WHO : 生物技术（转基因食品）的常识 General information about biotechnology (GM foods) 现代生物技术应用于食品产业，对人类的健康问题提出了新的机遇和挑战。对于公众健康部分的潜在益处，包括改变食物营养成分、减少潜在过敏物质和提高粮食生产系统的效率。另一方面，通过基因改造手段生产消费性粮食，这种生产方式对人类健康的潜在作用必须严格测试。如果现代生物技术能够真正成为提高我们生产粮食的手段，那它必须通过彻底的评估。原先的观念认为用没有此方面认知能力的消费者角度来看待这一领域所有相关问题，这种趋势是肤浅的。而消费者应该被关注并告知。 未来的这一领域的发展将使 WHO 在四个主要方面展开工作： A. 在健全科学基础上建立科学的安全评估框架 从现代生物技术中制造出的食物，需要促进对其健全安全与风险评估框架的建立。除了将其列入生物技术衍生食物法典 (Codex Intergovernmental Task Force on Foods Derived from Biotechnology) 外， WHO 将会在健全科学基础上提出解决新问题的原则和指导方针。 B. 对于现代生物技术制造的食物，制定营养方面安全评估的标准方法 提高对现代生物技术制造的新食物进行营养评估是需要的，事实上是新型食物的特殊营养性状。我们需要有一个更加注重营养评估新的现代生物科技食品。其实这些想法已经是粮农组织 / 世界卫生组织专家磋商对于现代生物技术食物的一部分，但增强其影响是必要的。这种影响应该作用于其他政府论坛，如新型食物的经合组织。 C. 将风险评估与风险管理和交流连接起来 在国内与国际上，将风险评估支出与风险管理与交流的作用连接起来，这一迫切需求是有效的机制和方法。对于正在规划阶段的风险交流作用，消费者和其他有关各方的新思维应该进一步加强。这一领域已经取得的经验也应该用于食品安全的其他发面。 D. 对健康和发展政策更广泛的角度 通过现代生物技术开发的新食品并不总是被认为是符合“公共利益”。这些新产品有潜在健康或产品效益风险点，而发展中国家的产品可以改变这一观点。这些产品需要一个更全面的评估，找到这些产品所有方面的变化（健康效益、营养、安全、发展和社会经济系统等）。在这项工作的准备过程中， WHO 需要加强和其他伙伴之间的合作。这些合作不仅仅是相关领域的技术问题，如生产效率和安全评估方面；也需要认识到如何使现代生物技术生产食物用于满足发展中国家的需要。 The application of modern biotechnology to food production presents new opportunities and challenges for human health. The potential benefits to the public health sector include altering the nutrient content of foods, decreasing their allergenic potential, and improving the efficiency of food production systems. On the other hand, the potential effects on human health of the consumption of food produced through genetic modification must be carefully examined. Modern biotechnology must be thoroughly evaluated if it is to bring about a true improvement in our way of producing food .The tendency to explain all concerns in this area as a problem of perceptions originating in the consumers incapacity to understand is simplistic. Instead the consumers right to be concerned as well as to be informed should be acknowledged. The future developments in this area will focus WHO work in four major areas: A. Establishing scientific safety assessment frameworks based on sound science There is a need to facilitate the establishment of sound safety and risk assessment frameworks for foods derived from modern biotechnology. In addition to providing input to the Codex Intergovernmental Task Force on Foods Derived from Biotechnology, WHO will develop the principles and guidelines for addressing emerging issues based on sound science. B. Standardizing methods for nutritional aspects in safety assessments of food derived from modern biotechnology There is a need for an increased focus on nutritional assessments of new foods derived from modern biotechnology and in fact from novel foods in general with specific nutritional traits. These types of considerations are already part of the FAO/WHO Expert Consultations on food derived from modern biotechnology, but a strengthened effort is needed. This effort should be coordinated with efforts in other intergovernmental fora, such as the OECD Task Force on Novel Foods 。 C. Linking risk assessments to risk management and communication Effective mechanisms and approaches are urgently needed both at national and at international level to bridge the outcomes of risk assessments into risk management and risk communication efforts. New thinking towards involving consumers and other interested parties already at the planning stages of risk communication efforts need to be developed. And the experience gained in this area could be used in other aspects of food safety. D. The broader perspective of health and development policy The development of new foods through modern biotechnology has not always been perceived to be guided by a perspective of "public good". New products with potential health or production benefits in developing countries could change this. Such products will need a more holistic assessment, looking into all aspects of such production changes (health benefit, nutrition, safety, development and socioeconomical issues, etc.). In preparation of this work there is a need for WHO to strengthen its collaboration with intersectoral partners. Such efforts would entail technical issues related to such areas as production efficiency and safety assessments but also more general issues of how foods derived from modern biotechnology could be made useful in addressing the needs of developing countries. 【编者按】 就语言的“质量”来说，英文无疑是很棒的，而中文却很不怎么样（很有表述不当之处），很难让人相信 WHO 的老大是中国人，里面也有 N 多中国人在工作！
寻正 在科技突飞猛进的今天，借科学科技之名圈钱已经成了时尚，盲目崇拜科学的结果就是让自己失去宝贵的判断能力，国人形容易人之愚蠢，常说，把自己卖了，还帮着数钱，盲目崇拜科学而上“科学”当的人，大概就是此类人的现实写照。 在科技市场上，借着现代基因与分子生物学研究的大牌而疯狂吸取社会弱势团体资财的行为屡有发生，最近被世界卫生组织揭破的就是结核病血液检查，世界卫生组织在昨日发布通告，将寻求在世界范围内禁止此类检查（详细见 世界卫生组织通告 ）。 世界卫生组织在通告中说，大批立足于发达国家的生物公司，将在本国都未取得执照与认可的商业化检查销往发展中国家，这些发展中国家缺乏有效的监督保护措施，导致了此类检查在各国的泛滥，严重威胁到民众身体健康。尽管这些检查缺乏有效性，其结果对被检查者有害无益，但经营公司、检查单位、以及医务人员相互勾结，从而让此类检查有大利可突，极度泛滥，威胁到世界卫生组织推荐的合理的医学检查，给患者带来了巨大的危害。（详细见 世界卫生组织政策申明 ） 在相关媒体报道中，印度与中国被提及，属于圈钱式检查的重灾区（例如 路透社的报道之一 ）。印度属于结核高发区，人口基数大，监管不严格；而中国结核仍有流行，人口基数更大，监管几乎缺乏。中国的患者或者被怀疑患结核病的人，都需要了解相关知识，拒绝被圈钱，以及随之而来的健康威胁。世界卫生组织出面禁止一项医疗措施，这还是首次，显示此类圈钱检查是多么的恶劣。 在结核病的诊断性检查中，常规的为世界卫生组织所推荐的方法，一是痰涂片的细胞学检查，二是细菌培养。涂片检查具有敏感性低的特点，痰中结核杆菌量少就查不出来，而细菌培养枆时费力，不能提供及时诊断依据，因此，针对结核病的诊断学检查一直是一个医学难题，是生物技术公司商业开发的一个重点方向。在过去的10年中，由于分子生物学与基因研究的突飞猛进，分子生物学技术探查免疫学变化的能力大大增强，在结核病检查上针对人体免疫反应产生的生物活性物质比如抗体进行探测的研究取得了一个又一个的突破，大批的临床实验不时鼓舞着研发人员与开发商。可以预见，不久的将来结核病的血清学检查会有可靠而快速的判断依据。 遗憾的是，不少趋利过重的生物公司在相关技术尚未完善之际，就匆忙推出了各种结核病血清学检查，大多毫不客气地宣称其“先进”“科学”的检查方式具有接近100%的准确性（包括敏感度与特异度）。这些商业早产儿多不能在本国（多为发达国家）取得认证认可，但趁发展中国家比如印度、中国等监管机制不健全之际，转销此类市场，威胁到世界卫生组织在全球消灭结核病的努力。 世界卫生组织针对这些产品进行了为期二年的研究，最近一年采用了19家公司志愿提交的产品进行了对照研究，面临强烈的负面证据时采取了呼吁全球禁止此类检查的激烈做法。这19家公司分别是： 1. ABP Diagnostics Ltd USA 2. Advanced Diagnostics Inc. UK 3. American Bionostica Inc. USA 4. Ameritek USA 5. Bio-Medical Products Corporation USA 6. Chembio Diagnostic Systems Inc. USA 7. CTK Biotech Inc. USA 8. Hema Diagnostic Systems, LLC. USA 9. Laboratorios Silanes Mexico 10. Millennium Biotechnology Inc. USA 11. Minerva BiOTECH Corporation Canada 12. Mossman Associates Inc. USA 13. Pacific Biotech Co. Ltd. Thailand 14. Premier Medical Corporation USA 15. Princeton BioMeditech Corporation USA 16. Span Diagnostics Ltd. India 1 7 . Standard Diagnostics Inc. Republic of Korea 18. Unimed International Inc. USA 19. VEDA.LAB France 另外有8家公司拒绝合作，包括： 1. Clinotech Diagnostics and Pharmaceuticals Inc., Canada 2. Dialab GmbH, Austria 3. JAJ International Inc., USA 4. NUBENCO Medical International, USA 5. Oncoprobe Biotech Inc., Taiwan 6. VicTorch Meditek Inc., USA 世界卫生组织的报告说，尽管公司的宣传材料中毫不客气地宣称其准确率高达90%以上，这些检查的准确率只有50%，每两个人就会有一个误诊，要么没病被判断为有病，要么有病被判断为无病。世界卫生组织将其实测数据对照医学文献发表研究结果发现，本来医学文献报道结果就不甚理想，而这些产品的实际效果更显著低于已发表的研究结果，最差的，100个病人中还不能检查出一个阳性来！ 下图是世界卫生组织 针对这些检查包的鉴别研究报告 中的第四图（类似图有多幅），显示它们是多么的无用。对于不熟悉统计学的读者来说，我特意添加了一条参照线，这条参照线的意义是如果你投掷硬帀对病人是否患病进行猜测的结果，越完美的检查，越接近左上角（100%的准确，就称为金标准，实际上的金标准往往达不到准确度100%）。很明显，这些检查比掷硬帀好不了多少。 注：来源：世界卫生组织，2011，《针对19个市场上的结核病快速检测工具的实验评估》，《检查评估系列》第2期 除了这些检查准确度低外，它们的可靠性也不强，不同的人验读结果会有不同，不同批次的产品结果还会不同。严重的，不同的人验读结果差异率达到80%，不同批次差异率也可达到1/4。这些主动向世界卫生组织提供的样品都如此差，在市场上流通的产品会更好吗？那些不敢或者不愿参与相关检测的公司产品效果如何更勿用多言。 世界卫生组织在结论中说，“这些检查在结核流行国家销售使用，缺乏有效的证据。本报告明确了市场法制监管的需要与需要引入诊断检查质量标准，尤其是针对有着公共卫生影响的疾病。各国应加强诊断检查评估的设计、执行、与汇报工作。” 世界卫生组织在政策报告中宣称，“强烈建议在肺及肺外结核病的诊断中不使用此类检查”，世界卫生组织的通告中指出，使用这些检查的后果很严重，因为，漏疹病人而伴随错误的信心认为检查出来自己没病，会显著延误治疗；另一方面，没有病而被误判为有结核病，基于结核治疗的疗程长，会严重地浪费医疗资源，药特副作用严重损害患者健康。聪明的消费者需要警醒，回避医生强行塞来的不必要检查，因为其后果，不仅仅是被人圈钱。 世界卫生组织相关负责人Raviglione在媒体采访中说，“许多此类检查在私营营利行业盛行，从不理解检查缺乏价值的穷人手中圈钱。”望读者本着公义之心，传播相关信息，阻断伸向最缺乏资源的弱势团体的黑手，同时也增加科学知识，让自己跟家人处于对所谓现代科学的警醒状态。 趋利的狼，总是披着科学的羊皮出现。
20 QUESTIONS ON GENETICALLY MODIFIED (GM) FOODS 世界卫生组织 (2002年) These questions and answers have been prepared by WHO in response to questions and concerns by a number of WHO Member State Governments with regard to the nature and safety of genetically modified food. 这些问题和解答已由世界卫生组织拟定，以应对世界卫生组织一些会员国政府就转基因食品的性质和安全提出的问题和关注。 Q1. What are genetically modified (GM) organisms and GM foods? 1. 何为转基因生物和转基因食品？ Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally. The technology is often called “ modern biotechnology ”， or “ gene technology ” , sometimes recombinant “ DNA technology ” or “ genetic engineering ” . It allows selected individual genes to be transferred from one organism into another, also between non-related species. Such methods are used to create GM plants --- which are then used to grow GM food crops. 转基因生物可界定为遗传物质（脱氧核糖核酸）已以非自然发生的方式改变的生物。该技术通常被称为 “ 现代生物技术 ” 或 “ 基因技术 ” ，有时候也称为 “ 重组脱氧核糖核酸技术 ” 或 “ 遗传工程 ” 。它可使选定的个体基因从一种生物转移到另一种生物，并且还可在不相关的物种之间转移。 这些方法用以产生转基因植物 —— 然后将它们用于培植转基因粮食作物。 Q2. Why are GM foods produced? 2. 为什么要生产转基因食品？ GM foods are developed - and marketed- because there is some perceived advantage either to the producer or consumer of these foods. This is meant to translate into a product with a lower price, greater benefit (in terms of durability or nutritional value) or both. Initially GM seed developers wanted their products to be accepted by producers so have concentrated on innovations that farmers (and the food industry more generally)would appreciate. 转基因食品得以开发和销售是因为对这些食品的生产者或消费者存在着某些感知的好处。这是指将其转变为一种价格较低、利益更大（在耐用或营养价值方面）或二者兼具的产品。最初，转基因种子开发者希望他们的产品获得生产者的接受，因此致力于能为农民（以及更广泛的食品工业）所接受的观念革新上。 The initial objective for developing plants based on GM organisms was to improve crop protection. The GM crops currently on the market are mainly aimed at an increased level of crop protection through the introduction of resistance against plant diseases caused by insects or viruses or through increased tolerance towards herbicides. 以转基因生物为基础开发植物的最初目标是改进作物保护。目前市场上的转基因作物主要目的在于通过增强对由昆虫或病毒引起的植物病的抗性或通过增强对除草剂的耐受性提高作物保护水平。 Insect resistance is achieved by incorporating into the food plant the gene for toxin production from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT). This toxin is currently used as a conventional insecticide in agriculture and is safe for human consumption. GM crops that permanently produce this toxin have been shown to require lower quantities of insecticides in specific situations, e.g. where pest pressure is high. 通过将从苏云金芽孢杆菌（ BT ）这种细菌中生产毒素的基因转入粮食作物，从而实现抗虫害抗性。这种毒素目前在农业中作为常规杀虫剂使用，并且供人食用是安全的。持续产生这种毒素的转基因作物已显示在特定情况下，如在虫害压力大的地方，需要较少量的杀虫剂。 Virus resistance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from certain viruses which cause disease in plants. Virus resistance makes plants less susceptible to diseases caused by such viruses, resulting in higher crop yields. 通过从引起植物病的某些病毒中引入一种基因，从而实现抗病毒抗性。抗病毒抗性使植物较不易受这些病毒引起的疾病的影响，使作物产量更高。 Herbicide tolerance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from a bacterium conveying resistance to some herbicides. In situations where weed pressure is high, the use of such crops has resulted in a reduction in the quantity of the herbicides used. 通过从传送抗某些除草剂抗性的一种细菌中引入一种基因，从而实现抗除草剂耐受性。在杂草压力大的情况下，利用这些作物减少了除草剂使用量。 Q3. Are GM foods assessed differently from traditional foods? 3. 对转基因食品的评估是否不同于传统食品？ Generally consumers consider that traditional foods (that have often been eaten for thousands of years) are safe. When new foods are developed by natural methods,some of the existing characteristics of foods can be altered, either in a positive or a negative way .National food authorities may be called upon to examine traditional foods,but this is not always the case. Indeed, new plants developed through traditional breeding techniques may not be evaluated rigorously using risk assessment techniques. 一般说来，消费者认为传统食品（通常已食用数千年）是安全的。当采用自然方法开发新的食品时，食品的某些现有特性可以正面或负面方式发生改变。国家食品当局可被要求审查传统食品，但情况并非总是如此。的确，通过传统培植技术开发的新植物可能没有用风险评估技术做过严格的评价。 With GM foods most national authorities consider that specific assessments are necessary. Specific systems have been set up for the rigorous evaluation of GM organisms and GM foods relative to both human health and the environment. Similar evaluations are generally not performed for traditional foods. Hence there is a significant difference in the evaluation process prior to marketing for these two groups of food. 对于转基因食品，大多数国家当局认为特定评估是必要的。已建立特定系统就与人类健康和环境有关的问题严格评价转基因生物和转基因食品。对于传统食品，一般不开展类似评价。因此，对这两类食品，在投放市场销售之前的评价程序方面存在显著差别。 One of the objectives of the WHO Food Safety Programme is to assist national authorities in the identification of foods that should be subject to risk assessment,including GM foods, and to recommend the correct assessments. 世界卫生组织食品安全规划的目标之一是协助国家当局确定应进行风险评估的食品，包括转基因食品，并建议正确的评估。 Q4. How are the potential risks to human health determined? 4. 如何确定对人类健康的潜在风险？ The safety assessment of GM foods generally investigates: (a) direct health effects(toxicity), (b) tendencies to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity); (c) specific components thought to have nutritional or toxic properties; (d) the stability of the inserted gene; (e) nutritional effects associated with genetic modification; and (f) any unintended effects which could result from the gene insertion. 转基因食品的安全性评估一般调查： (a) 直接健康影响（毒性）； (b) 引起过敏反应的趋势（过敏性）； (c) 被认为有营养特性或毒性的特定组成部分； (d) 插入基因的稳定性； (e) 与基因改良有关的营养影响；以及 (f) 可由基因插入产生的任何非预期影响。 Q5. What are the main issues of concern for human health? 5. 哪些是与人类健康有重要关系的主要问题？ While theoretical discussions have covered a broad range of aspects, the three main issues debated are tendencies to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity), gene transfer and outcrossing. 虽然理论讨论已覆盖一系列广泛的方面，但是辩论的三个主要问题是引起过敏反应的趋势（过敏性）、基因转移和异型杂交。 Allergenicity. As a matter of principle, the transfer of genes from commonly allergenic foods is discouraged unless it can be demonstrated that the protein product of the transferred gene is not allergenic. While traditionally developed foods are not generally tested for allergenicity, protocols for tests for GM foods have been evaluated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and WHO. No allergic effects have been found relative to GM foods currently on the market. 过敏性。作为一个原则问题，除非可以证明转入基因的蛋白产物不引起过敏，否则，不赞成从普遍引起过敏的食品转移基因。虽然对传统方法制备的食品一般并不检测过敏性，但是转基因食品测试方案已经联合国粮食及农业组织和世界卫生组织评价。未发现与目前市场上的转基因食品有关的过敏影响。 Gene transfer. Gene transfer from GM foods to cells of the body or to bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract would cause concern if the transferred genetic material adversely affects human health. This would be particularly relevant if antibiotic resistance genes, used in creating GMOs, were to be transferred. Although the probability of transfer is low, the use of technology without antibiotic resistance genes has been encouraged by a recent FAO/WHO expert panel. 基因转移。如转入的遗传物质对人类健康产生不良影响，将转基因食品的基因转移到身体细胞或胃肠道细菌会引起关注。如果与用来创造转基因生物的抗生素抗性基因被转移的话，则尤其如此。虽然转移的概率低，但是联合国粮农组织和世界卫生组织的专家小组最近鼓励采用不使用抗生素抗性基因的技术。 Outcrossing. The movement of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or related species in the wild (referred to as “ outcrossing ” ), well as the mixing of crops derived from conventional seeds with those grown using GM crops, may have an indirect effect on food safety and food security. This risk is real, as was shown when traces of a maize type which was only approved for feed use appeared in maize products for human consumption in the United States of America.Several countries have adopted strategies to reduce mixing, including a clear separation of the fields within which GM crops and conventional crops are grown. 异型杂交。将基因从转基因植物转移到传统作物或相关野生物种（称为 “ 异型杂交 ” ）以及将传统种子与利用转基因作物培植的种子产生的作物混合，可对食品安全和粮食保障产生间接影响。正如在美利坚合众国只批准作为饲料使用的一种玉米品种的少量玉米出现在供人类食用的玉米产品中所显示的，这是一种实际风险。若干国家已采取战略以减少混合，包括明确分开种植转基因作物和传统作物的田地。 Feasibility and methods for post-marketing monitoring of GM food products, for the continued surveillance of the safety of GM food products, are under discussion. 对于转基因食品上市销售后监测、转基因食品安全性持续监测的可行性和方法正在进行讨论。 Q6. How is a risk assessment for the environment performed? 6. 如何开展对环境的风险评估？ Environmental risk assessments cover both the GMO concerned and the potential receiving environment.The assessment process includes evaluation of the characteristics of the GMO and its effect and stability in the environment, combined with ecological characteristics of the environment in which the introduction will take place. The assessment also includes unintended effects which could result from the insertion of the new gene. 环境风险评估包括有关的转基因生物和潜在的承受环境。评估过程包括评价转基因生物的特性及其在环境中的影响和稳定性，以及将发生引入的环境的生态特性。评估还包括可由新基因的插入产生的非预期影响。 Q7. What are the issues of concern for the environment? 7. 哪些是对环境有重要关系的问题？ Issues of concern include: the capability of the GMO to escape and potentially introduce the engineered genes into wild populations; the persistence of the gene after the GMO has been harvested; the susceptibility of non-target organisms (e.g. insects which are not pests) to the gene product; the stability of the gene; the reduction in the spectrum of other plants including loss of biodiversity; and increased use of chemicals in agriculture. The environmental safety aspects of GM crops vary considerably according to local conditions. 有重要关系的问题包括：转基因生物逃脱和潜在将人工基因导入野生种群的能力；在转基因生物获得之后基因的持续性；非目标生物（如非害虫类昆虫）对基因产物的敏感性；基因的稳定性；其它植物系列的减少，包括生物多样性的丧失；以及在农业中增加使用化学品。转基因作物的环境安全性问题因地方条件而有相当大的差别。 Current investigations focus on: the potentially detrimental effect on beneficial insects or a faster induction of resistant insects; the potential generation of new plant pathogens; the potential detrimental consequences for plant biodiversity and wildlife,and a decreased use of the important practice of crop rotation in certain local situations;and the movement of herbicide resistance genes to other plants. 目前的调查集中于：对有益昆虫的潜在有害影响或更快诱发具抗性的昆虫；新植物病原体的潜在产生；对植物多样性和野生生物的潜在有害后果和在某些地方情况下减少使用重要的作物轮作方法；以及抗除草剂的基因转移到其它植物。 Q8. Are GM foods safe? 8. 转基因食品安全吗？ Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods. 不同的转基因生物包括以不同方式插入的各种基因。这意味着应逐案评估个别转基因食品及其安全性，并且不可能就所有转基因食品的安全性发表总体声明。 GM foods currently available on the international market have passed risk assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous use of risk assessments based on the Codex principles and, where appropriate, including post market monitoring, should form the basis for evaluating the safety of GM foods. 目前在国际市场上可获得的转基因食品已通过风险评估并且可能不会对人类健康产生危险。此外，在此类食品获得批准的国家普通大众对这些食品的消费未显示对人类健康的影响。不断利用以食品法典委员会原则为基础的风险评估并酌情包括上市销售后监测，应构成评价转基因食品安全性的基础。 Q9. How are GM foods regulated nationally? 9. 国家如何管理转基因食品？ The way governments have regulated GM foods varies. In some countries GM foods are not yet regulated. Countries which have legislation in place focus primarily on assessment of risks for consumer health. Countries which have provisions for GM foods usually also regulate GMOs in general, taking into account health and environmental risks, as well as control- and trade-related issues (such as potential testing and labelling regimes). In view of the dynamics of the debate on GM foods, legislation is likely to continue to evolve. 各国政府管理转基因食品的方式各不相同。在一些国家，尚未对转基因食品进行管理。已制定法规的国家主要着重于对消费者健康的风险评估。一般说来，已对转基因食品制定规定的国家通常还管理转基因生物，并顾及健康和环境风险以及与控制和贸易有关的问题（如潜在检测和标签制度）。鉴于关于转基因食品辩论的动力，立法可能会继续发展。 Q10. What kind of GM foods are on the market internationally? 10. 国际市场上有哪些种类的转基因食品？ All GM crops available on the international market today have been designed using one of three basic traits: resistance to insect damage; resistance to viral infections; and tolerance towards certain herbicides. All the genes used to modify crops are derived from microorganisms. 今天在国际市场上可获得的所有转基因作物已利用三个基本特性之一进行设计：抗虫害损害；抗病毒感染；以及对某些除草剂耐受性。用以改良作物的所有基因均由微生物产生。 Crop 作物 Trait 特性 Areas/countries with approval 批准的地区 / 国家 Maize 玉米 Insect resistance 抗虫害 Argentina,Canada,SouthAfrica,United States, EU 阿根廷，加拿大，南非，美国，欧盟 Herbicide tolerance 耐受除草剂 Argentina, Canada, United States, EU 阿根廷，加拿大，美国，欧盟 Soybean 大豆 Herbicide tolerance 耐受除草剂 Argentina, Canada, South Africa,United States, EU (for processing only) 阿根廷，加拿大，南非，美国，欧盟（仅适用于加工） Oilseed rape 甘兰型油菜 Herbicide tolerance 耐受除草剂 Canada, United States 加拿大，美国 Chicory 菊苣 Herbicide tolerance 耐受除草剂 EU (for breeding purposes only) 欧盟（仅适用于育种目的） Squash 南瓜属植物 Virus resistance 抗病毒 Canada, United States 加拿大，美国 Potato 土豆 Insect resistance/herbicide tolerance 抗虫害 / 耐受除草剂 Canada, United States 加拿大，美国 Q11. What happens when GM foods are traded internationally? 11. 国际上进行转基因食品贸易时会发生什么情况？ No specific international regulatory systems are currently in place. However, several international organizations are involved in developing protocols for GMOs. 目前尚未制定特定的国际管理制度。但是，若干国际组织正在参与对转基因生物制定协议。 The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) is the joint FAO/WHO body responsible for compiling the standards, codes of practice, guidelines and recommendations that constitute the Codex Alimentarius: the international food code. Codex is developing principles for the human health risk analysis of GM foods. The premise of these principles dictates a premarket assessment, performed on a case-by-case basis and including an evaluation of both direct effects (from the inserted gene) and unintended effects (that may arise as a consequence of insertion of the new gene). The principles are at an advanced stage of development and are expected to be adopted in July 2003. Codex principles do not have a binding effect on national legislation, but are referred to specifically in the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement of the World Trade Organization (SPS Agreement), and can be used as a reference in case of trade disputes. 食品法典委员会是粮农组织 / 世界卫生组织负责汇编构成食品法典：国际食品法典的标准、行为守则、准则和建议的联合机构。食品法典委员会正在对转基因食品的人类健康风险分析制定原则。这些原则的前提强制规定在逐案基础上开展上市销售前评估，并包括评价（插入基因的）直接影响和（由于新基因的插入可能产生的）非预期影响。这些原则正处于制订的后期阶段并且预期于 2003 年 7 月通过。食品法典委员会原则对国家立法不产生有约束力的影响，但是特别在世界贸易组织卫生和植物检疫措施协议中提及，并可在贸易争端的情况下用作参考基准。 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB), an environmental treaty legally binding for its Parties, regulates transboundary movements of living modified organisms (LMOs).GM foods are within the scope of the Protocol only if they contain LMOs that are capable of transferring or replicating genetic material. The cornerstone of the CPB is a requirement that exporters seek consent from importers before the first shipment of LMOs intended for release into the environment. The Protocol will enter into force 90 days after the 50th country has ratified it, which may be in early 2003 in view of the accelerated depositions registered since June 2002. 卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书是对其缔约方有法律约束力的一项环境条约，管制改性活生物体的越境转移。转基因食品如果包含能够转移或复制遗传物质的改性活生物体，则属于议定书的管辖范围。卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书的基石是一项要求，即出口者在有意释放到环境的改性活生物体首次发货之前征得进口者的同意。该议定书将自第 50 个国家批准之日后第 90 天起生效。鉴于自 2002 年 6 月以来登记的加快交存，可能在 2003 年初生效。 Q12. Have GM products on the international market passed a risk assessment? 12. 国际市场上的转基因产品是否已通过风险评估？ The GM products that are currently on the international market have all passed risk assessments conducted by national authorities. These different assessments in general follow the same basic principles, including an assessment of environmental and human health risk. These assessments are thorough, they have not indicated any risk to human health . 目前在国际市场上的转基因产品均已通过由国家当局开展的风险评估。这些不同的评估在总体上遵循相同的基本原则，包括环境和人类健康风险评估。这些评估是透彻的，它们未表明对人类健康有任何风险。 Q13. Why has there been concern about GM foods among some politicians,public interest groups and consumers, especially in Europe? 13. 为什么在一些政治家、公众利益团体和消费者中间，尤其在欧洲，对转基因食品存在担忧？ Since the first introduction on the market in the mid-1990s of a major GM food(herbicide-resistant soybeans), there has been increasing concern about such food among politicians, activists and consumers, especially in Europe. Several factors are involved.In the late 1980s ¨C early 1990s, the results of decades of molecular research reache the public domain. Until that time, consumers were generally not very aware of the potential of this research. In the case of food, consumers started to wonder about safety because they perceive that modern biotechnology is leading to the creation of new species. 自 1990 年代中期在市场上首次引入一种重要的转基因食品（抗除草剂大豆），在政治家、社会活动家和消费者中，尤其在欧洲，对此类食品的担忧不断增多。这涉及若干因素。在 1980 年代后期 —1990 年代初期，数十年分子研究的结果到了公共领域。在此之前，消费者通常并不十分了解该研究的潜力。就食品而言，由于消费者感到现代生物技术正导致产生新的物种，他们开始怀疑安全性。 Consumers frequently ask, “ what is in it for me? ” . Where medicines are concerne many consumers more readily accept biotechnology as beneficial for their health (e.g. medicines with improved treatment potential). In the case of the first GM foods introduced onto the European market, the products were of no apparent direct benefit to consumers (not cheaper, no increased shelf-life, no better taste). The potential for GM seeds to result in bigger yields per cultivated area should lead to lower prices. However, public attention has focused on the risk side of the risk-benefit equation. 消费者经常问， “ 这对我有什么好处？ ” 。就药品而言，许多消费者更容易接受生物技术有益于他们的健康（如改进治疗可能性的药品）。就引入欧洲市场的第一批转基因食品而言，这些产品对消费者无明显的直接好处（不更便宜，不增加保存期，味道并不更美）。转基因种子造成每一耕地面积更高产量的潜力应导致更低的价格。但是，公众的注意力已集中在风险 – 效益状况的风险一边。 Consumer confidence in the safety of food supplies in Europe has decreased significantly as a result of a number of food scares that took place in the second half of the 1990s that are unrelated to GM foods. This has also had an impact on discussions about the acceptability of GM foods. Consumers have questioned the validity of risk assessments, both with regard to consumer health and environmental risks, focusing in particular on long-term effects. Other topics for debate by consumer organizations have included allergenicity and antimicrobial resistance. Consumer concerns have triggered a discussion on the desirability of labelling GM foods, allowing an informed choice. At the same time, it has proved difficult to detect traces of GMOs in foods: this means that very low concentrations often cannot be detected. 在欧洲，由于 1990 年代后半期发生的与转基因食品无关的若干次食品恐慌，消费者对食品供应安全性的信心已显著下降。这也已对关于转基因食品可接受性的讨论产生影响。消费者已从消费者健康和环境风险方面对风险评估的有效性提出疑问，特别注重于长期影响。消费组织辩论的其它议题包括过敏性和抗微生物抗性。消费者的担忧已引起讨论对转基因食品加贴标签使能作出知情选择的可取性。同时，已证实，要测出食品中微量转基因生物是困难的：这意味着往往不能测出极低浓度。 Q14. How has this concern affected the marketing of GM foods in the European Union? 14. 这一担忧如何影响转基因食品在欧洲联盟的上市销售？ The public concerns about GM food and GMOs in general have had a significant impact on the marketing of GM products in the European Union (EU). In fact, they have resulted in the so-called moratorium on approval of GM products to be placed on the market. Marketing of GM food and GMOs in general are the subject of extensive legislation. Community legislation has been in place since the early 1990s. 公众对转基因食品和转基因生物的担忧已在总体上对转基因产品在欧洲联盟上市销售产生重要影响。实际上，它们已造成所谓暂停批准转基因产品投放市场。一般说来，转基因食品和转基因生物的上市销售是广泛立法的主题。自 1990 年代初期以来，已制定共同体法规。 The procedure for approval of the release of GMOs into the environment is rather complex and basically requires agreement between the Member States and the European Commission. Between 1991 and 1998, the marketing of 18 GMOs was authorized in the EU by a Commission decision. 核准向环境释放转基因生物的程序是相当复杂的，并且基本上需要成员国与欧洲委员会之间取得一致意见。在 1991 年和 1998 年之间，委员会的一项决定批准 18 种转基因生物在欧洲联盟上市销售。 As of October 1998, no further authorizations have been granted and there are currently 12 applications pending. Some Member States have invoked a safeguard clause to temporarily ban the placing on the market in their country of GM maize and oilseed rape products. There are currently nine ongoing cases. Eight of these have been examined by the Scientific Committee on Plants, which in all ca ses deemed that the information submitted by Me mber States did not justify their bans. 自 1998 年 10 月以来，未给予进一步授权，并且目前有 12 项申请尚待审理。一些成员国已援引保障条款以暂时禁止转基因玉米和甘兰型油菜产品在其国家投放市场。目前有 9 个案例正在审查之中。其中 8 个案例已由植物科学委员会进行审查，委员会认为在所有案例中，成员国提交的资料不能证明它们的禁止是合理的。 During the 1990s, the regulatory framework was further extended and refined in response to the legitimate concerns of citizens, consumer organizations and economic operators (described under Question 13). A revised directive will come into force in October 2002. It will update and strengthen the existing rules concerning the process of risk assessment, risk management and decision-making with regard to the release of GMOs into the environment. The new directive also foresees mandatory monitoring of long-term effects associated wi th the interaction between GMOs and the environment. 在 1990 年代期间，管理框架得到进一步扩展和完善，以应对公民、消费者组织和经济从业者的合理担忧（在问题 13 之下描述）。一项修订的指令将于 2002 年 10 月生效。它将就向环境释放转基因生物方面的风险评估、风险管理和决策过程更新和加强现有规则。新的指令还预见到对与转基因生物和环境之间互相作用有关的长期影响进行强制监测。 Labelling in the EU is mandatory for product s derived from modern biotechnology or products containing GM organisms. Legislation also addresses the problem of accidental contamination of conventional food by GM material. It introduces a 1% minimum threshold for DNA or protein resulting from genetic modification, below which labelling is not required. 在欧洲联盟，对现代生物技术产生的产品或含有转基因生物的产品必须履行加贴标签。立法还处理转基因物质意外污染传统食品的问题。它对由基因改良造成的脱氧核糖核酸或蛋白质推行 1% 的最低限值，低于这一限值，则不需要标签。 In 2001, the European Commission adopted two new legislative proposals on GMOs concerning traceability, reinforcing current labelling rules and streamlining the authorization procedure for GMOs in food and feed and for their deliberate release into the environment. 2001 年，欧洲委员会就转基因生物的可追踪性通过了两项新的立法提案，强化目前的标签规则并对食品和饲料中的转基因生物以及对有意将它们释放到环境简化批准程序。 The European Commission is of the opinion that these new proposals, building on existing legislation, aim to address the concerns of Member States and to build consumer confidence in the authorization of GM products. The Commission expects that adoption of these proposals will pave the way for resuming the authorization of new GM products in the EU. 欧洲委员会认为，以现有法规为基础的这些新的提案旨在处理成员国的关注问题和树立消费者对批准转基因产品的信心。委员会期望，这些提案的通过将为在欧洲联盟继续批准新的转基因产品铺平道路。 Q15. What is the state of public debate on GM foods in other regions of the world? 15. 在世界其它地区对转基因食品公开辩论的情况如何？ The release of GMOs into the environment and the marketing of GM foods have resulted in a public debate in many parts of the world. This debate is likely to continue, probably in the broader context of other uses of biotechnology (e.g. in human medicine) and their consequences for human societies. Even though the issues under debate are usually very similar (costs and benefits, safety issues), the outcome of the debate differs from country to country. On issues such as labelling and traceability of GM foods as a way to address consumer concerns, there is no consensus to date. This has become apparent during discussions within the Codex Alimentarius Commission over the past few years. Despite the lack of consensus on these topics, significant progress has been made on the harmonization of views concerning risk assessment. The Codex Alimentarius Commission is about to adopt principles on premarket risk assessment,and the provisions of the Cartegena Protocol on Biosafety also reveal a growing understanding at the international level. 将转基因生物释放到环境和转基因食品的上市销售已在世界许多地区引起公开辩论。这一辩论有可能继续，可能在生物技术的其它利用（如在人类医学）及其对人类社会的后果这一更广泛的范畴内进行。即使正在辩论的问题通常很相似（成本效益，安全性问题），但是辩论的结果因国家而异。关于转基因食品的标签和可追踪性等问题，作为处理消费者关注的一种方法，迄今尚未取得共识。这在过去几年食品法典委员会内讨论期间已变得明显。虽然缺乏对这些主题的共识，但是已就协调关于风险评估的观点取得重大进展。食品法典委员会即将通过关于上市销售前风险评估的原则，并且卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书的规定也显示国际级日益增多的了解。 Most recently, the humanitarian crisis in southern Africa has drawn attention to the use of GM food as food aid in emergency situations. A number of governments in the region raised concerns relating to environmental and food safety fears. Although workable solutions have been found for distribution of milled grain in some countries, others have restricted the use of GM food aid and obtained commodities which do not contain GMOs. 最近，南部非洲的人道主义危机已引起对利用转基因食品作为紧急情况下食品援助的注意。该地区若干国家政府提出关切，涉及环境和食品安全恐惧。虽然在一些国家对去壳谷物的分配已找到切实可行的解决办法，但是其它国家已限制利用转基因食品援助和获得不含转基因生物的商品。 Q16. Are people! ˉ s reactions related to the different attitudes to food in variou regions of the world? 16. 世界各地区人们的反应是否与对食品的不同态度有关？ Depending on the region of the world, people often have different attitudes to food. In addition to nutritional value, food often has societal and historical connotations, and in some instances may have religious importance. Technological modification of food and food production can evoke a negative response among consumers, especially in the absence of good communication on risk assessment efforts and cost/benefit evaluations. 视世界的地区而定，人们往往对食品有着不同的态度。除营养价值之外，食品通常有着社会和历史内涵，并且在某些情况下可具有宗教重要性。食品和粮食生产的技术改良可在消费者中间，尤其在缺乏关于风险评估工作和成本 / 效益评价的良好交流的情况下，引起负面反映。 Q17. Are there implications for the rights of farmers to own their crops? 17. 对农民拥有其作物的权利是否有影响？ Yes, intellectual property rights are likely to be an element in the debate on GM foods,with an impact on the rights of farmers. Intellectual property rights (IPRs), especially patenting obligations of the TRIPS Agreement (an agreement under the World Trade Organization concerning trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights) have been discussed in the light of their consequences on the further availability of a diversity of crops. In the context of the related subject of the use of gene technology in medicine,WHO has reviewed the conflict between IPRs and an equal access to genetic resources and the sharing of benefits. The review has considered potential problems of monopolization and doubts about new patent regulations in the field of genetic sequences in human medicine. Such considerations are likely to also affect the debate on GM foods. 是的，知识产权可能是关于转基因食品的辩论中的一项内容，对农民的权利有影响。对知识产权，尤其是《与贸易有关的知识产权协定》（世界贸易组织下涉及与贸易有关的知识产权的一项协定）的专利权义务，已根据它们对进一步获得作物多样性的后果开展讨论。在医学中利用基因技术这一相关主题方面，世界卫生组织已审查知识产权与平等获得遗传资源和利益共享之间的冲突。该项审查已考虑潜在的垄断问题以及对人类医学基因序列领域新的专利条例的怀疑。这些考虑可能也影响关于转基因食品的辩论。 Q18. Why are certain groups concerned about the growing influence of the chemical industry on agriculture? 18. 为什么某些团体担忧化学工业对农业日益增长的影响？ Certain groups are concerned about what they consider to be an undesirable level of control of seed markets by a few chemical companies. Sustainable agriculture and biodiversity benefit most from the use of a rich variety of crops, both in terms of good crop protection practices as well as from the perspective of society at large and the values attached to food. These groups fear that as a result of the interest of the chemical industry in seed markets, the range of varieties used by farmers may be reduced mainly to GM crops. This would impact on the food basket of a society as well as in the long run on crop protection (for example, with the development of resistance against insect pests and tolerance of certain herbicides). The exclusive use of herbicide-tolerant GM crops would also make the farmer dependent on these chemicals. These groups fear a dominant position of the chemical industry in agricultural development, a trend which they do not consider to be sustainable. 某些团体对它们认为的几个化学公司对种子市场不可取的控制程度感到担忧。从作物保护良好规范方面以及从整个社会的视角和依附于食品的价值观念来看，可持续农业和生物多样性可从利用一系列丰富的作物中获得最大益处。这些团体害怕，由于化学工业在种子市场的利益，农民使用的品种范围可能缩小至主要为转基因作物。这将影响一个社会的口粮篮以及从长远影响作用保护（例如，形成抗虫害抗性和耐受某些除草剂）。专一使用耐受除草剂的转基因作物还会使农民依赖这些化学品。这些团体害怕化学工业在农业发展中占据主导地位，这是一种它们并不认为可以持续的趋势。 Q19. What further developments can be expected in the area of GMOs? 19. 在转基因生物领域可预期有哪些进一步发展？ Future GM organisms are likely to include plants with improved disease or drought resistance, crops with increased nutrient levels, fish species with enhanced growth characteristics and plants or animals producing pharmaceutically important proteins such as vaccines. At the international level, the response to new developments can be found in the expert consultations organized by FAO and WHO in 2000 and 2001, and the subsequent work of the Codex ad hoc Task Force on Foods Derived from Biotechnology. This work has resulted in an improved and harmonized framework for the risk assessment of GM foods in general.Specific questions, such as the evaluation of allergenicity of GM foods or the safety of foods derived from GM microorganisms, have been covered and an expert consultation organized by FAO and WHO will focus on foods derived from GM animals in 2003. 未来转基因生物可能包括增强抗病或抗旱的植物，营养素水平增高的作物，强化生长特性的鱼类以及产生重要药用蛋白质如疫苗的植物或动物。在国际方面，在粮农组织和卫生组织 2000 年和 2001 年组织的专家协商会以及食品法典委员会用生物技术生产的食品特设专题小组以后的工作中可找到对新发展的反应。此项工作已造成从总体上改进和统一转基因食品风险评估的框架。诸如评价转基因食品过敏性或用转基因微生物生产的食品安全性等特定问题已包括在内，并且由粮农组织和卫生组织组织的一次专家协商会将于 2003 年注重于转基因动物产生的食品。 Q20. What is WHO doing to improve the evaluation of GM foods? 20. 世界卫生组织正在开展哪些工作以改进对转基因食品的评价？ WHO will take an active role in relation to GM foods, primarily for two reasons: (1) on the grounds that public health could benefit enormously from the potential of biotechnology,for example, from an increase in the nutrient content of foods, decreased allergenicity and more efficient food production; and (2) based on the need to examine the potential negative effects on human health of the consumption of food produced through genetic modification, also at the global level. It is clear that modern technologies must bethoroughly evaluated if they are to constitute a true improv ement in the way food is produced. Such evaluations must be holistic and all-inclusive, and cannot stop at the previously separated, non-coherent systems of evaluation focusing solely on human health or environmental effects in isolation. 世界卫生组织将在转基因食品方面发挥积极作用，主要基于两个理由： (1) 公共卫生可从生物技术的潜力，例如从增加食品的营养素成份、降低过敏性和更有效的粮食生产中获得巨大好处；以及 (2) 同样在全球范围内有必要审查消费通过基因改良生产的食品对人类健康的潜在负面影响。显然，现代技术如要构成在生产食品的方式方面一项真正改进，必须对其进行透彻评价。此类评价必须是全面的，包括一切的，不能停留在以前分散的不一致的评价系统，只孤立地注重于人类健康和环境影响。 Work is therefore under way in WHO to present a broader view of the evaluation of GM foods in order to enable the consideration of other important factors. This more holistic evaluation of GM organisms and GM products will consider not only safety but also food security, social and ethical aspects, access and capacity building.International work in this new direction presupposes the involvement of other key international organizations in this area. As a first step, the WHO Executive Board will discuss the content of a WHO report covering this subject in January 2003. The report is being developed in collaboration with other key organizations, notably FAO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It is hoped that this report could form the basis form a future initiative towards a more systematic, coordinated, multi-organizational and international evaluation of certain GM foods. 因此，世界卫生组织正在开展工作以提出对评价转基因食品的更广泛观点，从而能考虑其它重要因素。对转基因生物和转基因产品的这一更为全面的评价将不仅审议安全性，而且审议食品保障、社会和伦理问题、获取以及能力建设。在这一新方向方面的国际工作以这一领域其它主要国际组织的参与为先决条件。作为第一步，世界卫生组织执行委员会将于 2003 年 1 月讨论世界卫生组织一份涉及这一主题的报告内容。该报告正与其它主要组织合作编制，主要是粮农组织和联合国环境规划署。希望这份报告可构成今后行动的基础，以实现对某些转基因食品的更为系统、协调、多组织和国际评价 。
http://www.imicams.ac.cn/news/shownews.aspx?id=3309 1. Pandemic influenza preparedness and response 大流行性流感的防范和应对 全文链接： http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/PIPGuidance09.pdf 2. World health statistics 2009 2009年世界卫生统计 全文链接： http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS09_Full.pdf 3. World malaria report 2009 2009 年世界疟疾报告 全文链接： http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563901_eng.pdf 4. Global tuberculosis control 2009：Epidemiology,steategy,financing 2009全球结核控制报告：流行病学、战略和筹资 全文链接： http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2009/update/tbu_9.pdf 5. WHO REPORT ON THE GLOBAL TOBACCO EPIDEMIC, 2009：Implementing smoke-free environments 2009年世界卫生组织全球烟草流行报告：落实无烟环境 全文链接： http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563918_eng.pdf 6. Global status report on road safety：time for action 道路安全全球情况报告 全文链接： http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563840_eng.pdf 7. Women todays evidence tomorrows agenda 妇女和健康：当今的证据，未来的议程 全文链接： http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563857_eng.pdf 8. Global Health Risk Reports 全球健康风险 全文链接： http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563871_eng.pdf 9. International travel and health 国际旅行与健康 http://www.who.int/ith/chapters/en/index.html 10. The European health report 2009. Health and health systems 欧洲卫生报告2009：卫生与卫生系统 全文链接： http://www.euro.who.int/Document/E93103.pdf 11. Promoting Health and Equity: Evidence, Policy and Action 促进健康及公平：循证、政策及行动世界卫生组织西太平洋地区案例研究 全文链接： http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/25EDBF06-C17B-48BC-AB16-FF52978F71F1/0/PromotingHealthEquitysmallV3.pdf 12. Health technology assessment and health policy-making in Europe 欧洲卫生技术评估和卫生决策 全文链接： http://www.euro.who.int/Document/E91922.pdf 13. Scientific production in health-related disciplines in WHO's Western Pacific Region in 1992-2006 世卫组织西太区卫生相关学科科学产出分析报告1992-2006 http://www.wpro.who.int/health_topics/health_research/ 14. 2008-2013中期战略性计划修订本(草案) 全文链接： http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/MTSP2009/MTSP1-ch.pdf 15. 2010-2011年规划预算方案草案 全文链接： http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/MTSP-08-13-PPB-10-11/PPB-1ch.pdf 16. A practical handbook on the pharmacovigilance of antimalarial medicines 抗疟疾药物警戒实践手册 全文链接： http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/quality_safety/safety_efficacy/handbook_antimalarialpharmvigilance.pdf 17. 10 Health Questions about the Caucasus and Central Asia 高加索与中亚地区关于卫生的10个问题 http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/WHO/InformationSources/Publications/Catalogue/20090904_1 18. Mental health aspects of women's reproductive health: a global review of the literature 妇女生殖健康精神问题文献回顾 全文链接： http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563567_eng.pdf 19. Report of WHO Interregional Workshop on the Use of Traditional Medicine in Primary Health Care,Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia,23-26 August 2007 传统药物在初级卫生保健中的使用-世卫地区间研讨会报告 全文链接： http://www.who.int/entity/medicines/areas/traditional/TRM_Mongoliaworkshopreport2009.pdf 20. WHO child growth standards：growth velocity based on weight,length and head circumference:methods and development 世卫组织儿童发育标准 全文链接： http://www.who.int/entity/childgrowth/standards/velocity/tr3_velocity_report.pdf 21. National health research systems in Pacific Island countries 太平洋岛国卫生研究系统概况 全文链接： http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/0BFC6A02-C580-4F02-9DAB-401DBE182F64/0/NHRS20082.pdf 22. Clinical guidelines for withdrawal management and treatment of drug dependence in closed settings 封闭环境药物依赖治疗临床指南 全文链接： http://www.who.int/hiv/topics/idu/prisons/clinical_guidelines_close_setting_wpro.pdf 23. Evaluating the effectiveness of smoke-free policies 控烟政策实施效果评估 全文链接： http://www.iarc.fr/en/publications/pdfs-online/prev/handbook13/handbook13.pdf 24. Calcium and magnesium in drinking-water：public health significance 饮用水钙、镁含量调查：公共卫生重要性 全文链接： http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563550_eng.pdf 25. Guideline for trauma quality improvement programmes 改善创伤质量方案指导方针 http://apps.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=11codlan=1codcol=15codcch=762 26. Dengue: guidenlines for diagnosis,treatment,prevention and control-New edition 登革热：诊断、治疗及预防指南 http://apps.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1codlan=1codcol=15codcch=3249 27. WHO guidelines for indoor air quality 世卫组织室内空气质量指南：潮湿与霉变 全文链接： http://www.euro.who.int/document/E92645.pdf 28. Medicinal Plants in Papua New Guinea 巴布亚新几内亚药用植物研究 http://apps.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=11codlan=1codcol=52codcch=124 29. WHO model formulary 2008 世卫组织处方集2008 全文链接： http://www.who.int/selection_medicines/list/WMF2008.pdf 30. Milk fluoridation for the prevention of dental caries 含氟牛奶预防龋齿 http://apps.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=2codlan=1codcol=15codcch=765 31. Guidance on testing and counselling for HIV in settings attended by people who inject drugs 吸毒人员艾滋病病毒检测及咨询指南 http://www.wpro.who.int/publications/PUB_9789290613985.htm 32. Guideline for the Psychosocially Assisted Pharmacological Treatment of Opioid Dependence 类鸦片依赖辅助心理辅导药理治疗指南 33. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents,Volume IX 五大洲癌症病发率报告 34. Emergency exercise development 应急施救进展
标签: 世界卫生组织
