. Cargill Foundation, Mary Anne Nyburg Baker and G. Leonard Baker Jr., and William R. Hearst III. The Department of Global Ecology was established in 2002 to help build the scientific foundations for a sustainable future. The department is located on the campus of Stanford University, but is an independent research organization funded by the Carnegie Institution. Its scientists conduct basic research on a wide range of large-scale environmental issues, including climate change, ocean acidification, biological invasions, and changes in biodiversity. The research reported in this article was based on funding to the CAO described above, a Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment grant to STRI, in addition to Grantham funding for the CAO, SIGEO/ForestGEO funds from the Smithsonian Institution and STRI, and support to the CAO Panama project from William R. Hearst III. The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, headquartered in Panama City, Panama, is a unit of the Smithsonian Institution. The institute furthers the understanding of tropical nature and its importance to human welfare, trains students to conduct research in the tropics, and promotes conservation by increasing public awareness of the beauty and importance of tropical ecosystems. See www.stri.si.edu
WWF and Thailand government launch TREEMAPS, the first high-precision forest carbon mapping initiative in South-east Asia Bangkok, Thailand - The Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation (DNP) and WWF-Thailand formally launched on June 6th the joint project, TREEMAPS - Tracking Reductions in Carbon Emissions through Enhanced Monitoring and Project Support - which aims to establish Thailand’s first forest carbon basemap and monitoring system, as well as establishing a sub-national REDD+ project. Presiding over the launch ceremony at the Rama Gardens Hotel were Mr. Chote Trachu, Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment which oversees all of Thailand’s conservation agencies, Dr. Ingo Winkelmann, Minister and Deputy Head of Mission of the German Embassy in Bangkok who represented the project’s major donor – the German government, and Mr. Petch Manopawit, Manager of WWF’s Conservation programme in Thailand. TREEMAPS’ overriding objective is for Thailand to develop the capacity at the national level - and, in one region, at the sub-national level - to measure and monitor change in forest carbon and to take advantage of the full range of emerging forest carbon financing and benefit opportunities. Data will be collected from three sources: satellite imagery, on-the-ground surveys and through the use of groundbreaking LiDAR technology. “WWF is introducing cutting-edge LiDAR technology to help Thailand survey carbon levels in forests to establish its first carbon basemap with accurate data on carbon inventory and a reliable system of monitoring carbon level in forests,” said Mr. Justin Foster, Project Director of TREEMAPS with WWF-Thailand. LiDAR, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, utilizes a highly sensitive airborne sensor that bounces laser beams off foliage in forests and ground below to measure ground topography, forest height and structure at the highest precision available today. LiDAR will be the key technology employed in developing Thailand’s first forest carbon basemap. LiDAR scanners will be fitted to aircraft conducting aerial surveys. The aerial surveys will collect data that will subsequently be processed to produce 3D (three dimensional) images of the surveyed forest. The data collected will provide highly accurate information, which will form the basis of a forest carbon basemap. The creation of the forest carbon basemap will allow for ongoing monitoring of changes in Thailand’s forests. Thailand is the first country in Southeast Asia to adopt and employ LiDAR technology for forest conservation through this WWF initiative. According to Dr. Songtham Suksawang, Director of the National Park Research Division, and an expert in forest and wildlife conservation, the TREEMAPS project does not solely focus on the collection of scientific data but attracts involvement of local stakeholders such as forest dependent communities in how the project is run. “Promoting the involvement of people to actively plant trees supports the creation of a carbon credit market,” said Dr. Songtham. “At the same time, other environmental services such as water resources management, tourism, wildlife conservation are also included in the project’s mission statement and this mutually benefits all aspects of conservation work simultaneously.” The TREEMAPS project will initiate a pilot initiative in the Dong Phayayen Khao Yai (DPKY) Forest Complex in the northeast of Thailand. The area, which includes several national parks, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and host to globally important forest ecosystems and more than 800 species, including tigers, elephants and gibbons. But the forest area has suffered severe impacts from deforestation and encroachment. Over the past 20 years, Thailand lost 577,000 hectares of forest, at an average rate of 0.15% per year. Estimates of forest degradation are currently not available Prior to the TREEMAPS project, the available approaches for measuring forest carbon in Thailand were not capable of delivery the level of accuracy required by REDD+ or private sector voluntary carbon markets. REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation in Developing Countries) is an initiative of the United Nations (UN) to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, promote conservation and sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. TREEMAPS provides an opportunity for Thailand to receive funding support through REDD+ and various other payment for ecosystem services (PES). However, in order to benefit from the REDD+ programme and receive funding from these mechanism, Thailand must first establish a system to measure and monitor changes in forest carbon levels, that meets the highest level of accuracy (tier 3) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). TREEMAPS hopes to play a key role in conserving forests for Thai people to receive the full benefits of REDD+ initiatives, exchange knowledge, skills, experiences and lessons learned with other countries and regions. Additionally, various co-benefits and environmental services will be experienced, such as climate change mitigation as well as the creation of new opportunities for Thai people to maximize benefits from managing forests sustainably. WWF’s TREEMAPS project has received financial support from the Germany’s Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) under the its International Climate Initiative (ICI) framework. 引自： http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/greatermekong/news/?208960goback=.gde_1317037_member_249792412
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