3 月 15 日 ， SCIENCE 刊登了我校地质与古生物研究所所长郑晓廷等人的文章“ Hind Wings in Basal Birds and the Evolution of Leg Feathers ”，同期还刊登了著名科学家对该论文的专题评述文章。 郑晓廷、徐星教授带领的研究团队对收藏于山东省天宇自然博物馆的 11 件保存着后肢羽毛或皮肤结构的不同的早期鸟类标本进行了详细研究，发现许多早期鸟类都具有后肢羽翼，包括会鸟、孔子鸟和不同种属反鸟。这些鸟类后肢羽毛的存在证实了早期鸟类演化过程中曾存在一个四翼阶段。并且后肢羽翼在鸟类飞翔起源中曾扮演过非常重要的角色。也就是说最早的鸟类曾经用四个翅膀飞翔。 研究认为，在虚骨龙类恐龙演化早期，发育出短的丝状足羽，继而足部羽毛普遍存在于虚骨龙类中。而到了近鸟类恐龙时期，开始出现大型的腿羽（包括足羽），但在鸟类演化的早期，大型足羽开始退化，这种退化是由后肢远端开始逐渐向近端发生的，不过在基干鸟类和其他非今鸟类类群中却仍存在大型腿羽，并且形成退化的后肢羽翼，直到今鸟类演化的早期，鸟类足部盾形鳞片出现，而腿羽退化的更加短小。鸟类从树栖环境转到陆地环境，尤其是转到近水环境，可能加速了腿羽的退化。 美国加州大学伯克利分校学者 Kavin Padian 称该论文是代表这一领域一个里程碑式的论文，他对郑晓廷等研究人员结合古生物学和发育学资料来解释羽毛演化的研究方式尤其赞赏。
当名词一个紧接一个出现时，让人很难判断它们彼此间的关系，以及这一组词到底表达什么意思。如果你在单个名词前加上不止一个的修饰语，或者在一组名词前添加修饰性名词和 / 或形容词，结果一定混乱不堪，有时甚至让人完全无法理解。 例 1 ：名词堆砌的表达 a sparse matrix crystallization b cultured rat tracheal endothelial cells c When the strips were exposed to Leishmaniasis diseased patients’ sera , we found the bands of 112 and 45 kDa. d Peter Carri is a condensed matter and quantum many-body theoretical physicist . 修改方式是使用介词连接各个名词。介词能增加短语的清晰度（其能充分表明各名词间的关系），所以能使词意更明确。 修改后的例 1 a crystallization by sparse matrix b cultures of endothelial cells from the tracheas of rats c When the strips were exposed to sera of patients with Leishmaniasis disease , we found the bands of 112 and 45 kDa. d Peter Carri is a theoretical physicist studying condensed matter and quantum many-body physics. 有些名词组合被约定俗成地认为是单个名词，如： “water bath,” “cell wall,” “egg receptor,” 和 “sucrose density gradient” 。所以，当清理名词堆砌时，要排除这些词，必要时通过查阅字典或近年的期刊论文来判断。 对于科技术语（如： pyrophosphate dependent phosphofructo-1-kinase apo form structure ），可以通过三种方式帮助读者理解： 1. 使用连字符表明词之间的联系（ pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructo-1-kinase apo-form structure ）。 2. 对术语进行解释（ the structure of the apo-form of pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructo-1-kinase ）。 3. 使用缩略形式并予以说明（ the apo-form structure of pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructo-1-kinase, short PPi-PFK apo-form ）。 连字符最为常用，通常用于以下三种情况： Ÿ 由两个词构成的表达方式（ high-pressure chamber, ATP-dependent ） Ÿ 由三个以上的单词组成的形容词（ four-to-one ratio ） Ÿ 由大写字母或数字与名词构成的表达方式（ C-terminal end, 10-fold increase ） 练习：根据需要借助适当的介词和其他单词分解以下各句中的名词集群 1. The results are compared using a high-quality plane-wave basis set. 2. The negative penicillin skin test result group showed no allergic rash. 3. We analyzed a particle flux time series. 4. The spinach culture callus tissue produced no shoots in 1999. 5. With this unconventional technique, we could easily define the aromatic hydrocarbon liquid crystal transition temperatures. 6. In 10 of the 15 patients, we observed a chronic depression syndrome. 7. Previous work suggested that vitamin A-rich fish oil dies protect mice against certain mosquitoes. 8. The quantity of the TCR signal is directly related to the time for which a T-cell remains in contact with the APC-expressing MHC-peptide complex. 9. Our study involved human Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines. 10. In particular, their extraordinary low density (1.00-0.20 g/cm 3 ) and high surface area (500-4500m 2 /g) make them ideal storage and separation of gases candidates. 11. Inelastic neutron scattering (INS) and diffuse reflectance infrared spectroscopy do not provide adequate information on structural adsorption site details. 12. The different mobility samples spin susceptibility behaves critically near the transition. 13. Ecological community abundance distributions need to be considered in these studies. 参考答案 1. The results are compared using a plane-wave basis set of high quality . 2. The result group that tested negative in the penicillin skin test showed no allergic rash. 3. We analyzed a time series of particle flux . 4. The callus tissue of the spinach culture produced no shoots in 1999. 5. With this unconventional technique, we could easily define the transition temperatures for the liquid crystal of aromatic hydrocarbons . 6. In 10 of the 15 patients, we observed a syndrome of chronic depression . 7. Previous work suggested that fish oil diets rich in vitamin A protect mice against certain mosquitoes. 8. The quantity of TCR signal is directly related to the time for which a T-cell remains in contact with the MHC-peptide complex that expresses APC . 9. Our study involved lymphoblastoid cell lines transformed with the human Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). 10. In particular, their extraordinar.y low density (1.00-0.20 g/cm 3 ) and high surface area (500-4,500 m 2 /g) make them ideal candidates for the storage and separation of gases. 11. Inelastic neutron scattering (INS) and diffuse reflectance infrared spectroscopy do not provide adequate information on the structural details of the adsorption site . 12. The spin susceptibility in samples of different mobilities behaves critically near the transition. 13. Abundance distributions in ecological communities need to be considered in these studies. 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
That sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the number of descendants an individual will have and hence the number of gene copies transmitted. (难度系数5，下同) 那种性别比例能在最大程度上增加一个个体所能拥有的后代数量，并因此能在最大程度上增加所传递到后代身上去的基因复制品的数量。 2. (This is )A desire to throw over reality a light that never was might give away abruptly to the desire on the part of what we might consider a novelist-scientist to record exactly and concretely the structure and texture of a flower .(5++)复杂+倒装+省略;(这是一种)照亮现实的欲望，此欲望从来就不会唐突的取代后面的那种欲望，后者是我们可以将其部分的理解为一个兼任小说加和科学家的人想要去准确并具体的记录下一朵花的结构和文理的那种意义上的欲望。 3. Hardy’s weakness derived from his apparent inability to control the comings and goings of these divergent impulses and from his unwillingness to cultivate and sustain the energetic and risky ones. (3) 哈代的缺陷一方面缘起于他的某种明显的无能，无法控制好那结不尽相同的创作冲动的穿梭往来;另一方面缘起于他不愿意去培养和维持那些富于生机活力和风险性强的创作冲动。 4. Virginia Woolf’s provocative statement about her intentions in writing Mrs. Dalloway has regularly been ignored by the critics，since it highlights an aspect of her literary interests very different from the traditional picture of the "poetic" novelist concerned with examining states of reverie and vision and with following the intricate pathways of individual consciousness. (5) 弗吉尼亚.伍尔夫(Virginia Woolf)在创作《黛洛维夫人》(Mrs. Dalloway)时有关其创作意图的这番发人深思的陈述，迄今为止一贯为文学评论家们所忽略，因为它突出反映了她诸多文学兴趣中某一方面，而这一方面则与人们对“诗性”小说家(poetic novelist)所形成的传统见解大相径庭。所谓的“诗性”小说家，所关注的是审视想入非非和白日梦幻的诸般状态，并致力于追寻个体意识的通幽曲径。 5. As she put it in The Common Reader , "It is safe to say that not a single law has been framed or one stone set upon another because of anything Chaucer said or wrote ; and yet , as we read him , we are absorbing morality at every pore ."(5-) 就像她在《致普通读者》一书中所表达的那样，“尽管可以毫无疑问的说，没有任何法律被指定出来，也没有任何高楼大厦被建立起来是因为乔叟说了什么或者写了什么;然而，当我们读它的书的时候，我们身上每一个毛孔都充满了道德”。 6. With the conclusion of a burst activity , the lactic acid level is high in the body fluids , leaving the large animal vulnerable to attack until the acid is reconverted , via oxidative metabolism , by the liver into glucose , which is then sent (in part )back to the muscles for glycogen resynthesis .(4+) 随着爆发出来的运动的结束，再体液中乳酸含量会变得很高，使得大型动物处于容易受到攻击的状态，直到乳酸通过有氧新陈代谢，被肝脏转化成(convert into)葡萄糖，而葡萄糖接下来又会(部分)传送回肌肉中重新合成糖原 。 7. Although Gutman admits that forced separation by sale was frequent,he shows that the slaves' preference，revealed most clearly on plantations where sale was infrequent,was very much for stable monogamy. (3+) 虽然古特曼承认，由于奴隶买卖而造成的被迫离散甚为频繁，但他还是证明，奴隶的偏爱——在那些奴隶买卖并不频繁的种植园上被最为显著地揭示出来——在很大程度上侧重于稳定的一夫一妻制(monogamy)。 8. Gutman argues convincingly that the stability of the Black family encouraged the transmission of-and so was crucial in sustaining-the Black heritage of folklore,music,and religious expression from one generation to another,a heritage that slaves were continually fashioning out of their African and American experiences. (4) 古特曼人令人信服地论辨道，黑人家庭的稳定有助于包括民间传说、音乐、及宗教表达在内的黑人文化遗产一代一代传递下去，因而在维持文化遗产方面也起着至关重要的作用，而对于这种文化遗产，黑奴们不断地从其非洲和美洲的经历中予以丰富发展。 9. This preference for exogamy,Gutman suggests, may have derived from West African rules governing marriage,which,though they differed from one tribal group to another,all involved some kind of prohibition against unions with close kin. (3+) 古特曼表示，这种对于外部通婚的偏爱很有可能缘起于西部非洲制约着婚姻的规定，尽管这些规定在一个和另一个部落群体之间不尽相同，但都涉及到某种对近亲联姻(union with close kin)的禁止。 10. His thesis works relatively well when applied to discrimination against Blacks in the United States,but his definition of racial prejudice as "racially-based negative prejudgments against a group generally accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic competition," can be interpreted as also including hostility toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in California and the Jews in medieval Europe. (4+) 该社会学家的命题当被应用于针对美国黑人的歧视时，相对而言尚能适用，但他对种族偏见所下的定义——即“以种族为基础的、针对某个群体的消级的先入之见，而该群体在任何特定的种族竞争地区则被普遍认作一种族”——可被理解成同样也襄括了针对加利福尼亚州的中国人以及中世纪的犹太人这样一些种族群体的敌视态度。
动词会使文章充满活力与力量，相反，如果以名词表述动作，动词就会被埋没、削弱，句子则显得晦涩、冗长。 例 1 ： Their suggestion for us was a different analysis of the data. 修改： They suggested that we analyze the data differently. 修改后动作均由动词表示，结构清晰，风格简洁。 例 2 ： An increase in temperature occurred . 修改： Temperature increased . 修改后，动词积极、有力，句子简单、直接且更高效。 例 3 ： This wavelength caused a decrease in the molar absorption coefficient. 动作被隐没在宾语（ “decrease” ）中，而真正的宾语 (“molar absorption coefficient”) 却被移至介词短语中 (“in the molar absorption coefficient”) 。 修改： This wavelength decreased the molar absorption coefficient. 修改后的句子因为动词前移动而显得有力、积极。 此外，要避免用介词宾语代替动词来表述动作（作为介词的词包括： “of,” “for,” “on,” “in,” “to,” and “with.” ）。 例 4 ： With an increase in sperm concentration , the fertilization rate improved. 前半句中的动作是由 “increase” 的名词化形式表示的，在这里是介词 “with” 的宾语。该句冗长且晦涩难懂，原因有二：（ 1 ） “with” 不准确，用 “when” 更清楚；（ 2 ）没有动词，动作被隐没在介词短语中。 C 修改： When sperm concentration was increased , the fertilization rate improved. 将介词短语转化为独立句，使用主动动词使句子生动、易懂。 练习：将下列各句中的动作加入动词中。 1. Measurements were performed on reaction products by a mass spectrometer. 2. Removal of mitochondria was achieved by HPLC. 3. Two measurements of amyloid plaques were obtained for each brain. 4. Elevations in WBC count did not occur when aspirin and streptokinase were given. 5. Our results showed protection of the dogs by the vaccine. 6. A PI 3-kinase signaling cascade exerts a controlling regulation of PIP2 levels. 7. Stanozolol caused prolongation of appetite. 8. Agglomeration of clusters of Ag or Cu in a noble gas matrix causes the emission of visible light. 9. Sequencing of the A-B construct was performed on an ABI377 automated DNA sequencer using Big Dye Sequencing deoxyterminators (ABI v3.0) 10. There was no significant difference in growth rates between the Shh-treated and control samples during the 1 hr prior to protein addition. 11. We performed plasmid isolation to sequence the A-B insert in the pBluescript (STRATAGENE) vector. 12. Rfp2 overexpression caused changes in expression of many genes that regulate cell cycle. 13. To determine whether cell migration is occurring, we dissected mouse brains. 14. In all instances, the result of the binding of these soluble molecules to their specific receptors is the activation of intracellular signaling cascades. 15. Buffalo, elephant, and black rhino abundance all show a rapid decline after 1977. 16. Current displays free flow in a superconductor because the electrons form pairs that travel unhindered through the material. 17. A powerful methodology developed in our laboratory enables structural characterization of increasingly complex systems. 18. We must understand the central puzzle of how O=O bond formation occurs. 19. In the samples containing MMS, a slowing of replication was observed. 20. Water oxidation leads to the production of the production of biochemical fuel and oxygen. 参考答案 1. Reaction products were measured by a mass spectrometer. ( We measured ...) 2. Mitochondria were removed by HPLC. ( We removed ...) 3. Amyloid plaques were measured twice for each brain. ( We measured ...) 4. WBC count was not elevated when aspirin and streptokinase were given. 5. Our results showed that the vaccine protected the dogs. 6. PI 3-1dnase signaling cascade regulates PIP2 levels 7. Stanozolol prolonged appetite. 8. Visible light is emitted when clusters of Ag or Cu are agglumerated in a noble gas matrix. 9. The A-B construct was sequenced on an ABI377 automated DNA sequencer using Big Dye Sequencing deoxyterminators (ABI v3.0). ( We sequenced ...) 10. Growth rates did not differ significantly between the Shh-treated and control samples during the 1 hr before protein was added . 11. We isolated plasmids to sequence the A-B insert in the pBluescript (STRATAGENE) vector. 12. Rfp2 overexpression changed the expression of many genes that regulate cell cycle. 13. To determine whether cells migrate , we dissected mouse brains. 14. In all instances, the binding of these soluble molecules to their specific receptors activates intracellular signaling cascades. OR: In all instances, when these soluble molecules bind to their specific receptors, they activate intracellular signaling cascades. 15. Buffalo, elephant, and black rhino abundance all declined rapidly after 1977. 16. Current flows freely in a superconductor because the electrons form pairs that travel unhindered through the material. 17. A powerful methodology developed in our laboratory allows us to structurally characterize increasingly complex systems. 18. We must understand the central puzzle of how O=O bonds form. 19. In the samples containing MMS, replication slowed . 20. Water oxidation produces biochemical fuel and oxygen. 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
与博友们分享一下不久前我 收到的一份有点特别的审稿意见：这位评审人在审稿意见中首先详细地阐述了结合自己的学术经历所总结的审稿注意事项，并表示 “ 在每一份评审意见中都会将这些内容作为先导，既作为对作者的承诺，也作为对自己的提醒 ” 。 1. 基于稿件本身而不是自己的期望来做判断。 2. 对研究方法的评判要以作者的假设和合理性作为依据。 3. 不要求或暗示作者引用自己的工作。 4. 不强求作者采用深奥的统计检验。 5. 不强求作者使用某个特定的研究方法。 6. 不能因为自己的身份作者保密就态度粗鲁。 7. 如果认为稿件不能被录用就不建议作者再重新投稿。 8. 不混淆审稿人与文字加工编辑和校对人员的作用。 9. 不混淆审稿人和审查员的作用。 10. 尽量尊重作者的工作。 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Having experienced my share of bad reviewers, I now include this preamble with every review, both as an assurance to the authors and a reminder to myself. Please note that this is not specific to this paper. 1. I will judge the paper based on what it is , not what I want it to be, or what I would have done. 2. The methods will be judged only based on the hypotheses and rationale . Maybe other methods exist and maybe I would have done it differently, but all that matters is whether the methods are adequate to test the hypotheses. 3. I will not tell you to cite my work, or suggest or ask, or hint . That is asking for a bribe, or worse, it is extortion. It is completely unprofessional and an abuse of authority for personal gain. If the paper tests one of my hypotheses or it is a DIRECT derivative of my work and does not cite me, the paper will be deemed to be poorly researched. However, in most cases authors choose from among many available supporting references, and whether I get cited or not is just the luck of the draw. 4. I will not insist on the use of esoteric statistical tests just because I just learned them or because the latest version of my favourite software now includes them as defaults. But if you use them, I will ask you to explain them. If your statistics are suitable for your data and hypothesis, then all is fine. 5. In will not insist on the use of specific methods just because I just bought the equipment and/or my lab or my friend’s lab is the only one that can do those tests (for you). If your methods are suitable to test your hypothesis, then all is fine. 6. I will not be rude simply because my identity is supposedly unknown to you. The fact that I reviewed this paper means that I probably was NOT one of your suggested/requested reviewers. I usually ask, and if I was requested/suggested, I usually decline. Requesting specific reviewers it is just a way of to seek out biased reviewers. 7. If I would never suggest a paper gets accepted (i.e., if there is something deeply wrong with it), I will not waste your time by suggesting a resubmission . I will not assume you will go back in time and do a different study or change your methods. I am sure that you have better uses for your time machine. Nor will I assume that you have free time to do confirmatory additional experiments. This is the paper. There are 3 options: it is good enough, it can become good enough, or not. 8. I will not confuse the role of a reviewer with that of a copy-editor or proof-reader. BUT in my assessment, I will consider the writing quality and style. I will not assume you are not a native English speaker just because your prose is not good, nor will I assume the opposite. Bad writing transcends such arbitrary boundaries. I have refused to review papers that are poorly written. It is the editor’s job to ensure the papers are readable before sending them out for review. 9. I will not confuse the role of a reviewer with that of a censor. 10. Mostly, I will do my best to respect the fact that it is YOUR work , and you are responsible for the quality and content. My role is tell the editors whether it is scientifically sound, and whether it is sound or not, to help the authors make it better. My comments to the authors are only meant to be suggestions for improvement, NOT conditions for publication. Having said all that, I have the following comments about this paper: ......
价值工程 2012年12月中旬刊文章 引用本文 ：张欣.浅析高速公路附属房建工程建设管理 .价值工程,2012,31(35):52-54. 浅析高速公路附属房建工程建设管理 Analysis of Expressway subsidiary room built engineering construction management 张欣 Zhang Xin （陕西高速公路建设集团公司，西安 710061 ） （ Shanxi Province Expressway Construction Corporation ， Xi'an 710061 ， China ） 摘要： 高速公路房建工程建设是整个高速公路建设中是薄弱环节，从设计到施工完成整个过程存在多方面的问题，结合多年对高速公路房建的管理， 目前高速公路附属房建工程建设过程中存在的很多问题，文章针对 主要从设计方面、招投标、施工、协调、工程监理和成本管理等方面 出现的问题提出了相关的解决方法。 Abstract: The present situation, expressway construction in building construction is the entire Expressway is the weak link, complete the entire process from design to construction of a wide range of issues, combined with years of building management of Expressway, highway subsidiary currently many of the problems existing in the process of building engineering construction,The article for major design, tendering, construction, coordination, project management and cost management, relevant solutions to the issues raised in the area. 关键词： 高速公路；房建；管理 Keywords: Expressway ； Housing construction ； Management 作者简介： 张欣（ 1975 - ），男，陕西西安人，陕西高速公路建设集团公司，工程师，学士，研究方向为房建管理。 全文阅读
Book Review—What Editors Want: An Author's Guide to Scientific Journal Publishing Posted on the Blog KOK Edit , run by Katharine O'Moore-Klopf (at http://edi tor-mom.blogspot.com/ not accessible in China) Since 1991, I've been editing articles written for biomedical journals. I've done it as an employee of journal publishers, as a freelance editor with journals as my clients, and as a freelance editor with authors as my clients. And since 1991, I've wished that there was a reference work that taught authors about the process of getting their writing published in journals, so that instead of my having to teach them in bits and pieces, they could find all of the information in one place. Thank goodness, Philippa J. Benson, PhD, and Susan C. Silver, PhD, have created exactly that: What Editors Want: An Author's Guide to Scientific Journal Publishing , just out from the University of Chicago Press. It's well organized, it's comprehensive, and it's authoritative. I fervently hope that medical schools and university science programs everywhere will make it part of their curriculum. Medical and science students are taught how to do research, and often how to report it, but they generally aren't taught about the publication process and how to navigate it. That makes the process unnecessarily frustrating both for researchers and for the editors-in-chief of journals—and hey, journal staff members and freelance manuscript editors too. Before I tell you more about the book, I must disclose a few things that you may or may not believe predispose me toward writing a favorable review: The University of Chicago Press sent me a free review copy of What Editors Want , at coauthor Benson's request. I have a connection to Benson via Facebook. On Facebook and on Twitter , where I post a lot of publishing-related and science-related information, I have become friendly with Jennifer Kuhn , who provided administrative assistance to Benson during the process of writing the book and is now assistant managing editor for the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. Kuhn connected me with Benson. I adore the Chicago Manual of Style , published by the same press as What Editors Want , and I am guided by it for some of the book-length manuscripts that I edit. I am a member of the Council of Science Editors , one of the organizations through which the authors met. I have been invited, by one of my longtime author-clients, to travel to China at some point and teach the young researchers in his hospital department about writing for publication. I plan to use What Authors Want to guide me in teaching those researchers. The writing is straightforward and a pleasure to read. As an editor who works closely with a lot of authors outside the United States who are non-native speakers of English, I believe that the writing is accessible to authors with that background. I plan to highly recommend the book to all of my authors, whether they are native speakers of English or not. Benson and Silver even have a sense of humor, as evidenced by their advice in chapter 10, "Dealing with Decision Letters," about what authors should do if they receive either a rejection letter from their target journal or a decision letter from the journal noting that heavy revision of their research paper is required: As mentioned earlier, you should never allow your emotions to influence your response to a rejection letter. Usually, a little time and the immediate ingestion of chocolate or alcohol will sooth the pain and you will start to see what you can do to get the manuscript back on track. Do nothing for at least twenty-four hours or until any strong emotions have subsided. Part of what makes this book so valuable for researchers who are navigating the U.S. publishing world for the first time is that Benson and Silver have been on both sides of the author–publisher relationship. Silver said, of the process of writing the book, "On a couple of occasions, we completely failed to take our own advice about the book. ... It took us a while to ... see that there were some useful points ." There's an aspect of the book that editorial professionals like me might find surprising, though it is minor compared with the importance of the book's content: Throughout the book, the word editor is capitalized. I wondered about that style choice, so I asked the authors about it. Silver explained that the University of Chicago Press "argued with us a lot about that because it's against their style. Our point was that in this book, a starring role. It's their wants and needs that are being discussed. They were an important character in the book." Benson added, "We wanted to build the persona of the editor, and one of the ways to do that was through capitalizing . We had to pick our battles carefully with Chicago. We really were very mindful about the things we pressed hard for, and this was one of them." The book takes readers through these issues: Who cares what Editors want? Changing perspective from author to Editor Judging the newness of your science Authorship issues Choosing the right journal Understanding impact factors How to write a cover letter Preparing for manuscript submission, or "What Editors wish you knew" Who does what in peer review Dealing with decision letters Ethical issues in publishing Trends in scientific publishing The authors' coverage of those issues is thorough, and I did not find myself wishing that they had dealt with additional topics. All of their advice is on target, especially for would-be authors to look at issues of their target journals before definitely deciding to submit manuscripts to those journals, to read and follow in detail the author instructions of their target journals, to educate themselves about the permissions process, and to learn how the peer-review system works. I found only one problem with the book: The cross-references in chapters 4 ("Authorship Issues") and 5 ("Choosing the Right Journal") to sidebars 8.1, 8.2, and 8.3 from chapter 8 ("Preparing for Manuscript Submission, or 'What Editors Wish You Knew' ") are incorrect. For example, in chapter 4 the authors refer readers to the sidebar on choosing a language-polishing service, and they note that this is sidebar 8.3, but it is actually sidebar 8.1. Benson heads the firm PJB Consulting, where she is currently working with organizations such as PLoS One and the American Society for Nutrition on author education and publishing-services projects. She is also on the faculty of the Master of Professional Studies in Publishing program at George Washington University. Silver is editor-in-chief of Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment , published by the Ecological Society of America. She has held editorial positions at Academic Press and the British Dental Association and was editor of Biologist and The Lancet Oncology . Benson and Silver told me that they got to know each other through annual meetings of such U.S. organizations as the Council of Science Editors and the Society for Scholarly Publishing . The book grew out of workshops that they later led together in China to teach, as Silver said, "young researchers how to navigate the Western journal landscape." Silver said that some colleagues wondered why she and Benson were "going all the way to China" to teach this material, saying, "We need this stuff here." Benson said that the content of the workshop evolved each time they taught it, and it occurred to her that it would be very helpful to have a textbook to use in teaching. Benson suggested to Silver that the two of them should write that textbook, and Silver, the more cautious of the pair, eventually agreed. The authors have impressive credentials, but they told me that they thought it would be good to have input for the book from other authoritative sources in journal publishing. The pieces that those contributors wrote became helpful sidebars scattered throughout the book. "With the exception of one person, everybody immediately agreed" to contribute to the book, Benson said. Here are some of the sidebar authors and their topics: Carol Anne Meyer of CrossRef : "What authors need to know about CrossRef DOIs , CrossCheck, and CrossMark" Monica Bradford, executive editor of Science : "Honesty in authorship" Kepin Ma, professor at the Institute of Botany at the Chinese Academy of the Sciences : "The challenges of publishing as an international author" Catriona MacCallum, senior editor of PLoS Biology and consulting editor of PLoS ONE : "Choosing open access for your paper" Carol Edwards, publishing manager of TESOL International Association : "The permissions process" Lyndon Holmes, president of Aries Systems : "Online manuscript submission and peer review systems" Diane Sullenberger, executive editor of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America : "Ethics in scientific publishing" Robert M. Harington, publisher for the American Institute of Physics : "The future of publishing" The authors told me that they welcome feedback on the book because they would like to make any necessary corrections or additions to its next edition. You can write to them at whateditorswant@gmail.com . Silver added, "And if there are any additions , we can still include it in our teaching." Without reservation, I recommend this book for those new to the publish-or-perish atmosphere of science, to those who work with science authors, and especially to those who teach them. There are already other resources available to teach researchers about good science writing, but What Editors Want is the first map that I know of through the U.S. science publication process. It's a map that no one who plays any role in science publishing should be without. Readers wanting to ask questions related to the book content can send emails to the authors at whateditorswant@gmail.com What Editors Want: An Author's Guide to Scientific Journal Publishing , by Philippa J. Benson and Susan C. Silver, from the University of Chicago Press. Available in several formats: cloth (ISBN 978-0-226-04313-5; US$55), paperback (978-0-226-04314-2; US$20), and e-book (978-0-226-04315-9; US$7 to US$20); 192 pages. comment: Katharine O'Moore-Klopf said... I'm posting the following on behalf of a colleague who had trouble with Blogger's comment interface and thus e-mailed her comment to me. —Katharine O'Moore-Klopf I am so impressed with your book review! Thanks so much for writing such a thorough review on what seems like a great book. I've been teaching PhD candidates at my local university's Graduate Center for Life and Natural Sciences for four years now and am always looking out for new instructional material. There's a real lack of solid, concise information available, but What Editors Want sounds like it could even make my required reading list! That said, I would love to hear about any books/materials you decide to use for your China workshop. I've really struggled to find things appropriate for my setting and end up cobbling things together a bit differently each semester as I find new things and/or notice different trends among my students' needs. The bulk of my material is my own creation with very little support coming from published sources. While this is probably nice for my students, it can be very time consuming on my end. A German textbook publisher actually contacted me about helping write a short textbook series on academic writing, but the project is continually bumped as books for higher ed are not a significant source of income. Frustrating! Tim Skern's Writing Scientific English is, in my opinion, too horribly written to ask students to purchase/read, but the short exercises he includes have been useful templates for showing me how to create my own exercises. His background is also with helping native German-speakers. Stephen Bailey's Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students also has some good exercises to get things going, although he has no scientific focus. The business student version of his book is great for the undergrad writing course I teach to business and econ students, where I have much more time to really suss things out. His short chapter on when to use articles ( a , an , the , etc.) breaks things down nicely and might be worth looking over for your Chinese workshop participants. The best book I've found so far is Successful Scientific Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide for the Biological and Medical Sciences by Janice and Robert Matthews . This book is OK content-wise and can be difficult reading for ESL students. If you're able to find a book like Langenscheidt's Scientific English für Mediziner und Naturwissenschaftler in Chinese, you may have the makings of a great resource book. I strongly recommend that my students purchase this book. It could be seen as a crutch, but because it offers lists of words and phrases commonly used in each section of a research article it can really help improve their style. I'm sure there must be something like this in Chinese. I hope you'll be pleasantly surprised by how rewarding it is to teach writing skills in person. It certainly has been one of the best surprises I've enjoyed in the past few years! I just love seeing the expressions on my students' faces when they realize how they've improved and am excited that you'll also have this opportunity! Best wishes, Juliette Rautenberg www.jrautenberg.com Editing (Lektorin) Coaching for Academic and Commercial English-language Projects
简短的句子更能强调句子的含义 , 句子越长读者越难判断句中哪部分最重要。因此，单个从句的句子比含有多重从句的句子更有分量。在段落或章节的开头部分使用短句，这样可以突出主题的重要性，也可以确保一下就抓住读者的眼球，让他们专注于主题。 同样，相对于依附其他句子的从句，读者会赋予那些独立存在的句子（独立句）更多关注。因此，独立句比从属句有分量，而从属句又比短语有分量。 例 1 a Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune disease. b It is generally accepted in the field of medicine that rheumatic fever is an autoimmune disease . a 中 “Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune disease” 独自出现，而 b 中却作为长句的一部分，显然前一种形式的表达更有力。 科技论文的句子不需要太复杂。总的指导原则是，不要用一句话表述太多的含义。找出最重要的信息，只有确定了最重要的，才能依次确定次要的，然后省略掉不重要的。通常，可以考虑将次要信息剥离为独立的句子。 D 例 2 Skin swabs were cultured at the time of the removal of the catheter from seven patients with catheter-related bloodstream infection and in five of these cases (71%), the culture yielded bacteria of the same species with a DNA fingerprint pattern similar to that of the isolates from the catheter and the blood, whereas a different organism grew from skin cultures in the other two patients (29%), suggesting that catheter infection may have originated from contamination of the catheter hub. (79 个词 / 句 ) 该例中， “and” 之前是第一个含义， “whereas” 之前是第二个含义，而 “suggesting” 之前是第三个含义。这三个含义应该在三个独立的句子中分别表述。 C 修改后的例 4-12 Skin swabs were cultured at the time of the removal of the catheter from seven patients with catheter-related bloodstream infection. In five of these cases (71%), the culture yielded bacteria of the same species with a DNA fingerprint pattern similar to that of the isolates from the catheter and the blood . However, a different organism grew from skin cultures in the other two patients (29%). These observations suggest that catheter infection may have originated from contamination of the catheter hub. ( 平均 20 个词 / 句 ) 相比原句每句 79 个词，修改后每句平均只有 20 个词，理解起来容易很多。原因不仅在于句子短了，更在于不同的含义分别由不同的句子来表达。 统计表明，科技论文的平均句长超过 30 个词，而报纸上多数文章的句长为 15-20 个词（这也是报纸通俗易懂的原因之一）。然而，并非要求句句简短，若果真如此，非但达不到引人入胜的目的，反而使文章缺乏连贯性。用于传达复杂含义的句子就需要长。作者应该明确这样一个目标，有些句子可长，有些句子可短，只要平均句长为 20-22 个词即可。 练习：分解以下各句 1. These results show that ATP and GTP are capable of binding to the same site in the mRNP but higher specificity is shown for ATP than for GTP, while the other nucleotides tested (CTP, UTP, AMP)did not stimulate the initiation of the translation, on the contrary , they produced some inhibition being most pronounced for UTP and CTP, suggesting that these nucleotides compete with ATP and GTP for the same site in the mRNP. (71 个词 / 句 ) 分解： These results show that ATP and GTP are capable of binding to the same site in the mRNP. Higher specificity is shown for ATP than for GTP. The other nucleotides tested (CTP, UTP, AMP) did not stimulate the initiation of the translation. On the contrary, they produced some inhibition being most pronounced for UTP and CTP, suggesting that these nucleotides compete with ATP and GTP for the same site in the mRNP. ( 平均每句 18 个单词 ) 2. The Dengue virus, a Flavivirus belonging to the family Flaviviridae , which includes over 60 known human pathogens such as those causing yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, and West Nile encephalitis, is classified into four different serotypes, Types 1, 2, 3, and 4, and infection with any of these four serotypes can result in dengue fever (DF) or dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), which is particularly a concern during heterologous secondary dengue virus infections. (74 个词 / 句 ) 分解： The Dengue virus is a Flavivirus and belongs/belonging to the family Flaviviridae. This family includes over 60 known human pathogens such as those causing yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, and West Nile encephalitis . The Dengue virus is classified into four different serotypes, Types 1, 2, 3, and 4. Infection with any of these four serotypes can result in dengue fever (DF) or dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). The latter is particularly a concern during heterologous secondary dengue virus infections. ( 平均每句 16.4 个单词 ) 3. Two combinations of half-wave plates and polarizing beam splitters, together with on/off photodetectors in the reflected channel, form the photon-subtraction modules that are placed in the path of the thermal light field, respectively, before and after the parametric crystal that, with the on/off photodetector in the trigger channel, forms the photon-addition module. (52 个词 / 句 ) 分解： Together with on/off photodetectors in the reflected channel, two combinations of half-Wave plates and polarizing beam splitters form the photon-subtraction modules. These modules are placed in the path of the thermal light field before and after the parametric crystal, respectively. Together with the on/off photodetector in the trigger channel, the crystal forms the photon-addition module. ( 平均每句 18 个单词 ) 4. An international team of researchers says that some key elements of modern behavior were in place by 164,000 years ago, pushing back the appearance of complex tools and manipulating symbols by 25,000 to 40,000 years as evidenced by complex stone bladelets and ground red pigment—advances usually seen as hallmarks of modern behavior—coupled with the shells of mussels, abalone, and other invertebrates in a cave in South Africa, which showed that also include marine resources in their diet. (89 个词 / 句 ) 分解： An international team of researchers says that some key elements of modern behavior were in place by 164,000 years ago. This date pushes back the appearance of complex tools and manipulating symbols by 25,000 to 40,000 years. The date is evidenced by complex stone bladelets and ground red pigment advances usually seen as hallmarks of modern behavior coupled with the shells of mussels, abalone, and other invertebrates in a cave in South Africa. These ancient clambakes are the earliest evidence of humans that also include marine resources in their diet. ( 平均每句 22 个单词 ) 5. Negative global coupling changes pattern formation only qualitatively if the system oscillates and can result in the formation of standing waves with wave Number 1 just like for N-NDR-systems, but for parameter values for which the migration coupling leads to the formation of Turinglike structures, the interaction of both instabilities can yield a complex wave pattern characterized by two wave numbers, n=1 and n1. (64 个词 / 句 ) 分解： Negative global coupling changes pattern formation only qualitatively if the system oscillates. Such coupling can result in the formation of standing waves with wave Number 1 just like for N-NDR-systems. However, for parameter values for which the migration coupling leads to the formation of Turing-like structures, the interaction of both instabilities can yield a complex wave pattern characterized by two wave numbers, n = 1 and n 1. (21 个词 / 句 ) 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
科技论文中常用的两种时态是现在时和过去时。一般而言， 在表述观察结果、已完成的行为及特定结论时应使用过去时 。例如，描述实验结果时要使用过去时，因为实验已经结束，而你的结果尚未成为公认的 “ 事实 ” 。因此，那些主要涉及你自身工作的内容，如 “ 摘要 ” 、 “ 材料和方法 ” 以及 “ 结论 ” 部分都应使用过去时。 C 例 1 a Higher temperatures resulted in less bud formation. b The three images were taken about 90 minutes apart. 对于那些普遍认可的概念和观点用现在时表述 。已经发表的结果通常被视为 “ 事实 ” 。 “ 前言 ” 部分要使用现在时，因为其所介绍的是前人构建的知识。 C 例 2 a The newly discovered planet is at least as big as Pluto. b Most regions where this problem arises belong to category X. 如果用过去时描述已经发表的工作的结果，则表示你不认为该结果是 “ 事实 ” ，而仅仅是观察结果 。 C 例 3 Sultan observed that certain species of bacteria respond to light stimuli. 该句描述的是一个已经完成的实验。因此 “observed” 使用了过去时，然而 “respond” 却使用了现在时，这是因为这部分句子表述的是事实，是发表过的、已经存在的知识。 “ 讨论 ” 部分是探讨你的工作与前人工作的关系，这部分最难写，因为同时涉及现在时和过去时。记住，通常情况下，展现数据图表时用现在时，描述假说和原理时也用现在时。 C 例 4 The effect of TXY addition is shown in Figure 5. 当观察被重复进行或从过去持续到现在，则使用现在完成时。 C 例 5 X has been of interest for the past three decades. 只有一种情况使用将来时，就是你的实验计划于将来实施。未来的实验一般不会出现在研究论文中，但会出现在基金申请中。 C 例 6 We will examine if parallel universes exit. 练习： 下列各句应使用过去时还是现在时（如果答案不只一个，请解释原因）。 1. In our study, tree size __________ (increase) with reduction of pesticides. 2. The larva of the monarch butterfly__________ (feed) on milkweed. 3. In our study, we__________ (find) that there are significant flattenings of the PES along the reaction Pth with increasing cluster size, as Fig. 5__________ (indicate) . 4. In a study by Fermi, the vibrational levels__________ (diverge) into the so-called Fermi dyad. 5. Females of this species__________ (have) a unique projection from he dorsal part of the thorax. 6. Recent work by deValt (2001)__________ (show) that nematodes __________ (reproduce) readily in the laboratory. 7. A phagemid construct encoding 2 transgenes in tandem_________ _(can) be used to transform E . coli cells. 8. Table 3__________ (show) that in our study, polychaetes__________ (be) most abundant at depths of 10 to 16 m. 9. Baumann (1997)__________ (find) that this bacterium__________ (is) highly sensitive to pH. 10. We__________ (observe) chemoattraction within 30 min of Shh addition. 11. Identification of restriction factors__________ (give) us more knowledge of the host cell restriction system. 12. Our results__________ (suggest) that the Asn5 glycosylation site _________ _(play) a critical role in the function of the KCEN 1 protein. 13. We__________ (investigate) high-quality single crystals of vanadium oxide. 14. We__________ (do) not observe rods in the diffraction patterns but instead well-defined Bragg spots, suggesting that at least 10 interatomic layers in the surface-normal direction__________ (be) contributing to the interferences. 15. Coupled climate-carbon cycle models__________ (suggest) that Amazon forests__________ (be) vulnerable to droughts, but satellite observations__________ (show) a green-up in intact evergreen forests of the Amazon in response to a short, intense drought in 2005. 16. The Ka value for β-cellobiosyl (approaching 10 3 M -1 )______(be)comparable to that for many carbohydrate/protein interactions. 17. Hundreds of species of reef-building corals__________ (spawn) synchronously over a few nights each year, and moonlight_________ (regulate) this spawning event. 18. Arctic wind anomalies______ (be) part of a global-scale pattern of highly unusual circulation in 2007, the causes of which_____ _(be) as yet unclear. 19. To map pathways of motion, all observed Bragg diffractions of different planes and zone axes__________ (be examine) on the femtosecond to nanosecond time scale. 20. ABSTRACT: The average translational energy____ _(be) significantly lower than expected for the calculated surface temperature. 21. SUMMARY: In conclusion, we_____ (find) significant deviations from the equilibrium behavior in fs-laser induced desorption of CO/Ru. 参考答案 1. increased 2. feed 3. found … indicates 4. diverged 5. have 6. showed … reproduce 7. can 8. shows … were 9. found … is/was 10. observed 11. gives 12. suggest … plays 13. investigated 14. did … are 15. suggest … are … showed 16. is 17. spawn … regulates 18. were … are 19. were examined 20. was 21. found 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
过多运用被动语态会使文章变得乏味且笨拙，如： No change in activity was observed . 如果改用主动语态句子会生动、有趣得多： We observed no change in activity. 但是也不能完全拒绝被动语态。在不需要读者了解行为的执行者为何许人时，可使用被动语态。在被强调的是某个特定论题，或者需要考虑单词的位置时，也可使用被动语态。如： Viral DNA was isolated 24 hours after inoculation. 还有一些情况适合使用被动语态：主语特别长，使用被动语态可以使主语缩短，并且使观点更加前后一致（比如，在一段话中连续使用同一个主语），或者可以使你达到强调重点的目的。 D 例 1 ： Volcanic pipes are subterranean geological structures formed by the violent, supersonic eruption of deep-origin volcanoes. Volcanic pipes are composed of a deep, narrow cone (described as “carrot-shaped”). Solidified magma usually fills the cone . Volcanic pipes are made up of kimberlite or lamproite rock and are well known as the primary source of diamonds. C 修改后的例 1 ： Volcanic pipes are subterranean geological structures formed by the violent, supersonic eruption of deep-origin volcanoes. Volcanic pipes are composed of a deep, narrow cone (described as “carrot-shaped”). The cone is usually filled with solidified magma . Volcanic pipes are made up of kimberlite or lamproite rock and are well known as the primary source of diamonds. 从修改后的例句可以看出，使用被动语态达到了强调 “cone” 的目的，而不是展现新的信息。修改时也考虑了单词的位置。 练习：将下列各句改写为主动语态。 1. The following results were obtained:.... 2. Isolated tissues were examined for parasites. 3. The collected specimens and videotape recorded during 25 dives were analyzed by the team. 4. Recovery of several cytosine deaminases occurred after 2 days. 5. Insight into the dynamics of the excitation process can be obtained from two–pulse correlation measurements. 6. Phosphorylation is stimulated by the addition of KA-1 to the reaction. 7. Preliminary findings were unveiled by expedition members. 8. The same dosage of antitumor drugs was administered to patients for 60 days. 9. The emerging field of spintronics was launched by the advent of giant magnetoresistance (GMR). 10. Another way of treating the translational cooling is provided by the principle of detailed balance. 11. Computational studies and searches in the CSD (Fig.S1) and the PDB were carried out to investigate the conformational preferences of the aromatic OCH 3 , OCH 2 F, OCHF 2 , and OCF 3 groups. 参考答案 1. We obtained the following results: ... 2. We examined the isolated tissues for parasites. 3. The team analyzed the collected specimens and videotape recorded during 25 dives. 4. We recovered several cytosine deaminases after 2 days. 5. Two-pulse correlation measurements provide insight into the dynamics of the excitation process. 6. The addition of KA-1 to the reaction stimulated phosphorylation. 7. Expedition members unveiled their preliminary findings. 8. We administered the same dosage of antitumor drugs to patients for 60 days. OR Patients received the same dosage... 9. The advent of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) helped launch the emerging field of spintronics. 10. The principle of detailed balance provides another way of treating the translational cooling. 11. We carried out computational studies and searches in the CSD (Fig. S1) and the PDB to investigate the conformational preferences of the aromatic OCH 3 , OCH 2 F, OCHF 2 , and OCF 3 groups. 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
在科技论文中曾经流行避免使用 “I” 或 “we” ，因为这样表述显得主观，而科学应该是客观的。然而，科学并非完全客观，可适当使用第一人称 (“I” or “we”) 进行科技写作，如果期刊禁止这种用法，或者句子的焦点为研究对象或其他主题时，请不要使用。 D 例 1 a To determine the mechanism for the direct effect of contrast media on heart muscle mechanics, the study on heart muscles isolated from cats was carried out . b The authors show here that two separate parameters are important to describe the physical effects of an earthquake: seismic moment and radiated energy. 上面两个句子分别取自两篇文章的引言。如果以第一人称 “we” 分别取代 4-la 中的 “the study” 和 4-1b 中的 “the authors” ，句子会更准确更有说服力。使用第一人称的好处是会迫使作者使用与之对应的生动的主动语态。 C 修改后的例 1 a To determine the mechanism for the direct effect of contrast media on heart muscle mechanics, we carried out the study on heart muscles isolated from cats . b We show here that two separate parameters are important to describe the physical effects of an earthquake: seismic moment and radiated energy. 虽然科技论文中的大部分章节都适合使用第一人称，但在 “ 材料 ” 和 “ 方法 ” 部分存在争议，第一人称 “we” 很少用作主语。此处，通常是材料、方法或生物体作为主语。此外，执行试验的可能不是作者，而是技术员或雇工，所以使用第三人称更加恰当。 练习 改写句子，以第一人称取代第三人称。 1. It is one of the aims of the present paper to study the performance of different functionals with the size of clusters. 2. The authors thank Dr. T. J. Guiermo for useful discussions. 3. It is recommended by the authors of the present study that a triple regimen of antibiotics is given to infants with HIV. 4. Based on our results, it is concluded that the measurements on translational cooling in desorption contain information about the dynamics of vibrational energy transfer. 5. No delay in replication was observed. 6. To remove PAH, transgenic E. coli were constructed. 7. we also studied the effect of Mg 2+ and K + concentrations on ［ 14 C ］ ATP-pmRNA, complex formation. It was found that binding is dependent on magnesium concentration with an optimum at 6 mM and an apparent linear decrease at higher concentrations (Figure 2D). 8. Genetic drive mechanisms are being investigated in the laboratory and field, including the incompatibility mediated by Wolbachia symbionts, which will allow us to apply this technology for disease control. 9. The twisted conformation is predicted to have only one C-Y bond in an anomeric position. 10. The authors propose a mechanism of electrocyclic rearrangements initiated by N-silylation. 11. J. D. Beckerle and colleagues studied vibrational energy relaxation on metals; but in this report, the authors establish a new class of non-equilibrium surface reactions. 参考答案 1. We studied the performance of different functionals with the size of clusters. 2. We thank Dr T. J. Guiermo for useful discussions. 3. We/l recommend that a triple regimen of antibiotics is given to infants with HIV. 4. Based on our results, we conclude that the measurements on translational cooling in desorption contain information about the dynamics of vibrational energy transfer. 5. We observed no delay in replication. (In a Materials and Methods section, authors may prefer third person or passive voice for this example.) 6. To remove PAH, we constructed transgenic E. coli. (In a Materials and Methods section, authors may prefer third person or passive voice for this example.) 7. We also studied the effect ofMg 2+ and K + concentrations on ATP-pmRNA complex formation: We found that binding is dependent on magnesium concentration showing an optimum at 6 mM and an apparent linear decrease at higher concentrations (Figure 2D). 8. We are investigating genetic drive mechanisms in the laboratory and in the field, including the incompatibility mediated by Wolbachia symbionts, which will allow us to apply this technology for disease control. 9. We predict that the twisted conformation has only one C-F bond in an anomeric position. 10. We propose a mechanism of electrocyclic rearrangements initiated by N-silylation. 11. J. D. Beckerle and colleagues studied vibrational energy relaxation on metals; but in this report, we establish a new class of nonequilibrium surface reactions. 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 ) 相关信息： 《英语科技论文撰写与投稿》：再版面世
研究方向 ：研究行驶过程中的无人驾驶车辆对来自车内与车外声音的自动检测、实时识别和理解技术，主要包括行驶车流中周围车辆的各种鸣笛的识别、理解和定位，噪声信号分离以及交通信息提示语音的自动检测、识别和理解技术。该技术需具有较高的识别、理解和定位的准确率以及较高的鲁棒性，并须在无人驾驶车辆验证平台中得到验证。 ：国家自然科学基金 - 重大研究计划 项目号 :91120303 National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant No. 91120303 起止时间：2012.1～2015.12 ( 附：鲁棒的非特定环境声学事件检测关键技术研究 项目号 :61071181 起止时间 2011 ～ 2013 ）
如果信息流顺畅，则容易被接收。但是经常会出现句子阻塞的情况，这是因为动词没有紧跟在主语之后。出现在主语与动词间的内容，无论其长度如何，都仿佛是一种干扰，所以要尽量避免。 例 1 ： Dengue virus , a Flavivirus belonging to the family Flaviviridae , which includes over 60 known human pathogens such those causing yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, and West Nile encephalitis, is classified into four different serotypes: Types1, 2, 3, and 4. 这句话给读者的理解设置了很大障碍，因为主语 (“Dengue virus”) 与其动词 (“is classified”) 间相隔了 31 个词。看不到动词，读者就不知道主语在做什么，也不知道这句话要表达什么。结果，读者的注意力都集中在寻找动词，而顾不上接收这些插入的信息，尽管它们是最重要的。插入的内容越长，可能表明其携带的信息越重要；但是鉴于其在句子结构上所处的位置，只能被视为插入。 通常，根据其与旧信息或新信息的关系，可以将插入的内容移至句首或句尾。有时，也可以考虑将这部分内容独立成句，甚至全部省略。在例 1 中，插入部分的重要性很难予以评估。如果它是重要的，就应将其安排在能够显示其重要性的位置上。 修改后的例 1 ： Dengue virus is a Flavivirus belonging to the family Flaviviridae , which includes over 60 known human pathogens such as those causing yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, and West Nile encephalitis. It is classified into four different serotypes: Types 1, 2, 3, and 4. 另一方面，也许这些插入的内容无关紧要，只会分散读者的注意力。那么就该删除，让读者一目了然地看到重要信息。 修改后的例 1 ： Dengue virus is classified into for different serotypes: Types 1, 2, 3, and 4. 修改后的这两句话哪句更能准确表达作者意图，答案只有作者本人知道。 看到了动词，读者还希望尽快看到句子的宾语。因此，作者应该避免在动词和宾语间插入内容，以免动词与宾语间出现阻断。 例 2 ： We quantitatively compared, using a model-based approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) method relying on computer simulations, the different introduction scenarios for the Western European WCR populations. 修改后的例 2 ： Using a model-based approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) method relying on computer simulations, we quantitatively compared the different introduction scenarios for the Western European WCR populations. 例 3 ： We conclude, based on very simplified models of solar variability, that solar variability is insignificant. 修改后的例 3 ： We conclude that solar variability is insignificant based on very simplified models of solar variability . 或： Based on very simplified models of solar variability , we conclude that solar variability is insignificant . 练习： 改写下列句子，使动词紧随主语之后，避免两者间出现阻断。 1. Onchocerciasis, with approximately 18 million infected cases worldwide and 80 million more people at risk of infection, is now recognized as one of the major public health and socioeconomic Problems in many tropical countries (Murdoch et al., 1996; OEPA, 1998). 2. Early experiments revealed, as demonstrated by a strong suppression of the transition temperature with impurities (4), the extreme fragility of the superconductivity in the ruthenate superconductor Sr 2 RuO 4 (SRO). 3. Aside from these RNA structures found in bacteria, plants, and fungi, a viral RNA, with a sequence very similar to an ATP binding RNA aptamer, has been found to be able to bind ATP. 4. We recorded, for each detected atom released from the trap, the inplane coordinates x and y and the time of detection t . 5. After a warm spring, female passerines, as a result of phenotypic plasticity, an individual-level response to temperature, often breed earlier than they do after a cold spring. 6. Allosteric ribozymes, which take small molecules as input and whose output makes cascading difficult, as it is a different form than the input, have been shown to perform logical functions (3). 7. The first two members, COF-1 and COF-5(C 9 H 4 BO 2 ), which have rigid structures, exceptional thermal stabilities (to temperatures up to 600 ℃ ), low densities, and exhibit permanent porosity with specific surface areas surpassing those of well-known zeolites and porous silicates, can be synthesized using a simple “one-pot” procedure under mild reaction conditions that are efficient and high-yielding. 8. A superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) is used to measure, hence mapping the phase anisotropy of the superconducting order parameter, the phase difference between different real-space tunneling directions. 9. We modified, to investigate asymmetric thermal propagation in a suitable 1D inhomogeneous medium, carbon nanotubes and boron nitride nanotubes so that they assumed a non-uniform axial mass distribution (Fig.1.). 10. We reported previously that, in addition to ploy (A) binding protein, a 50 kDa protein, also strongly associated with polysomal mRNA from Saccharomyces cerevisiae , is involved in the mechanism . 参考答案 1. Onchocerciasis is now recognized as one of the major public health and socioeconomic problems in many tropical countries (Murdoch et al., 1996; OEPA, 1998). There are approximately 18 million cases of onchocerciasis worldwide, and 80 million more people are at risk of infection. 2. Early experiments revealed the extreme fragility of the superconductivity in the ruthenate superconductor Sr 2 RuO 4 (SRO) as demonstrated by a strong suppression of the transition temperature with impurities (4) . 3. Aside from these RNA structures found in bacteria, plants, and fungi, a viral RNA has been found to be able to bind ATP. This viral RNA has a sequence very similar to an ATP binding RNA aptamer . 4. We recorded the in-plane coordinates x and y and the time-of detection t for each detected atom released from the trap . 5. After a warm spring, female passerines often breed earlier than they do after a cold spring (13, 14). This behavior is a result of phenotypic plasticity (14, 15), an individual-level response to temperature . 6. Allosteric ribozymes have been shown to perform logical functions (3). These ribozymes take small molecules as input; their output makes cascading difficult, as it is a different form than the input . 7. COF-1 and COF-5 (CgH4BO2) have rigid structures, exceptional thermal stabilities (to temperatures up to 600 ° C), and low densities. They also exhibit permanent porosity with specific surface areas surpassing those of well-known zeolites and porous silicates . COF-1 and COF-5 can be synthesized using a simple “one-pot” procedure under mild reaction conditions that are efficient and high-yielding. 8. A superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) is used to measure the phase difference between different real-space tunneling directions. This device allows us to map the phase anisotropy of the superconducting order parameter . 9. To investigate asymmetric thermal propagation in a suitable 1D inhomogeneous medium , we modified carbon nanotubes and boron nitride nanotubes so that they assumed a non-uniform axial mass distribution (Fig. 1). 10. We reported previously that a 50 kDa protein is involved in the mechanism in addition to poly(A) binding protein . This 50 kDa protein is also strongly associated with polysomal mRNA from Saccharomyces cerevisiae . 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
一般而言，读者希望尽快读到主句中的主语或主题。如果主语显而易见，句子理解起来会更容易。而当一个句子展开后迟迟不见主语或主题，读者就很难明白这句话到底要说什么。因此，要避免使用长的介绍性词语和长主语。 例 1 ： Due to the nonlinear and hence complex nature of ocean currents, modeling these currents in the tropical Pacific is difficult. 修改后的例 1 ： Modeling ocean currents in the tropical Pacific is difficult due to their nonlinear and hence complex nature. 例 1 中， 11 个词之后才现主语。而在修改后的句子中，主语位于句首，从而使句子更容易理解。 例 2 ： The reason for rejection on the part of the biochemists was that the focus of the paper was too broad. 修改后的例 2 ： The biochemists rejected the paper because it was too broad. 多数读者会认为修改后的句子比原句更清楚，因为在修改后的句子中动词的主语是中心人物（生物化学家），该主语短而明确，更加简洁。如果主语不是人物，且毫无理由，读者就会感到困惑。多数读者倾向于中心人物是生动的物而非抽象的词，不过，当与之相应的动词描述一个动作时，概念性词语也可被视为中心人物。 例 3 ： The cells were incubated at room temperature for two days. 该句中 “ 细胞 (cells)” 是主语。这里没有出现任何人物，无论是生物化学家还是实验室技术员，因为他们都不是要讨论的主题，取而代之的是 “ 细胞 ” 。这种选择更多地用在研究论文（或基金申请书）的特定段落中，如 “ 材料和方法 ” 部分。 然而，需要明确的主语一定要清楚地表示出来，否则会给读者在阅读理解上设置障碍。 例 4 ： A decision was made in favor of the use of dyes, nitrofurans, and amidines as disinfectants. 作者可能知道谁做了什么，但是读者不知道，而且他们所需要的帮助远远超出作者的想象。对例 4 可以有不同的解读： 修改后的例 4 ： We decided to use dyes, nitrofurans, and amidines as disinfectants. 或： They/Researchers decided to use dyes, nitrofurans, and amidines as disinfectants. 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
如果信息位置的安排符合读者预期，则读者理解起来更容易、更准确。读者希望在句首（或段首）看到熟悉的信息，这些信息可以起到承上的作用，希望在句尾（或段尾）看到新的信息，在此处新信息得以强化。因此，如果通过合理安置词语来连接信息，文章就会更加流畅。如果作者不理解结构的重要性，读者就会迷惑或错误解读。作者应牢记的总体原则：在下文的新信息出现之前，应给读者提供相应的背景资料。 例 1 ： Macular degeneration is affected by diet . One of the diet components that influences the progression of macular degeneration is vitamin B6 . Although vitamin B6 seems to reduce the risk of macular degeneration, it may have some side effects . 例 1 中位于前一句句尾的信息很好地出现在下一句句首或主题的位置，每个句子的组织呈现为：位于强调位置的新信息在接下来的句子中变身为旧的、熟悉的信息，然后被置于话题的位置。因此，随着文章的继续，读者期望在后续的句子或段落中发现信息 “ 副产品 ” ，因为这些前句话的 “ 副产品 ” 处于被强调的位置，已被引见给了读者。如此，文章就会非常流畅与连贯。 另一个实现流畅与连贯的方法是：整个段落的撰写都围绕同一个旧信息。 例 2 ： Depression in the elderly is thought to affect more than 6.5 million of the 35 million Americans who are 65 years of age and older. It is considered to be a disorder that is commonly underdiagnosed, undertreated, and mismanaged by pharmacotherapy both in community dwelling seniors and in those residing in nursing facilities. Depression in the elderly has also been closely associated with dependency and disability that presents in both emotional and physical symptoms, thus amplifying the difficulty in diagnosis. Major depression , dysthymic disorder, and subsyndromal depression tend to be higher in persons over 65 who live in a long-term care facility. 例 2 中主题词 “depression” 连续出现在每句话的主题位置，为读者提供了上下文的连接。而新信息总是于句尾出现，因此，虽然作者没有对此进行拓展，但每句话都提供了新信息。所以，如果按照这种方式写作，也可以达到流畅的目的。 如果我们运用新旧信息的原则去撰写或修改文章，很快会发现，有些句子的撰写和修改变得容易了，但有些并非如此。如何恰当地给句子开头就很难，尤其是那些长且复杂的句子。因此，很多时候需要适当地变通，清晰、简洁是王道 例 3A ： Outbreaks of limb deformities in natural populations of amphibians across the United States and Canada, especially in wetland associated with agricultural fields , were evaluated in this study . 例 3B ： We evaluated outbreaks of limb deformities that occurred in natural populations of amphibians across the United States and Canada , especially in wetland associated with agricultural fields . 多数读者不喜欢例 3A ，因为它的主语太长太复杂。而例 3B 却是由简及繁。读者更喜欢开头简单结尾复杂的句子。因此，在构建句子时作者需要考虑词语的长度。 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
练习： 下面的 4 个句子中，评审人所使用的单词近乎一样，但句子结构的不同。哪种表达最能让人认为论文被接受了？ A: Overall, although this manuscript is of interest for structural biologists, a more detailed analysis of ABC should be provided. B: Although a more detailed analysis of ABC should be provided, this manuscript is of interest for structural biologists. C: This manuscript is of interest for structural biologists, but a more detailed analysis of ABC should be provided. D: A more detailed analysis of ABC should be provided, but overall, this manuscript is of interest for structural biologists. 在撰写或修改文章之前，至关紧要的一点是确定单词在句子中的最佳位置，即哪个词重要，哪个词次要，哪个词不重要。写作时以此为前提，强调重要信息，附带次要信息，省略不重要信息。作者应该认识到： 句子的结构会引导读者分辨重要与次要 。 通常， 句子结尾处比开始处更具强调性，主句比从句更具强调性 。因此，主句、独立从句以及可以独立存在的完整句，比依赖于其他句子成分来表达含义的从句更具强调性。 试比较以下各句，体会作者推荐服用 vitamin B6 的程度： A: Although vitamin B6 seems to reduce the risk of macular degeneration, it may have some side effects. B: Vitamin B6 reduces the risk of macular degeneration , but it may have some side effects. C: Taking vitamin B6 may have some side effects , but vitamin B6 also reduces macular degeneration. D: Although taking vitamin B6 has some side effects, vitamin B6 reduces macular degeneration. 相对于独立从句，主句的信息更为重要；相对于句首的信息，句尾的信息更为强调。上述 A-D 中，持肯定态度最高的是句子是 D ( 强调的正面信息既位于主句又位于句尾 ) ， 最低的是 A ： 句 事物位于主句 事物位于句尾 推荐 B6 的程度 (%) A - 否定 - 否定 30 B + 肯定 - 否定 ( 独立从句 ) 40 C 否定 + 肯定 ( 独立从句 ) 60 D + 肯定 + 肯定 70 然而，如果一个单词足够强烈或足够极端，也可以控制读者的注意力。以语气最肯定的 D 为例，如果以一个强烈的短语取替 “side effects” ，效果会如何： Although taking vitamin B6 may result in serious deformities or even death , vitamin B6 reduces macular degeneration. 该句中，无论将 “serious deformities or even death” 放在何处，它都能压制其他词语，即使那些位于被强调位置的词。 练习参考答案 句子的结束位置通常比句首位置更具有强调意义 , 并且主句更具强调意义。因此，第 2 句是论文最有可能接受的陈述。第 1 句表明被接收的可能性最小 . 句子 从句中信息 结束位置的信息 A - 否定 - 否定 B + 肯定 + 肯定 C + 肯定 - 否定 D - 否定 + 肯定 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
单词在句子中的位置十分重要，是读者理解句子所需的绝大部分线索。读者对每个句子的结构有自己的预想，如果事实与预想不符，他们就不得不将精力转向探索文章结构而非内容，如此便会增加错误理解或无法理解的可能性。更糟糕的是，一旦读者无法弄清句子结构，就会失去阅读兴趣。因此，作者需要特别关注词的位置，并精心组织文章结构。 作者的任务不仅是选择正确的词，还要以最有效的方式对单词进行定位，以引导和满足读者的预期，使大多数读者能如作者所愿地理解文章。 例 1: Mosquitoes often carry parasites. 该句中， “mosquitoes” 一词被放在 句子开头即主题的位置 ，而 “parasites” 被放在 句子结尾即被强调的位置 。对多数读者而言，这种结构表明之前作者在谈论 “mosquitoes”( 蚊子 ) ，此后将进入新话题 —— “parasites”( 寄生物 ) 。 同样一句话版本不同强调的内容便不同： 例 2: Parasites are often carried by mosquitoes. 虽然例 2 和例 1 使用的单词相同，但词的位置不同。在 2 中， “parasites” 变为大家熟知的话题出现在句首的位置，而 “mosquitoes” 作为被强调的词放在了句尾，这对读者起到了一种指示作用。作者想通过强调这个词让读者迅速了解文章的重点在蚊子而非跳蚤或老鼠；作者也想通过将 “mosquitoes” 置于句尾 ( 强调的位置 ) 试图让读者领悟到，文章即将进入一个新话题 (mosquitoes) ，以引导读者的注意力。 练习： 改写下面三段文字，注意单词的位置，使读者能够轻松追随信息的逻辑性 A: Vegetative cells are cells that are engaged in active growth and reproduction. Endospores can be produced by some bacteria that can cease vegetative growth. Endospores are highly resistant to heat, chemicals, and radiation, unlike vegetative cells. It is possible that the unique structure of the peptidoglycan layer of the spore is in some way associated with resistance. B: Mangrove plantations attenuate tsunami-induced waves and protect shorelines against damage. Human activities on the shorelines most damaged by the great 2006 tsunami had reduced the area of mangroves by 26%. Communities can be buffered from future tsunami events by conserving or replanting coastal mangroves and greenbelts. The conservation of dune ecosystems or green belts of other tree species could fulfill the same buffer as mangroves elsewhere. C: A quantum dot is a semiconductor nanostructure that confines the motion of conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons in all three spatial directions. It has a discrete quantized energy spectrum. A small number (on the order of 1-100) of conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons are contained in a quantum dot. Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals are small quantum dots, which can be as small as 2 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to 10 to 50 atoms in diameter. 参考答案 A: Vegetative cells are cells that are engaged in active growth and reproduction . Vegetative growth can be ceased by bacteria that can produce endospores . Unlike vegetative cells , endospores are highly resistant to heat, chemicals, and radiation. Resistance may be associated with in some way with the unique structure of the peptidoglycan layer of the spore. B: Mangrove plantations attenuate tsunami-induced waves and protect shorelines against damage. On the shorelines most damaged by the great 2006 tsunami, the area of mangroves had been reduced by 26% through human activities . By conserving or replanting coastal mangroves and greenbelts, communities can be buffered from future tsunami events. The same buffer could be fulfilled elsewhere by the conservation of dune ecosystems or green belts of other tree species. C: A quantum dot is a semiconductor nanostructure that confines the motion of conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons in all three spatial directions. It has a discrete quantized energy spectrum. A quantum dot contains a small number (on the order of 1-100) of conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons. Small quantum dots , such as colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals, can be as small as 2 to 10 nanometers. 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 ) 相关信息： 《英语科技论文撰写与投稿》：再版面世 新书出炉：科技写作与交流 -- 期刊论文、基金申请书及会议讲演
刘俊明 20110820 很多年前，我在西北工业大学追随于周尧和先生左右攻读材料科学博士学位，拾先人牙慧，对物质中枝晶 (dendrite) 结 构及其形成原理有些痴迷。这种痴迷大约源于枝晶美丽的外观形态，源于前辈于心、于文、于书而收集的各类物质相变过程产生的视觉形态。我本愚钝，在当学生的 岁月里懵懵懂懂，不知格物之绚烂，只知生活之艰辛，不能读懂枝晶成长背后物理之所寓指。而今慢慢有了一些轻浮感悟，便开始调寄“去年今日捧玲珑，未晓晶莹 瘦雨中。今夜一轮玄月吊，痴心滑过莫不同。” 用 严谨或学术一些的语言来说，枝晶的爱好者当与我一般，功利于两方面。其一，视觉之内物质世界的最常见形态之一是枝晶。枝晶遍布物理、化学、地质、生物、生 命、工程实践乃至经济与社会之各类现象中，如果量子能够被暂时忘却的话。其二，枝晶的特征尺度是连结物质结构与性能关系的重要纽带；例如，工程材料主要的 力学和物理性能都与枝晶特征尺度直接关联。因此，物理学和材料科学研究的功利目标之一便是理解枝晶特征尺度的根源并由此控制枝晶尺度。 拙文意不在展示自然界丰富的枝晶形态 ( 有兴趣的看君可以点击 这里 、 那里 、 还 有 那里 、 再 有 那里 去慢慢琢磨 ) ，而在于将枝晶的生长形成 (pattern formation) 作为一抹景色来衬托心中对物理尺度的感受，即“枝晶之型，生活之态”。 我们从最简单的单一枝晶雏形开始：下图所示乃一根大致各向同性的枝晶生长过程 (Y. Saito et al , PRL 58, 1541 (1987)) ，其中 L 为枝晶特征尺度 ( 尖端曲率半径或者二次侧枝间距 ) 、 V 为枝晶生长速率，即枝晶尖端从左向右生长快慢的量度。这种形态，即便没有五彩斑斓，也总会令理论物理学家心动。未能被感动者，要么冷酷无情、要么心中无婉约之灵性，可能是要不得的。 ^_^ 为了描述心中的感受，我们做一点简单的物理分析。从自由能角度来描述枝晶形成过程，以特征尺度为变量，枝晶生长的自由能 F 可以写成式 (1) ： ***************(1) 这里 A 和 B 为与物质物性相关的常数； L D 为枝晶生长的扩散长度， D 为孕育枝晶之母相中主物质量的扩散系数； L T 称之为枝晶生长毛细长度，即界面张力 ( 界面能 ) 决定的长度量。绝大多数情况下， L D L T ，差距可以达到 5~10 个数量级， L T 小到几个纳米，而 L D 在 m m 到 m 之间。 如果一定要将这两个长度量与微观个体行为对应起来，那么 L D 代表众多原子、分子或者元胞个体的整体协同行为尺度，而 L T 则 表达这些个体各自特性的尺度。前者也量度整体协同对外部激励的响应能力，类比于集体意志；后者量度个体单元保持个性的能力，类似于个体权利。集体意志是演 化的驱动力和践行者，而个体权利则是一种相对静谧不变的基本元素。它们之间虽然能力差别很大，但相互关联与竞争却是与枝晶有关一切行为的核心与根本。 因此，单纯如抛物线这般的枝晶轮廓，也能将能量世界中的整体与个体牵挂在一起，让它们相互掐着、竞争着。这免不了让我们联想到在社会中立足，每个个体也经历着生命力与生活之间相互掐着、痛苦快乐着的时光！ 在枝晶生长时，控制扩散长度 L D ( 即 D V ) 的物理过程可见、主动、有力、具有主导性。而决定毛细长度 L T 的物理要素则被动、保守、难以改变，例如，要大幅度改变一个生长体系的界面能是较为困难的任务。所以 L T 相对难以被改变，或者说被充分保护着。只有 L D 接近 L T ，即集体意志企图剥夺个体的最后一块遮羞布，或妄图梳理禁锢每一个个体的最后尊严与自由，才会遇到强烈的被动抵抗。否则，毛细长度 L T 总是躲藏在无垠深处，无声无息。 从另一个角度看，扩散长度可以大手笔操作、纵横激烈、粗线条调控。而毛细长度的改变则多是细雨无声、精到温馨，温和如丝雨，像抚摸你我的甘苦和心愿那般。所以，扩散长度对应群体生命的意义，而毛细长度则丈量个体生活的长河。 物理世界的王道是能量竞争，强者生存！如果一项能量与另一项能量相比微不足道，则能量很小的那一项尽可以被忽视。这是处理多重能量竞争问题的通常做法。式 (1) 告诉我们，为使能量降低，枝晶生长趋向于 LL D ， L D 成为枝晶特征尺度的上限，玩弄 L D 就能规范枝晶尺度的大小，调控物质的性质。集体意志相信，能量总是从最低处激发，越高能量生命越灿烂。 所以，数十年来，研究枝晶的精英们使尽浑身解数，让智慧填充激情与躁动，发展各种方法来控制生长速率 V 和调控扩散系数 D ，使得扩散长度可以在很宽范围内变化。精英们提出了许多理论与概念。非常著名的有 diffusion-limited aggregation(DLA) 模型，发表在 PRL 上，成为 PRL 刊物十篇他引最多的论文之一。从能量竞争意义上，枝晶生长一直被认为是扩散长度 L D 任意主宰世界的范本，所以枝晶生长被称之为 diffusion-limited growth 。 然而，物理世界也有践踏集体意志的时候，对于枝晶生长就是如此。无数的实验都观测到，枝晶尺度 L 并不肯简单听从 L D 的差遣，即 L ~ L D 的关系 ( L × V = 常数 ) 始终不成立。实验所支持的是 L 2 × V = 常数的规律，即 L~ Ö V ，意味着 V 必须做出更大的改变才能够促使 L 的变化，扩散长度无法为所欲为！现在我们理解到，枝晶特征尺度 L 总是在 L D 和 L T 之间游弋，无法超越 区域之外，其背后的物理原来也非常简单：物质的取态总是能量极小！ ***************(2) 这是能量竞争系统从“能量求和”向“尺度求积”的转化，是浅薄的人类常常忽略与藐视的环节。式 (2) 因此成为从生命的张弛走向生活的蹒跚之一个缩影，是阐明“枝晶之型，生活之态”的良好标记。 因为个体的性质在枝晶生长层面上是难以撼动的，所以 L T 可以看成是一个常数，因此式 (2) 就成为： 与实验观察相一致！因此，毛细长度虽然细微，能够参与竞争的能量虽然卑微，但对枝晶生长的作用却依然通过独特的视角栩栩如生地表现出来，不让扩散长度独美！ 枝晶生长如此简单的物理，也能够预示文明社会中的一种常态：集体的意志也许总是占据主导地位，但集体意志在得意忘形地践行时，不要忘却了百姓心中那些世俗而卑微的愿望。精英们站在高处恣意无限的时候，不要疏忽芸芸众生心中那些世俗而微小的尺度才是构建那些高处的单元 (unit) 。 否则，群体的高楼注定会凋零崩塌在平凡的大地中，并且。。。。。。！
l 行 话 : 行话是某个专业或行业团体所使用的特殊表达方式，圈外人一般听不懂。 应避免使用的行话： Southern blotted 为实验室行话，正确的表达为 …analyzed by Southern blot… Western blotted 与 Southern blotted 类似，也是实验室行话，正确用法为 …subjected to western blot analysis 或 …analyzed by western blot electrophorized 正确用法为 analyzed by or subjected to electrophoresis bugs 表示细菌，千万不要在科技论文中使用 lab 正确用法为 laboratory prep 正确用法为 prepare vet 正确用法为 veterinarian evidenced 以名词 evidence 替代 vortexed vortex 只能以名词形式存在，应改为 was mixed by vortex l 缩略语 : 大量的缩略语会使读者感到困惑，因此要减少使用频率 ; 同样，非标准的缩略语也要避免使用。在一篇论文中不要使用 4 、 5 个以上的缩略语 ; 另外，避免在一段话中同时使用多个缩略语，这会给句子的理解造成困难。 例如： a. MPTP is converted by MAOB to MPP , which reaches SNpc nerve cells via DA uptake systems. b. We assessed non-AGN galaxies, contained in the MUSYC survey in the ECDFS using HST for a target source. 上面两句话对同行而言也许很好理解，但对于大多数读者是无法理解的。 对于必需使用的缩略语，应在其第一次出现时进行定义，或者于文章首页的脚注中予以标注，或两种方式同时采用，这要根据期刊的要求。一旦对缩略语进行了定义，就不要再使用全称，除非该词再次出现时已与前次相隔多页，这时则需要再次提醒读者缩略语的含义。如果在文章题目中使用或定义缩略语（不建议采用此方式），那么请在文中再次定义。摘要中的缩略语也照此处理。如果一篇很长的科技论文需要用到大量缩略语，则考虑在文后以附录的形式列出所有缩略语及其含义。 特殊缩略语 : 一些衍生自拉丁语的缩略语在科技论文中很常用。需要注意的是，虽然下面的缩略语来自拉丁语，但通常并不采用斜体： e.g. = exempli gratia— for example et al. = et alia— and others i.e. = id est— that is l 专业名称与专业术语 科技论文中使用正确的专业名称和专业术语非常重要，可以避免误解。如果对某个词不确定，不要猜测，而应花时间查字典、词典及相关参考书。 表示物种的和所有起源于拉丁语的词都用斜体 (in vivo, Physcomitrella, patens, etc.) 人类基因 : 所有字母大写并斜体 (ADH3, HBA1) 小鼠基因 : 首字母大写，其他小写，全部斜体 (Sta, Shh, Glral) 人类蛋白质 : 大写正体 (ADH3, HBA1) 小鼠蛋白质 : 与基因表示法类似，但不用斜体 (Sta, Shh, Glral) 为了区分具有相同基因符号的同源基因的物种，将物种名称的缩写作为前缀加在基因符号前。比如人类位点， (HSA)G6PD ；同源小鼠位点， (MMU)G6pd ，其中 HAS= Homo sapiens, MMU= Mus musculus 。 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 ) 相关阅读 ： 科技写作漫谈：博文分类阅读
例 1 原句： Fractions of 0.8ml were collected, reduced to dryness , and dissolved in 3.75% methanol (v/v) prior to being sequenced. 修改： Fractions of 0.8ml were collected, dried , and dissolved in 3.75% methanol (v/v) prior to being sequenced. 简析： 原句的写作风格有些沉重、繁复。科技论文涉及许多专业术语，正因如此，在其他词汇的选择上就更应该简洁，避免让读者感觉沉重。显然， “dried” 相对于 “Reduced to dryness” 在表达上更简洁。 例 2 原句： There is a large body of experimental evidence that clearly shows that members of the genus Crotalus congregate simultaneouly in cases of prolonged decreased temperature conditions in the later part of the year. 修改： Rattlesnakes come together when it gets cold in the fall. 简析： 由于文化差异，有些作者习惯使用大量华而不实的修饰词以示委婉。但在西方，表达更为直接。因此，英语为第二语言（ ESL ）的作者要特别注意避免过度使用修饰词和修饰短语。要确保读者能够理解，就需要使用简单的词汇。也就是说，除专业术语外，选择那些与朋友交谈时常用的词，如：使用 “ use” 而非 “ utilize” 。 练习：修改以下各句，以更简洁的词语取代下划线部分。 1. The differences in our results compared to those of Reuter et al. (1995) can be accounted for by the fact that different conditions were used. 2. In our opinion, it is not an unjustifiable assumption that the vibrational spectrum of CO 2 is temperature dependent. 3. For the purpose of examining cell migration, we dissected mouse brains. 4. Our results are in accordance with Seuter et al. (1988) who measured iPin the culture medium of Physcomitrella transformed with the agrobacterial isopentenyltransferase gene. 5. We performed a systematic study of the vibrational spectrum of CO 2 using various isotopomers. 6. In Swaziland, the number of HIV infected children increased by an order of magnitude in the past decade. 参考答案 1. are due to (are caused by) different conditions. 2. OMIT OR we believe that... 3. To... 4. fit; agree 5. We studied.., systematically 6. 10-fold 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年出版 )
例 1 Nests were observed frequently for signs of predation. “Frequently” 不精确。多少算频繁？应以具体数据表示，如 “every 12 hours” 或 “at 6 am and at 6 pm” . 类如 “every 12 hours”的 详细数据远比定性类的词语 “frequently” 清楚得多。 因此，例 1 可修改为： Nests were observed every 12 hours for sings predation. 例 2 The carbonate layer was prepared with sodium carbonate. “ with” 是一个模糊的表达方式，它是英语中最不明确、最容易引起歧义的单词之一。因为 “ with” 的含义太多，所以应该尽量选择更明确的词，不然读者就不得不去猜测其中的含义。需要注意的是， “ with” 有一些约定俗成的用法，如在 “ I went to school with Brian” 中表示 “ 在一起 ” ，另一个标准用法如在 “ We washed the dishes with soap” 中表示 “ 采用某种方法 ” 。 “ with” 还用于表示属性，如 “ patients with diabetes” 。另外， “ with” 与某些动词是固定搭配，如 “ compared with” 。如果在科技论文中经常使用 “ with” ，而不是那些更加准确的词，就会使读者感到迷惑。该例句中，用 “ using” 或 “ in the presence of” 替代 “ with” 会准确得多。 综上，可将例 2 修改为： The carbonate layer was prepared using sodium carbonate. 或： The carbonate layer was prepared in the presence of sodium carbonate. 练习：找 出下面例句中不准确的表达，并以准确的词替代。 1. In general, retinal explants treated with 0.5pg/mlBSA exhibited increased growth rates compared with retinal explants treated with 0.5ug/mlBSA. 2. We field ionized those atoms not ionized by the HCP and detected the electrons produced with the rapidly rising field ionization pulse shown in Fig.2B. 3. Briefly, cells were incubated with Mytomycin C for 3.5 hours, harvested with trypsin, and frozen in aliquots. 4. The current was dramatically affected when temperature was increased. 5. A second calculated transition state that places the water molecule above the TFA ring is higher in energy than the first transition state. 6. The band showing vibrational splitting of 192/cm in Ne with the most intense peak at 444nm can be identified with the A→X transition of the dimer Ag2. 7. We studied the performance of different functionals with the size of the cluster. 8. The afterglow of the blast wave was markedly brighter than we expected. 9. To determine the molecular events that ensue from this initial epithelial cell contact, we performed an analysis of proteins recruited to lipid rafts generated during a rapid infection with P. aeruginosa . 10. It is also possible that, due to the high expression levels of MVP in airway cells, the residual MVP present after siRNA treatment was sufficient for these other signaling and response pathways. 参考答案 1. In general, retinal explants treated with 0.5 pg/ml BSA exhibited growth rates compared with retinal explants treated with 0.5 μg/ml BSA. 2. We field ionized those atoms not ionized by the HCP and detected the electrons produced the rapidly rising field ionization pulse shown in Fig. 2B. 3. Briefly, cells were incubated with Mytomycin C for 3.5 hours, centrifuged , harvested with trypsin , and frozen in aliquots . 4. The current was when temperature was increased. 5. A second calculated transition state that places the water molecule above the TFA ring is higher in energy than the first transition state. 6. The band showing vibrational splitting of 192/cm in Ne the most intense peak at 444 nm can be identified the A- X transition of the dimer Ag 2 . 7. We studied the performance of different functionals the size of the cluster. 8. The afterglow of the blast wave was brighter than we expected. 9. To determine the molecular events that ensue from this initial epithelial cell contact, we performed an analysis of proteins recruited to lipid rafts generated during of infection with P. aeruginosa . 10. It is also possible that, due to the high expression levels of MVP in airway cells, the residual MVP present after siRNA treatment was sufficient for these other signaling and response pathways. 摘编自《科技写作与交流》 ( 任胜利 等 译 . 科学出版社 , 2012 年8月出版 ) 相关信息： 新书出炉：科技写作与交流 -- 期刊论文、基金申请书及会议讲演
合理群体结构的人工调节，关键是要强调系统生态性，既要考虑多因素影响的系统性，同时也要考虑单一或复合措施应用对生态系统的影响。 作物群体是有生命的，其各组成部分的有机结合才能真正地实现群体结构的调节。首先应培育出高光效的作物品种；其次在栽培管理措施方面，如在密度、肥水、耕作、植株调整、 CO 2 施肥、土壤物理性状改造等方面进行调控，在改善植株生长供应能力的基础上，促使作物群体在形成良好结构的同时，具有较高的光合转化效率；再者可通过间作套种等，提高系统光能的利用和转化数量和效率，甚至可以在农田内引入农业动物，改善植株群体的通风透光性能，如在玉米田内进行养鹅等。群体结构的人工调节是一项系统工程，其单一调节措施的应用必须要考虑该措施的应用带来的其他利弊，综合措施的应用才能形成强大而合理的生产体系，达到高产优质高效的生产目的。
多年来的研究表明，染色体端粒与诸多疾病均有关联。但是对端粒缩短如何引起疾病以及医学上究竟如何防止端粒侵蚀仍有争议。请看《科学家》杂志5月1日发表的一篇文章。 http://the-scientist.com/2012/05/01/telomeres-in-disease/ Telomeres in Disease Telomeres have been linked to numerous diseases over the years, but how exactly short telomeres cause diseases and how medicine can prevent telomere erosion are still up for debate. By Rodrigo Calado and Neal Young | May 1, 2012 T he ends of linear chromosomes have attracted serious scientific study—and Nobel Prizes—since the early 20th century. Called telomeres, these ends serve to protect the coding DNA of the genome. When a cell’s telomeres shorten to critical lengths, the cell senesces. Thus, telomeres dictate a cell’s life span—unless something goes wrong. Work over the past several decades has revealed an active, though limited, mechanism for the normal enzymatic repair of telomere loss in certain proliferative cells. 1 Telomere lengthening in cancer cells, however, confers an abnormal proliferative ability. In addition to cancer, telomeres have been found to be involved in numerous other diseases, including liver dysfunction and aplastic anemia, a condition in which the bone marrow does not produce a sufficient supply of new blood cells. 2 Inadequate telomere repair and accelerated telomere attrition can be molecular causes of these diseases, and targeting these processes may lead to the development of novel therapies. Chromosome tails Telomeres consist of hexameric nucleotide sequences (TTAGGG in humans) that are repeated hundreds to thousands of times at each extremity of each chromosome. Telomeric DNA is coated by a group of proteins, collectively termed shelterin, which serves to protect telomere structure. Because DNA can only be synthesized in one direction, the RNA primers at the chromosome’s ends cannot be filled in, and thus a small amount of DNA is lost with every cell division—a loss that occurs in the telomeres. During normal aging of an animal or in cell culture, cells divide and telomeres shorten. As telomeric sequences do not contain genes, no important genetic information undergoes erosion during DNA replication. When telomeres become critically short, the cell becomes senescent—it ceases to divide—or undergoes apoptosis—it dies. Inadequate telomere repair and accelerated telomere attrition can be molecular causes of disease, and targeting these processes may lead to the development of novel therapies. Telomere attrition explains the “Hayflick limit,” the number of divisions a cell is capable of undergoing in tissue culture before the cell stops dividing. Telomere length is therefore a type of “mitotic clock,” a measure of a cell’s proliferative history. Under circumstances in which cell proliferation continues despite critically short telomeres (usually about a few hundred hexanucleotide repeats), the telomere’s protective function is lost. Subtelomeric genetic information can be lost, and more importantly, recombination between chromosomes occurs, leading to chromosome instability, aneuploidy, and possible transformation to a cancer phenotype. Some proliferative cells can elongate telomeres enzymatically through the telomerase complex. Telomerase (TERT) is a reverse transcriptase that employs a small RNA molecule (TERC) as a template to extend telomeres in cells. In this way, telomerase counterbalances the effects of cell division and cellular genetic “aging,” preventing senescence, apoptosis, and genetic instability. Telomerase-dependent telomere repair occurs naturally in some cells, such as embryonic and adult stem cells and some cells of the immune system—cell types that divide regularly to support development, maintain tissues, and combat infections, respectively. Telomere maintenance is also possible by other mechanisms, such as the alternative pathway (ALT), which uses recombination between chromosomes to maintain telomere length. In ALT, telomeres are not newly elongated, but rather transferred from one chromosome to another, resulting in some daughter cells whose chromosomes have shorter telomeres and others with longer telomeres. The details of ALT’s components and regulation, however, are not well understood. Telomere Timeline In the 1930s, Hermann Muller and Barbara McClintock observed that fragmented chromosomes tended to fuse with each other, while normal chromosomes were stable, and they predicated characteristics of the “natural ends” to explain this difference. Muller named these ends “telomeres.” Almost 40 years later, Alexey Olovnikov, on theoretical grounds, and James Watson, based on phage experiments, recognized a fundamental problem regarding the mechanics of DNA replication, during which a small amount of genetic information is lost with every cell division. In the late 1970s, Elizabeth Blackburn and Joseph Gall discovered the structure of telomeres—short, highly repetitive noncoding nucleotide sequences—in the ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena . In 1982, Blackburn and Jack Szostak elucidated how telomeres in yeast could serve as a buffer for the coding DNA during replication, and postulated the existence of an enzyme that could rebuild telomeres—an enzyme discovered by Blackburn and Carol Greider in Tetrahymena 3 years later. By 1988, the sequence of the human telomere was known, and researchers began actively investigating its role in aging and cancer. Subsequent work showed that the telomeres in certain proliferative cells are actively repaired. For their work on telomeres, Blackburn, Greider, and Szostak were awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Telomere shortening and cancer Most cells in which telomeres reach critically short lengths either die or enter senescence. In those few that survive, perhaps due to inadequate monitoring by p53 and related DNA damage-response safeguards, telomere repair would be subject to powerful selective pressure. Indeed, in most malignancies, telomerase gene upregulation or activation of the ALT pathway is thought to be necessary for the establishment of cellular immortality. Telomerase is so frequently increased in tumors and in cancer cell lines as to be considered an appropriate therapeutic target. Currently there are several clinical trials using telomerase inhibitors to treat a variety of cancers, but results have yet to be reported. Telomere shortening would also generate the equivalent of a “mutator phenotype” by increasing spontaneous chromosomal aberrations—from numerical changes to structural abnormalities—and would therefore increase the pool of aberrant cells upon which selection would act. Infographic: Telomere Basics View full size JPG | PDF Scott Leighton, CMI There are many sources of evidence suggesting that telomere attrition is associated with and likely etiologic of cancer. Patients with dyskeratosis congenita, a rare inherited bone marrow failure disease characterized by telomerase dysfunction, 3 have a 1,000-fold increase in risk of tongue cancer and about a 100-fold increase in risk of acute myeloid leukemia. 4 In aplastic anemia, patients with the shortest telomeres (absent mutations) are 4- to 5-fold more likely to have their disease undergo malignant transformation to myelodysplasia and leukemia. 5 Telomere-free ends of chromosomes and aneuploidy may be apparent in cultured bone marrow years before progression to leukemia. Furthermore, some acute myeloid leukemia patients without prior bone marrow failure have inherited mutations in TERT and TERC . 6 Similarly, short leukocyte telomeres predict the development of cancer in patients with Barrett’s esophagitis, a condition in which the lining of the esophagus is damaged by stomach acid, or ulcerative colitis, a type of inflammatory bowel disease. In these diseases, the mechanism is less clear. Short telomeres in blood leukocytes may reflect the telomere length of the affected organ. Alternatively, they may be a biomarker of exposure to reactive oxygen species produced as a result of a chronic inflammatory process, which can both damage telomeres and cause cancer. Evidence for the latter hypothesis comes from the observation that cells cultured in room air have excessive telomere shortening in comparison to cells cultured at low oxygen tension. More generally, genome-wide analyses have identified single nucleotide polymorphisms in TERT as risk factors in many cancers. In a recent report, short leukocyte telomeres were associated with increased risk of all cancers and of cancer fatalities in a large population followed over a decade. Circumstantially, telomere attrition is an accompaniment of aging, itself a major risk factor for cancer. Furthermore, secondary malignancies often occur after chemotherapy and radiation, which would be anticipated to cause marrow stress and telomere shortening. More direct data come from animal experiments. In a knockout mouse model, animals with reduced telomerase activity combined with diminished p53 surveillance of DNA damage developed a variety of epidermal cancers unusual in the rodent but typical of humans. Telomeres and Cancer DNA INTEGRITY: Tumor suppressor protein p53 helps detect DNA damage that may lead to cancer. Thomas Splettstoesser When telomeres reach critically short lengths, most cells either stop dividing or die. In many cancers, however, telomerase is upregulated or the ALT pathway is activated, resulting in abnormal telomere lengthening and proliferative growth. Because of this link between telomeres and cancer, researchers are actively investigating telomerase (TERT) as a target for cancer therapeutics, with several clinical trials ongoing. Evidence for a telomere-cancer link: • Genome-wide analyses have identified single nucleotide polymorphisms in the TERT gene as risk factors in many cancers. • Some acute myeloid leukemia patients have inherited mutations in TERT and TERC, the RNA template used to extend telomeres. • Short leukocyte telomeres have been associated with increased risk of all cancers and of cancer fatalities. • Shortened telomeres and aneuploidy may be apparent in cultured bone marrow years before progression to leukemia. • Among aplastic anemia patients, whose bone marrow does not produce sufficient new blood cells, those with the shortest telomeres are 4- to 5-fold more likely to have their disease undergo malignant transformation to myelodysplasia and leukemia. • Patients with dyskeratosis congenita, an inherited bone marrow failure disease characterized by telomerase dysfunction, have a 1000-fold risk of tongue cancer and about 100-fold risk of acute myeloid leukemia. • Knockout mice with reduced telomerase activity combined with diminished p53 surveillance of DNA damage develop a variety of epidermal cancers. Other telomere diseases In addition to cancer, other diseases have been linked to telomeres. Hematopoietic stem cells express telomerase in response to the enormous daily demand for red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Thus while overexpression of telomerase in other tissues can cause malignant growth, faulty telomere repair in blood stem cells can also result in severe diseases caused by stem cell failure. One such “telomere disease” is dyskeratosis congenita, an X-linked bone marrow disorder characterized by symptoms such as abnormal nails, a pigmented, net-like rash, a white patch or plaque in the mouth, and aplastic anemia. The disease usually presents in the first decade of life. The liver and lungs can also be affected, as is often observed after a hematopoietic stem-cell transplant is performed to correct the bone marrow disease. The reasons for liver and lung involvement are not clear, but the chemotherapy used for transplant conditioning and the new inflammatory cells in the transplanted bone marrow may accelerate the injury in these organs. Patients suffering from dyskeratosis congenita inherit a mutation in a gene named DKC1 , identified by Inderjeet Dokal at the Hammersmith Hospital in London, who performed linkage studies of large pedigrees. 7 DKC1 encodes dyskerin, a protein that binds to the RNA component of the telomerase complex and stabilizes it. Later, heterozygous mutations in TERC were also found in some families with dyskeratosis congenita. The severe phenotype of X-linked dyskeratosis congenita is likely due to the loss of functional DKC1 and markedly reduced telomerase function, which results in defective telomere repair and leads to accelerated telomere attrition, causing cell senescence and organ failure. 2 Whereas dyskeratosis congenita caused by mutations in the DKC1 gene usually presents during infancy, mutations in TERC and in the enzymatic component encoded by TERT appear to have impacts later in life. The first TERT mutations found in humans were in adult patients with acquired aplastic anemia who lacked physical anomalies and did not have a family history of telomere-related disease. Penetrance of the phenotypes of TERT and TERC mutations is highly variable among and within families, as reflected by the severity, time of onset, and organs involved. Within pedigrees, members with the identical mutation may have minimal or no clinical manifestations, develop aplastic anemia late in life, or suffer pulmonary fibrosis (scarring of the lungs) or hepatic cirrhosis (scarring of liver tissue). Different organ systems may be affected in different family members at different times, and occasional patients have disease in marrow, lung, and liver. 2 How faulty telomere repair leads to such diseases is not fully understood. Even with the uncertainties that remain, the association of telomerase mutations with disease in such disparate organs systems has important practical consequences for patients and their physicians. In the family history, the presence of even mild blood count abnormalities, pulmonary fibrosis, and hepatic cirrhosis, as well as acute myeloid leukemia, are important clues for the diagnosis of a telomeropathy. Involvement of multiple medical subspecialties can be confusing; some patients have even made their own diagnoses after Internet searches. Telomere length in leukocytes can be measured commercially and is a reliable marker of these diseases when severely reduced. Sequencing TERT and TERC can also be diagnostic. The appropriate finding of a telomerase deficit has consequences for prognosis, treatment, and genetic counseling. But while the diagnosis of telomeropathies can be straightforward, there may be complications. Some typical families lack known mutations, and telomere length may be normal even in the presence of etiologic nucleotide substitutions. Furthermore, rare mutations in shelterin genes coding for the proteins that protect telomere structure can produce severe dyskeratosis but do not alter telomerase repair capacity. And regulatory regions of genes, not routinely screened, may be responsible in some cases. Telomeres and aging Telomeres shorten as we age. By analogy to the cellular mitotic clock, telomeres have been postulated as a marker of “genetic age,” and telomere length has been marketed as a simple predictor of longevity. Assays of telomere length have been bundled with recommendations for lifestyle modification and for drug therapy, neither based on appropriate clinical studies. Simple but appealing arguments relating telomeres and aging are currently controversial, likely simplistic, and potentially harmful. Telomere length does indeed reflect a cell’s past proliferative history and future propensity for apoptosis, senescence, and transformation. Cellular aging, however, is not equivalent to organ or organismal aging. There are several considerations in relating telomere biology to aging. First, physiologically there is overlap between the shortest telomere length of young children and the longest telomeres of the elderly. Most telomere shortening occurs early in life, in association with growth, and when the rate of disease in general is low. The paradigmatic telomere syndrome of dyskeratosis congenita is not at all typical of progerias, inherited syndromes in which patients appear old and suffer diseases of aging such as premature atherosclerosis or dementia. Furthermore, the organ damage of dyskeratosis congenita is not very similar to normal aging of marrow, lungs, and liver. The marrow becomes mildly hypocellular in older individuals, but stem cell numbers may actually increase, and blood counts remain stable; and neither the liver nor lungs normally become fibrotic with advanced age, as they often do in dyskeratosis congenita patients. Although in adults, relatively short leukocyte telomeres have been associated with cardiovascular events—a common morbidity of the aging population—the clinical correlations have not been consistent, and may be related to overall reactive oxygen species exposure. Studies in humans have attempted to relate telomere length to life span. In the provocative initial publication from the University of Utah in 2003, individuals around 60 years of age who had the longest telomeres lived longer than did subjects with the shortest telomeres, but the main cause of death in the latter group was, inexplicably, infectious disease; the persons with shorter telomeres did not have a higher rate of cancer deaths. 8 Moreover, these findings have not been confirmed in other studies of older subjects. In another study evaluating a different population, telomere length failed to predict survival, but interestingly it correlated with years of healthy life. 9 In a Danish study of people aged 73 to 101 years, telomeres correlated with life expectancy in a simple univariate analysis, but only before the researchers corrected for age, suggesting that the correlation was driven simply by the fact that younger subjects had longer telomeres. And a Dutch study of 78-year-old men found that while telomere lengths eroded with age, they failed to correlate with mortality. 10 These discrepancies may have several causes. In some analyses, telomere lengths may have been studied as a surrogate marker of age. In addition, retrospective studies may identify “positive” associations that are random and cannot be reproduced in follow-up investigations. The telomere hypothesis of aging also has been modeled in mice. For instance, in a murine model of telomerase deficiency and accelerated telomere attrition, researchers found that certain intracellular pathways involved in mitochondrial function and glucose metabolism were deregulated, a common occurrence in aging individuals, ultimately causing heart muscle disease. Interestingly, telomerase reactivation in these mice restored glucose production and heart function. However, these abnormalities observed in telomerase-deficient animals were not those typical of humans with very short telomeres; patients with telomeropathies usually do not suffer from heart disease. Indeed, the translation of mouse experiments on telomeres to human physiology and disease should be done with caution. Mice are not the ideal model for telomere attrition and its effects on aging as murine telomeres are 5 to 10 times longer than human telomeres, in spite of mice having a much shorter life span. When telomerase is knocked out in mice, they live a healthy life for several generations, and even late-generation animals with very short telomeres do not display the clinical phenotypes characteristic of human telomeropathies. Telomerase-deficient mice also do not have a higher incidence of cancer, which happens only if the p53 gene also is modulated, in contrast to humans with telomerase deficiency, who are at very high risk of developing cancer. Implications for medicine Telomeres and their repair are important in the growing field of regenerative medicine. Dolly the sheep had chromosomes with shorter telomeres probably because she was cloned from an adult mammary gland cell. This may have contributed to Dolly’s illnesses, especially her progressive lung disease. Embryonic stem cells, however, express telomerase and are able to maintain their telomere lengths despite numerous cell divisions. More recently, reprogramming mature adult skin cells to the pluripotent state has been achieved with introduction of just a few defined nuclear factors. During the process of reverting cells to a more immature and pluripotent state, the reprogrammed cells’ telomeres are highly elongated. In the first steps of reprogramming and likely in the early stages of embryogenesis, cells can elongate, and thus “rejuvenate,” their telomeres. Since telomere shortening limits cell proliferation, mechanisms that can elongate telomeres are highly desirable for effective regenerative medicine. Telomerase expression is tightly regulated in the cell; just a few copies of the complex are present in the cell nucleus, and they exert their function during certain specific periods of the cell cycle. The mechanisms that modulate telomerase gene expression, resultant enzymatic activity, and telomere elongation are the focus of intensive research. MYC , a proto-oncogene that regulates the expression of many genes and cell pluripotency, activates telomerase expression. Sex hormones also activate telomerase expression in reproductive and nonreproductive organs, such as the bone marrow. The promoter region of the telomerase gene contains regulatory sequences that are modulated by estrogen; cells exposed to estrogens (or androgens converted into estrogens) upregulate telomerase expression. 11 In retrospect, the clinical response of improved blood cell counts in patients with aplastic anemia, especially children with inherited marrow failure, to androgens may be attributable to this mechanism. However, whether higher blood levels of sex hormones or exposure to exogenous sex hormones causes telomere elongation is still unknown. Conclusions Telomeres and telomere repair are basic molecular processes in cells possessing linear DNA chromosomes. Accelerated telomere attrition due to genetic defects in telomerase and in the shelterin protein genes is etiologic in several human diseases not previously considered related in the clinic. These include aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, and hepatic cirrhosis. The telomeropathies, especially in their milder and more chronic forms, may not be rare and almost certainly are often unrecognized by physicians. The importance of telomere repair in tissues under regenerative stress is of special interest, particularly in the reactive responses of fibrogenesis in the liver and the lungs. The maintenance of adequate telomere lengths also may be important in embryonic and adult stem cells to enable proliferation while preventing chromosome instability, thus avoiding potential malignant transformation. Also of interest is the connection linking telomere attrition and chronic inflammation to cancer and other diseases. (See “ An Aspirin for Your Cancer ,” The Scientist, April 2011.) There is still much to be learned about how telomerase gene mutations cause disease, why they only affect certain organs, and how telomeres can be targeted for therapies. Both the genetic regulation of telomerase expression and the effect of an organism’s environment on telomere attrition are poorly understood. Drugs or hormones that might modulate telomerase expression and maintain or elongate telomeres would be appealing in the treatment of the telomeropathies and in conditions in which telomere attrition has known medical consequences. Whether telomere shortening mediates human aging—and conversely, whether telomere elongation may reverse aging or prevent age-related diseases—are still controversial issues. Rodrigo Calado is an Associate Professor of Medicine at the University of So Paulo. Neal Young is the Chief of the Hematology Branch at the US National Institutes of Health. This article is adapted from a review in F1000 Medicine Reports , DOI:10.3410/M4-8 ( open access ). References E.H. Blackburn et al., “Telomeres and telomerase: the path from maize, Tetrahymena and yeast to human cancer and aging,” Nat Med , 12:1133-38, 2006. ↩ R.T. 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-- 引载自Chris同学的读书笔记，3Q！ （六）检验分子水平自然选择的方法 在选择主义与中性主义的争论中，中性理论提出了很多的假设，其中的许多涉及到群体内等位基因频率分布，以及种内 - 种间遗传变异的关系。因此，可以利用统计学模型来验证中性学说的正确性，即把中性理论作为统计学检验的零假设（ null hypothesis ），非中性选择作为选择性假设（ alternative hypothesis ），如果这个零假设被显著地拒绝（ significantly rejected ），那么中性假设将被认为是不合适的（ Kimura and Ohta 1971 ）。 关于在分子水平验证选择的方法， Garrigan 和 Hedrick （ 2003 ）认为可以按照种群的当前世代，种群的短期历史和物种的长期演化历史三种时间尺度来划分为三类。然而，选择是一个长期作用的过程，种群的当前世代体现出来的临时状态无法真实反映选择的作用；并且这种时间尺度的划分也不利于寻找种内 - 种间遗传变异所反映的选择信号。 Nielsen （ 2005 ）则把选择检验分为群体遗传学检验（ population genetic approaches ）和比较数据检验（ comparative data approaches ）。 Biswas 和 Akey （ 2006 ）从基因组学的角度出发，将选择检验的方法分为种内多态性，种内多态性与种间分歧，和种间检验三类。事实上，不论如何划分，不同的检验方法都有不同的数据类型作为检验对象。因此，在这篇综述里我将按照数据类型的不同对目前常用的统计检验方法进行整理和归纳。 （ 1 ）基于群体内等位基因频率分布的中性检验 在核酸的碱基测序时代之前，群体遗传多样性的研究手段主要是对遗传标记的电泳图谱进行分析，其中等位基因的杂合度（ allele heterozygosity ）曾经是一个普遍用于描述遗传多样性的指标。以某单一等位基因位点为例，在一个个体数为 1000 的群体里，如果其中 50 个个体在该位点是杂合子，那么我们可以简单地把（ Ho ） =50/1000=0.05 作为该位点的表观杂合度；说明该种群在以这个位点为遗传标记时得到的遗传多样性程度不高，即仍有 95% 的个体是纯合子。这种评估方式适用于小片段的蛋白质或核酸序列（如几十或者几百个氨基酸或碱基），但不适用于较长片段的研究。事实上，在自然状态下，核酸水平上的变异是比较丰富的，尤其从大片段的尺度来看。例如比较两条长度为 10,000 bp 的等位基因，如此长度的序列几乎可以肯定他们是杂合的，因为序列越长，里面的变异越丰富，那么可以想象该位点在群体里杂合度 Ho 接近 1 。因此，在对核酸序列进行群体遗传多样性分析时，考虑两条序列间存在多少差异所获得的遗传多样性信息要远远大于判断他们是纯合子还是杂合子（ Li 1997 ）。 在后来发展起来的群体遗传学研究中，有三个重要指标被运用于评估核酸遗传多样性（ Nei 1987; Li 1997 ）。第一个是 ∏ ，即将所研究群体的所有核酸序列中任意两条不同序列的碱基差异数取平均值；这个指标对等位基因频率依赖很大。第二个是 K ，即分离位点数（ number of segregating sites ），现在也被称为 SNP （ single nucleotide polymorphism ），是指所有序列排列比对后存在变异的碱基位点数目；这个指标依赖于等位基因数目而与等位基因频率无关。第三个是 Na ，即等位基因数（ number of alleles ）。此外，有一个非常关键的反映种群动态的参数 θ 将以上三个指标在数学上联系起来；这里 θ=4 N e μ ，其中 N e 为有效种群大小， μ 为每一代的序列突变率（ Watterson 1975; Tajima 1983 ）。有两种公认的 θ 估值，一个是 Watterson 估值（ Watterson’s estimator, θ W ），把 θ 与 K 联系起来，即 θ W =K/a ，其中 a= （ Watterson 1975 ）；另一个是 Tajima 估值（ Tajima’s estimator, θ T ），即 θ T =∏ （ Tajima 1983 ）。从理论上说，在中性条件下，应当有 θ T =θ W =4 N e μ 的平衡状态。因此， Tajima （ 1989 ）设计了 D 值检验（ Tajima’s D ），即 D= ，通过统计学模型来验证中性突变假说。 Tajima’s D 值检验的作用原理是（ Tajima 1989 ）：在原有的平衡状态中（ θ T =θ W =4 N e μ ），所以 D=0 。但是，如果群体中存在许多低频率的等位基因（稀有等位基因），可以期望 K/a 不断增大而 ∏ 并未受到严重影响，因为后者主要是由高频率等位基因决定的。于是有 θ T θ W ，则 D0 。相反，当群体中是中等频率的等位基因占主导时，可以期望 ∏ 增大而 K/a 不受影响；这时 θ T θ W ， D0 。 Tajima （ 1989 ）把过多低频率等位基因的存在归咎为定向选择时，选择性清除下选择性清除会削弱原有等位基因的在群体中的频率，而使新等位基因以低频率补充进来成为稀有等位基因。相反，如果是中等频率的等位基因占主导，则可能是平衡选择的结果，或者是种群大小在经历瓶颈时使稀有等位基因丢失。因此，当 Tajima’s D 显著大于 0 时，可用于推断瓶颈效应和平衡选择；当 Tajima’s D 显著小于 0 时，可用于推断群体规模放大和定向选择。由于平衡选择与定向选择都属于正选择的范畴，因此，只要 D 值显著背离 0 ，就可能是自然选择的结果；而当 D 值不显著背离 0 时，则中性零假说则不能被排除。 之后， Fu 和 Li （ 1993 ）提出了与 Tajima’s D 略为不同的方法来检验中性进化，即 Fu and Li’s D F test 。他们考虑的是可以获得外类群的情况，因而对一组给定的等位基因序列可以构建一颗有根树。在这棵树上，总突变数为 y ，内部分枝突变数为 y i ，外部分枝的突变数目为 y e ，则 y=y i +y e 。这里 y 和 y e 的数学期望值分别为 E(y)=a*θ ， E(y e )= θ ，其中 a= 。如果发生了选择作用，那么外部分枝突变数将会偏离期望值，而内部分枝突变数并未受到严重影响。因此，可根据与 Tajima’s D 类似的策略，构建统计模型来验证中性零假说。此外， Fay 和 Wu （ 2000 ）构建了 H 检验（ Fay and Wu’s H test ），用以测试高频率变异与中等频率变异的差异。他们认为在中性占主流的状态下，并不期望会出现很多高频率的变异，因而仅仅根据少数存在的高频率的变异就可以推断 “ 搭车效应 ” 。在果蝇的一些低频重组的区域中， H 检验观察到了许多高频率变异，因此， Fay 和 Wu （ 2000 ）推断果蝇中的这些高频变异可能是由于 “ 搭车效应 ” 时正选择保留了有利变异并使其以高频率在群体中存在。 到目前为止， Tajima’s D ， Fu and Li’s D F test 和 Fay and Wu’s H test ，可能是针对群体内的等位基因频率被运用得最广泛的中性检验模型（ Nielsen 2005 ）。 原文来自： http://hi.baidu.com/wangjuan730/blog/item/02724f3bfb48f92d70cf6cd8.html
沈海荣、杨勇生、沈斌 .The realization of optimization on balance system of large floating crane with full rotation based on genetic algorithmic.2011 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Computing,Control and Industrial Engineering. Aug. 20-21,2011,Wuhan,China,IEEE PRESS:85-89, EI: 20113914382045
沈斌，高磊，王家海 . 基于方差分析的航空电子产品质量控制图的研究计 . 机电一体化， Vol. 17,No.5,2011:50-53 The Study of Quality Control Chart Based on ANOVA for Electronic Products. Mechatronics, Vol. 17,No.9,2011: 30-34
1. 闫广超、沈斌、王家海、李玉明、朱国良 . 井下巷道无线射频识别阅读器多目标约束优化选址方法 . 煤炭学报， Vol.35, No. 9,2010:1581~1586 Way to the multi-objective constrained optimization site of RFID reader in roadway of mine. Vol.35, No. 9,2010:1581~1586, CSCD,EI ： 20104313334575
沈斌，闫广超，彭程，朱国良 . 基于 RFID 的被动式井下考勤系统上位机控制模块的设计与实现 . 机电一体化， 2010 年第四期： 58-61 页 ,65 页 Designing and realizing of host computer control modeling of attendance checking system undermine which is inactive mode.
Shen Bin, Qi Danjin, Fan Liuqun, Horst Meier . Co-Service Manufacturing System Integrated OPC UA/FDT for Complex Equipments Field Devices. International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Green Manufacturing,19-20,November,2010,Xingtan, China,Part 1:344~349, EI: 20110213557444
1. 沈斌、闫广超 .Wire between RFID Devices Optimal Planning Based on Dijkstra Algorithm.ICCEE 2010 3 rd International Conference on Computer and Electrical Engineering,16-18,November,2010,Chengdu,China,Volume 2:V2-435~438
沈斌、欧阳华兵．关于复杂曲面刀具轨迹规划技术的研究．新技术新工艺， 2010 年第 9 期 :24-27 Researching Development of Tool Planning Techniques for the Complex Sculptured Surface. NEW TECHNOLOGY NEW PROCESS. 2010(9):24-27
沈斌、欧阳华兵、闫广超．一种基于反馈补偿的参数曲线数控插补算法．机械工程学报， 2010 年第 46 卷第 15 期 :136-141 A CNC Interpolation Algorithm for Parametric Curves Based on Feedback Compensation.Journal of Mechanical Engineering,2010,Vol.46(15): 136-141 （ A CNC interpolation algorithm for parametric curves based on feedback compensation Shen, Bin (School of Sino-German, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China); Ouyang, Huabing ; Yan, Guangchao Source: Jixie Gongcheng Xuebao/Journal of Mechanical Engineering , v 46, n 15, p 136-141, August 5, 2010 Language: Chinese Database: Compendex ） , CSCD, EI ： 20103613222416
林正英、沈斌 . 车身覆盖件的夹持位置优化研究 . 计算机工程与应用， 2009 年第 19 期： Research on optimization of pickup position for automobile panels.Computer Engineering, Vol. 45, No.19, 2009:220-223, CSCD,EI: 11248114
沈斌、占彦．一种基于 SimMechanics 的车轮地面模型．机械工程师， No.8,2009:61~63 A wheel-terrain interaction model based von SimMechanics.Mechanical Engineerinr, No.8,2009:61~63
沈斌、周莹君、王家海．基于 AHP-RBF 神经网络的协同制造伙伴选择研究．机械设计与制造， No.11,Nov.2008:139~141 Research of collaborative manufacturing partners selection based on AHP-RBF algorithm. Machinery Design Manufacturing, No.11,Nov.2008:139~141
1. 沈斌、金锋、王宏雁．基于关联规则挖掘的行人保护研究．农业装备与车辆工程， No.7,2008:9~11 Research on Pedestrian Protectiong System Based on association Rule Mining. Agricultural Equipment Vehicle Eineering, No.7,2008:9~11
1.1.3 通过材料设计提高热电性能的思考 在 1.1.1.2 小节中已作介绍，好的热电材料要求具有高的 Seebeck 系数 ( α ) 和电导率 (σ) 、低的热导率 (k) 。这三个参数均以载流子浓度 n 和温度 T 为变量，形成关联体系，参数间相互耦合并互为牵制，强烈依赖于具体材料体系的能带结构。因此，基于理论指导，积极寻找促使诸参数均向有利方向发展的新思路，探索新的材料体系及制备方法，拓宽科学视野借鉴相关学科的新研究方法，并积极获取实验反馈以不断修正既有思路，是推动热电领域不断向前发展，促使热电转换效率不断提高的现实途径。现从能带和结构设计角度，对热电参数进行简单讨论： (1) 首先，从提高 Seebeck 系数 α 的角度进行讨论，通常半导体和半金属材料的 α 可由下式表征： （ 1.12 ） 其中， m* 代表载流子的有效质量， n 为载流子浓度， k B 为玻尔兹曼常数。由式（ 1.12 ）中可知， Seebeck 系数 α 与载流子有效质量 m* 成正比，同时与浓度 n 成反比。载流子有效质量 m* 可表达为： （ 1.13 ） 因此，可从能带结构调制的角度来选择热电材料和提升既定材料的 Seebeck 系数。建立材料体系在能量空间的坐标系，假设各向同性，以波矢量 k 为轴可形成费米球，对热电转换有贡献的载流子主要集中在费米球面附近几个 k B T 范围内，因此，一方面要求在导带底部，布里渊区不同方向 取极值处的能谷底部曲率要小即形状扁平，这样即可获取大的 m* ；另一方面， Seebeck 系数与载流子浓度 n 呈反比关系，这与电导率对 n 的要求正好相反。为调和这个矛盾，需要使费米能级落在谷底扁平而边沿陡峭且为多能谷结构的导带底附近，从而在获取相对高的态密度和 Seebeck 系数。同时，要求禁带宽带不可过大，以便利用调制掺杂的手段有效调制费米能级的位置。较好的热电材料其载流子浓度 n ～ 10 19 /cm 3 左右，接近简并态半导体水平。 基于以上考虑，可从掺杂工程和能带工程两方面提出技术方案。首先，对已选定的热电材料体系进行组分设计，在 Seebeck 系数和电导率两者之间进行调制被视为最常用的手段，比如，化学计量比的偏离或引入外来原子进行掺杂；再者，可通过控制材料微结构的方式来修饰和改善能带结构，如在禁带中引入邻近导带底的缺陷态制造迁移率边、制造低维纳米结构或超晶格结构，从而实现对能带形状、带隙宽度、态密度分布的人工干预，从而有效改善材料电输运特性，同时提高 Seebeck 系数；另外，设计块体多晶材料的晶粒尺寸，使其与某些与输运有关特征尺寸相比拟，如载流子平均自由程和德布罗意波长，利用边界和相界的散射实现载流子的能量过滤效应，可在实现迁移率和 Seebeck 系数的同时提升，等等。 由于 α 与载流子浓度 n 成反比，对于类金属材料，若单独从降低 n 同时调制 Seebeck 系数的角度分析，可通过技术手段（如纳米化使禁带蓝移）适当拉宽选定材料的禁带宽度，从而显著抑制在晶格热振动协助下从价带跃迁进入导带的载流子数量，同时，有意选择间接带隙材料可进一步抑制这种带间跃迁，毕竟这是一种选择性跃迁，除了满足带间能量差值外，还需要满足声子的准动量守恒。 对于好的热电材料，仅仅提升 Seebeck 系数显然不够，一味追求高的有效质量 m* 和低载流子浓度 n 并无意义，材料同时还应具有高的电导率 σ 。 (2) 电导率 σ 可简单表达如下： （ 1.14 ） （ 1.15 ） 其中， n 代表载流子浓度， μ 表示载流子的迁移率， τ 代表载流子平均自由时间。可以看到，载流子浓度越大，有效质量 m* 越小，则电导率越大，这与上述 Seebeck 系数 α 的要求正好相反。 由于热电材料需要在各个不同温区应用，实际上还需考虑各种材料之于温度的敏感性质，如本征激发过程对载流子浓度的巨大影响。 载流子在电场驱动作用的输运过程中，会遭遇各种散射机制，如电离杂质散射（小角散射），晶格振动散射（包括光学波和声学波），等同能谷间散射（准动量改变较大的非弹性散射），合金散射，中性杂质散射和位错、晶界、相界等缺陷散射机制以及载流子之间的散射。载流子散射机制的存在，使得载流子的平均自由程受到制约，同时对晶体中的电荷迁移和能量输运过程产生影响。这些散射机制的强度、几率和随温度的关系各不相同，在这些机制共同作用下，载流子在电场作用下以某个平均漂移速率沿电场方向总体做有序迁移。其中几种主要散射机制的弛豫时间和迁移率随温度的关系如表 1.1 所示。 表 1.1 各种散射机构下的弛豫时间和迁移率对载流子能量与温度关系 散射机制 驰豫时间 t 迁移率 非简并 简并 声学波 E - 1/2 T - 1 T - 3/2 T - 1 光学波 E 1/2 T - 1 T - 3/2 T - 1 离化杂质 E 3/2 T 0 T 3/2 T 0 合金散射 E - 1/2 T 0 T - 1/2 T 0 中性杂质 E 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 从式（ 1.14 ）和（ 1.15 ）可知，提高载流子浓度 n 和迁移率 μ 是提高电导率 σ 的直接途径，而弛豫时间 τ 和有效质量 m* 与迁移率 μ 相关。这需要深入考虑散射机制对电导率的影响。设法提升平均自由程和弛豫时间，从而提升迁移率，容易让人们联想到“纯净”无缺陷的材料，从制作成本以及材料机械特性考虑这并不具有现实意义，即便得到本征的单晶体材料，其电导率还将受到载流子浓度的制约，且对温度过于敏感。上文中已提到，尽管杂质电离对迁移率和电导率具有一定的损害，掺杂仍是提升载流子浓度的最有效途径之一，进而大幅提高电导率，然而，同时须考虑对 Seebeck 系数可能带来的不利影响；而通过对量子阱和超晶格结构的人工能带设计，形成二维电子气体或空穴气体，可巧妙避免杂质电离等散射机制，同时可调制费米面附近的态密度，有机会实现电导率 σ 和功率因子的同时提升。另外，来自低维纳米结构的表面散射机制，虽存在对载流子输运的潜在不利影响，但若对比表面巨大的纳米结构表面进行改性，如通过表面活性剂等表面改性技术引入高密度表面态，则可能使纳米材料表面形成优于体输运的表面电输运通道，在不严重削弱 Seebeck 系数的同时大幅提升材料的导电能力。 (3) 下面讨论热导率 的相关影响因素，其组成简单表达如下： （ 1.16 ） 其中， 为晶格贡献热导率， 为电子热导率，由 Wiedemann-Lorenz 定律可知电子热导率与电子电导率成正比，比例为 Lorenz 常数。我们仅讨论晶格热导率。 （ 1.17 ） 上式中， C 为晶格热容量， v 代表声子即格波在三维空间的平均运动速率， l 表示声子的平均自由程。从式（ 1.17 ）可知，降低 v 和 l 是降低热导率 的直接途径。最直观的办法有，提升温度加剧晶格振动，通过合金化掺杂等手段和引入各类缺陷（如表界面、位错或外来杂质等）来破坏周期性势场，从而加剧对声子的散射。但这种引入散射机制以抑制声子运动的方法无疑同时会造成对载流子的散射，同时损害电导。针对这一矛盾，诸如电子晶体 - 声子玻璃等概念被提出，即寻找晶格中天然存在较大孔洞的材料，将外来离子填入孔洞，使框架原子与填充离子的振动模式耦合产生新式声学波，对声子造成散射进而降低晶格热导。再者，通过纳米尺度下的设计，使纳米晶或纳米结构的特征尺寸（小于电子平均自由程）与声子自由程相比拟，在不严重损害电导的前提下大幅抑制声子传播。 在上述三个主要热电参数互为制约的情况下，为寻找参数间的有机平衡从而提升热电优值 ZT ，并进一步扩大热电材料的温度区间和使用范围，各种新概念、新材料和新方法可引入到热电材料的设计与制备中，分述如下： (I) 考虑到 Seebeck 系数a和电导率 σ 之间的互为牵制，纳米尺度量子限域效应和能带工程人工调制带隙的思想被引入到热电材料的制备中。引用 Hicks 和 Dresselhaus 等人的结论，认为减少维度会使费米面附近的电子态密度变大，既增大了电导率，且使得载流子的有效质量增加，即通过超晶格量子阱 (MQW) 结构调和a和 σ 之间的矛盾，大幅提高能量因子（ ）。因此，二维、一维、零维纳米结构和低维复合的思想可引入到热电材料的制备中，通过对纳米结构的调控实现对热电性能的全面优化。另外，上述提到超晶格的多层结构，可造成声子在垂直平面生长方向的界面散射增加，从而降低材料的热导率。 (II) 考虑到上述所说电导和晶格热导之间的矛盾，“电子晶体声子玻璃” (PGEC) 概念的材料应运而生，该类材料通过结构调制同时具有较高的电导率和类似非晶态玻璃的热导率。如 Skutterudite 和 Clathrates 体系，其结构中存在一系列的结构空隙 ( 或笼子 ) ，可供插入外来原子，实现笼内填充原子与笼壁主体原子之间弱的键合，笼内插入原子的剧烈振动与主体原子晶格振动模式耦合形成新的光学支振动模式，从而降低材料的热导。同时，主体原子晶格仍保持良好的周期势场，载流子仍具有极好的迁移性能。另外， Zintl 相化合物则是利用其自身的复杂结构，比如在内部的多面体空隙笼式结构、管型结构、孤立线型络合阴离子基团等，以多角度对热导和电导参数进行调控，追求热电优值的优化。 (III) 利用载流子能量滤过效应，通过对纳米晶的尺寸调制，实现对高能量载流子和低能量载流子的比例控制，进而对迁移率进行控制。最近， Makongo 等通过在 Half-heusler 基体相 Zr 0.25 Hf 0.75 NiSn 0.975 Sb 0.025 中原位引入 Full-heusler 纳米第二相（ 10nm ），纳米晶第二相界面对载流子的能量过滤效应，致使室温附近 Seebeck 系数提升，同时由于迁移率较 Half-heusler 基体材料显著提升，弥补了载流子浓度下降对电导率的影响。随温度升高，复合物的载流子浓度随温度指数上升，而迁移率仅线性下降，有效质量线性增加，致使材料的 Seebeck 系数和电导率随温度同时提升，在 775K 获取了高功率因子。俄罗斯学者 Bulat 等人 用机械合金化得到纳米粉末再 SPS 烧结制备具有纳米结构的 Bi x Sb 2-x Te 3 合金， ZT 值达到 1.12 。他们认为纳米晶界的能量过滤效应对载流子的散射可以导致 Seebeck 的增加，而纳米晶对载流子的散射和声子散射产生的电导率和热导率的下降基本相互抵消； (IV) 在微结构层面上，设计电子晶体 - 声子玻璃微结构。实现电输运与热传导的分离控制。如采用湿化学法合成亚晶态一维纳米结构薄膜，通过表面活性剂在纳米线表面制造大量表面态密度，使一维纳米结构表面具有极高的迁移率和导电性。一维纳米线的体相结构具有非晶性质，从而造成低的晶格热导。同时，纳米结构膜的多孔性，表面粗糙度等性质均有利于降低材料的热导率，且有机会提升 Seebeck 系数。 另外，通过引入适当种类和用量的巯基类小分子（如巯基乙酸、巯基丙酸、巯基乙醇和巯基乙胺等）含硫前驱体（如硫脲、硫代乙酰胺）或使用混合溶剂（在乙二醇中加入亚原子比例的硫代乙二醇），使 S 原子与目标产物固溶，或使含硫溶剂发挥作为表面活性剂的作用，如使巯基乙酸、硫代乙二醇分子原位钉扎在新鲜生成的纳米结构表面，均可用来调节和改善材料的电输运特性，并为可控获取 n 型和 p 型薄膜（或块体）材料提供契机。最近， Nature Materials上 报道一种通过湿化学法一步制备并调制掺杂硫族化合物低维纳米结构，而后致密化获取热电材料的方法。该法采用氯化铋或氯化锑，单质硒或碲为原料，高沸点的 1-5 戊二醇及三正辛基膦作为溶剂，外加巯基乙酸作为产物形状的导向剂、阻碍产物氧化及掺杂硫的供给剂。所制备的硫族化合物纳米片经冷压和 300 ～ 400 o C 真空烧结，得到了 ZT 值高达 1.1 的 p- 型和 n- 型的纳米晶块体材料。材料具有高的 ZT 值，主要源于纳米结构化（ nanostructuring ）及硫（巯基乙酸钉扎）在纳米表面的调制掺杂（ 0.01 ～ 0.3 at.% ），从而使材料具有极低的热导率和高的功率因子； (V) 利用第二相纳米颗粒复合提高热电性能。引入含 Cu 纳米颗粒导体与 Bi 2 Te 3 基体进行复合，可视为热电材料发展的一个线索。以 Cu 复合的方式进行分类：首先， Cu 与 Bi 2 Te 3 固溶，同时， Cu 单质相与基体相复合。 CuHan 等 最近以单质为原料，分别用真空熔融法及 Bridgman 法制备 Cu x Bi 2 Te 3 (x=0-0.1) 多晶和单晶材料，认为 Cu 掺杂后进入 Bi 2 Te 3 结构中，位于范德华键合的 Te (1) -Te (1) 层之间。在 x=0.05 ～ 0.1 时，发现有 3 ～ 5 nm 的 Cu 纳米颗粒出现（而当 x≥0.1 时有 Cu 2.86 Te 2 相出现）， Cu 纳米颗粒对声子产生散射，同时扮 Cu 起到施主的作用，使 Bi 2 Te 3 材料的导电类型从原来的 p 型转变为 n 型。 陈钢 等最近也研究了 Cu 掺杂的作用，他们也以单质为原料，但用高能球磨后热压烧结制备 Cu 掺杂的 n- 型 Bi 2 Te 2.7 Se 0.3 ，认为 Cu 可能位于结构中 4 个 Te (1) 原子形成的四面体间隙， Cu 进入此间隙后使得 Te 不易挥发，从而降低 Te 空位浓度，提高了垂直于基面方向的导电性。优化组分 Cu 0.01 Bi 2 Te 2.7 Se 0.3 的最大 ZT 值达到 0.99 ，而且发现 Cu 的掺入可以提高性能的重复性。 再者，以含 Cu 第二相的形式与 Bi 2 Te 3 基材料进行复合。采用湿化学法将 Cu 以前驱体原料（如 CuCl 2 等）的形式引入合金体系，或在致密化操作前，加入一定比例的 Cu 单质亚微米粉末。结合 CuHan 等的报道，以及我们自己的研究发现：当 Cu 在 Cu x Bi 2 Te 3 中的配比 x 较大时， Cu 还将以富 Cu 相（如 Cu 2-δ Te 相（ 0.015δ0.222 ））的形式从基体中析出，与基体相形成复合材料，并对热电材料的组分和输运构成重大影响：第一，富 Cu 第二相的析出使原 Bi 2 Te 3 基体的结构失稳，通常基体中 Te 缺失，而 Bi 和 Sb 离子占据 Te 空位 V Te 形成 Bi Te 和 Sb Te 反位缺陷，大量贡献空穴从而大幅提升材料的电导率，提升电导率；第二，通过对固相合成中“固溶 - 析出”过程的控制，可使纳米级 Cu 2-δ Te 第二相从基体组织中析出，其作为离子导电体具有一定的导电能力，通过尺寸和组分调控可望获取高的 Seebeck 系数，同时，考虑纳米第二相的引入对热输运的抑制作用，除了纳米晶粒通常造成中长波声子散射，第二相的相界面还对中频声子散射提供了额外的贡献，达到提到 ZT 值的目的； (VI) 形成固溶体合金材料并织构化。固溶体、金属间化合物或超结构中由于晶格中不同种类原子间相互作用的牵制以及缺陷、无序度的增加，造成晶格畸变和应力严重，对晶格热声子的散射加剧，从而可显著降低材料热导率。如在 Bi 2 Te 3 基础上发展出来的 (Bi,Sb) 2 (Te,Se) 3 类固溶体材料是研究最早也较成熟的合金固溶体热电材料，在对本已较大的 Seebeck 系数和不错的电导率进行调制的同时，可降低材料的热导率。 另外， N- 型的 Bi 2 Te 2.7 Se 0.3 单晶的功率因子与取向性关联较大：与基面平行方向的功率因子比与基面垂直方向的要高得多 。这就使得 n 型 Bi 2 Te 2.7 Se 0.3 多晶材料的功率因子比其沿基面方向生长的单晶材料的要低得多。 Yan 等将高能球磨得到的 Bi 2 Te 2.7 Se 0.3 纳米粉末热压，再将已热压的块体用孔径较大的模具热压，使得晶粒取向更显著，结果垂直于热压方向的 ZT 值从 0.85 提高到 1.04 ，而平行于热压方向的有所降低，但这不影响其应用，因为在构建热电器件时只要利用高 ZT 方向即可。 (VII) 从元素组合体系设计的角度，构筑 “重费米子半导体”。 Slack 预言 U 3 Pt 3 Sb 4 这类重费米子半导体具有较好热电性能和发展前景。这类材料的载流子有效质量较一般半导体材料高很多倍，从能带结构上看，即载流子所处能谷结构变的陡峭，迁移率虽相对较低，但能态密度较大，具有较大的 Seebeck 系数，同时具有较强的声子散射能力。该类材料能带结构的特殊性源于镧系和锕系元素 f 原子轨道电子的特异性，重费米半导体材料还有 Ce 1-x La x Ni 2 ， Ce 1-x La x Ln 3 ， CePd 3 等。
长期以来，论文的被引用次数是评估学术论文有用性和影响力的最重要、甚至是唯一指标。随着在线出版与阅读的普及，论文的阅读（点击）、下载、评论、推荐等也逐渐成为论文有用性的评价指标。 PLoS 系列期刊自 2009 年开始尝试使用论文价值的综合计量指标，除被引频次外，已积累了如下多项指标： l 使用：通过 PLoS 网站和 PMC 网站的网页阅读、 PDF 和 XML 下载； l 引用：基于 CrossRef,PubMedCentral,Scopus,ISIWebofScience 等统计； l PLoS 的读者评估：评论、附注、评级； l 博客报道：研究性博客、 Nature 博客； l 社交网络工具： CiteULike ， Connotea ， Facebook ， Mendeley( 可以在 windows 、 Linux 、 iPhone 、 iPad 等终端上使用的文献管理工具 ) 。 参考阅读 ： Liz Allen . New data sources added to Article-Level Metrics. video , http://www.screenr.com/cNys
虽然抄袭复制可以很容易地被软件检测出来，但是如何杜绝仍然是一个问题。 2012 年 1 月 5 日 的 Nature 上刊发了专题评论，向大家解读如何杜绝抄袭剽窃。 Flag plagiarized studies . Harold Garner (Founder of HelioText, and creator of eTBLAST plagiarism-detection software) …… 通过一个自动检测参考文献相似性的程序，发现 2009 年 3 月的 Medline 数据库中有 150 例潜在的抄袭剽窃，其后的道德调查引发了 56 篇撤稿。 Spot subtle forms. Bernd Pulverer (Head of scientific publications, European Molecular Biology Organization) …… 检测软件不能发现所有形式的抄袭。高水平的同行评议和细致的编辑可能更为有效。随着 “ 发表或灭亡 ” 压力的加剧，有必要推行高道德标准。 Check all manuscripts. Ana Marušić Mladen Petrovečki (University of Split School of Medicine; University of Rijeka School of Medicine, Croatia) …… 经验告诉我们，最好的方式是防范学术不端的发生。 Use professional translators . John Loadsman (Editor, Anaesthesia and Intensive Care) …… 非母语作者最好先使用自己的母语写作，然后请专业翻译人员翻译。 Blacklist repeat offenders . Yuehong Zhang Ian Mcintosh (Managing editor, and English editor, Journal of Zhejiang University Science A/B/C) …… 建立一个记录屡次违反学术道德的黑名单数据库。所有的主要出版商都应该来签署这个数据库项目。 Invest in prevention . Sandra Titus (Health science administrator, US Office of Research Integrity) 如果我必须在购买剽窃检测软件和介绍预防剽窃资源中择其一的话，我宁愿选择后者 …… Teach scientists to paraphrase. Miguel Roig (St John’s University, New York, author of guide to avoiding plagiarism) …… 大多数作者都知道如何恰当地转述，但遇到技术性文字时，便倾向于抄袭。 Catch system gamers . Melissa Anderson (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis) …… 最好的补救措施是提高学术警惕性和坚持良好的引证行为。 全文阅读: How-to-stop-plagiarism.pdf 致谢：感谢《浙江大学学报》编辑部张月红主任提供本文的信息来源
报上曾经讨论要不要给照顾孩子的长辈发工资。这里记录一下我周围的芸芸众生相。一般而言，老人多有照看孙辈的重要使命。知道现在的年轻人都忙，所以大部份情况下这些老人还是心甘情愿地被儿女家“雇佣”的，有的有报酬，有的无偿服务，有的甚至还要倒贴。 张太在女儿家做“住家保姆”。女儿家另有钟点工做饭、打扫卫生。张太的全职就是照看三岁的外孙女。管她的吃喝拉撒，还要带着进早教班。来回出租车费自然可以向女儿报销。张太觉得再要谈“工资”就太把自己当外人了。住家保姆已经有段时间了。虽说有含饴弄孙之乐，但整天陪着个三岁的娃娃也怪无聊的，那像在自己家，早上打拳，下午麻将，晚上电视剧，生活丰富多彩得很。现在只好先把外孙女的早教班当成老年大学，听听 ABCD ，学学色彩涂鸦，然后就是盼着外孙女早点长大。 李太是儿子家的“钟点工”。孙子上小学了。上学由他爹妈接送，李太的任务是接孙子放学回家。等到儿子或儿媳下班，李太就可以坐公交回自己家了。这位奶奶“钟点工”并不消耗“雇主”家的吃饭、睡觉资源，也基本不影响自己的日常生活。除了儿子提供的交通卡外还有儿子给的所谓“辛苦费”。“雇佣”关系倒也十分和谐。 王太开始也和张太一样，上门到儿子家全职照看孙女。可是才做了一个月就想辞职不干。当然不是嫌“雇主”儿子给的“薪水”低。主要是媳妇给孩子的衣食住行都制定了一套“科学”规矩。奶奶要样样照办的话还真有点费劲。衣服穿多了，穿少了，零食吃多了，吃少了……，常常与媳妇有点小摩擦。让王太不开心甚至吃醋的是只要儿子媳妇晚上一到家，孙女就把照料了一天的奶奶晾一边。一口一个“妈妈我爱你”，王太只好讪讪地回自己的房间。于是王太对儿子讲，我还是把你们的女儿带回去照顾吧，就当你们送了全托，周末再送回你们家可好？儿子没有意见，可儿媳那里就是通不过。媳妇私下里对丈夫说，要是孩子跟到奶奶家，养成不好的习惯怎么办，再说我天天下班看不到女儿又怎么办。所以王太今后到底是留儿子家继续当“住家保姆”呢，还是力争回自己家做寄宿“托儿所”的“阿姨”呢， to be or not to be , that’s the question! 高老太刚退休，单位征求意见，可以返聘一年。高太正担心退休回归家庭要被外孙套牢，当然希望返聘了。高太的女儿说了，妈，单位给你多少返聘工资啊，你帮我带孩子，我给你返聘工资的两倍还不行吗？高太就这一个女儿，说穿了自己的工资都花不了，将来眼睛一闭，剩的还不是统统给女儿，要女儿的高“薪水”有什么用啊！上班多简单，多快乐啊，情愿上班！不过高太也在发愁，返聘一年期满后怎么办？躲得了初一躲不过十五！ 上面说的这些老人和儿女还都住在上海，最有奉献牺牲精神的怕是那些新上海人的父母了。从来没有来过上海的老人要到一个完全陌生的城市来生活，真是个巨大的考验。老人怕上海没有暖气的冬天，怕上海湿漉漉的黄梅天，怕没有馒头大葱蘸酱吃，怕自己的家乡话无法与人交流。尤其农村来的老人住在有煤气，有淋浴器，有空调的房间里常常手足无措。好在眼下新上海人不少，小区里上门服务的外地老人也渐渐多了起来。他们经常抱着孩子在一起拉家常，真有点像小区里的保姆帮。不同的是他们不会说东家的不是，不会说“薪水”的多寡，也绝对不会见异思迁跳槽。而儿女们也因此省心不少，爹妈有伴了，就留住了爹妈的心！ 若是老人有两个孩子的孩子同时需要帮助照料呢？这就让老人为难了，不能厚此薄彼呀！老两口拆开？一如我早年在报上发表文章所说的那样来个“老”燕分飞？分飞的距离有在本城范围的，有在本国范围的，夸张的居然还有一个在中国，一个在美国的。至于实在请不到自己父母来帮忙的，阿姨、姑妈也是可以考虑的候选人。单位的老陈就曾经去澳洲照顾过侄女的孩子，从没机会出国的她这回当了回“飞佣”。 年轻人啊！好好善待自家的老人“保姆”吧，毕竟他们是真心实意在为你们解决后顾之忧。何以回报？给钱发“薪水”也行，有空带他们外出旅游也行，送礼物当然也行。不过最最重要的，发自内心的甜言蜜语可千万不要吝啬啊！
有把年纪的人都知道洋货在中国的遭遇曾几起几落。近代洋货最被禁锢的就是文革期间了。所以国门刚开的时候，有幸出国的必定要带洋货回来送人，男送刮胡刀，女送短丝袜。脚穿尼龙袜的女士，恨不得在办公室就换上这薄如蝉翼的半透明洋袜。那知道这袜子的短寿与一次性刮胡刀片其实不相上下。 当时国家为了积累外汇，发行了外汇兑换卷。老百姓用外汇换来的兑换卷可以到南京路华侨商店买洋货。而陕西路出国人员服务部则专为归国人员购买免税洋货而设立。如在国外待满一年，可以获得的购买洋货指标是四大件、四小件。什么是大件呢，冰箱、彩电，小件就是微波炉、吸尘器等。当时这些商品即使不免税，即使是国产的，国内也基本买不到。因此归国人员都很看重这个优待，回国行装甫卸就往 出国人员服务部跑。自己买，多余的指标作为贵重礼物让亲友去买，倒卖免税洋货指标的黄牛也应运而生。那时候谁家有那么几件洋电器的，多半是家里有人出过国的。 国家的形势好得很快，出国这样的事已进入寻常百姓家。而国内更是什么买不到？洋货不稀罕啦！华侨商店、出国人员服务部早就改弦易辙；外汇卷、大件小件的说法也已消亡！现在以免税招揽归国人员的大概也只有小轿车了。不过中国人的习惯还是要在回国的时候带点洋货回来，刮胡刀和袜子自然不能再带了，那么买什么送人呢，还真费脑筋。一次我在荷兰，想想荷兰是飞利浦电器的娘家，精心挑选了两把飞利浦电动剃须刀，回国一看盒子包装的角落里居然隐藏着 made in China 。呜呜，那我何苦到荷兰买啊！ 眼下有没有出国淘洋货的，有啊！君不见巴黎、纽约、东京、首尔的商场里挤满了腰缠万贯的中国人，疯抢着名牌包包、皮鞋、珠宝、化妆品……。 LV 包敞着口没拉链不要紧； CLARKS 皮鞋产自巴西也不要紧，统统买下。就是有一点让我们想显摆的国人有点不爽，为什么这些奢侈品的 LOGO 都窝在不显眼的地方呢。
（ 1 ）法国人 B 到上海旅游，住在老乡 JP 租借的房子里，一室一厅， JP 住卧室，来客 B 自然只能住客厅了。两个老外和楼下的门卫混熟了，这边喊“笨猪”（ Bonjour ，您好），那边就会答“傻驴”（ Salut ，你好）。一日 JP 外出，让 B 晚上回家自己掏钥匙开门。半夜， B 在酒吧喝得醉醺醺的，踉踉跄跄拔出钥匙，怎么捅都捅不开门。好个 B 居然还记得去找门卫，因为是商住两用楼，门卫有每套房子的钥匙，很快为 B 打开了房门， B 进门倒在客厅沙发上就呼呼大睡。也不知道过了多久， B 只觉得人声鼎沸，睁开醉眼一看，几个警察外加一个漂亮的姑娘正围着他，原来 B 走错了房间。这个家只有姑娘一人，晚上睡得也够沉的了，居然不知道半夜三更进来一个洋男人。早上出卧室一看，吓得可不轻，忙拨 110 。面对中国警察，法国人 B 的舌头打结了，“笨猪”、“傻驴”外加一连串的“没戏、没戏（ Merci ，谢谢）”。还没戏啊？这个戏可是演得够邪乎的了！ （ 2 ） 意大利的小偷世界闻名，意大利人 A 享受着上海的平安无事。一日背了个包逛城隍庙，正兴致勃勃着呢，忽听身旁有人大喝一声，只见两位年轻人扭住了一个拿着他钱包的家伙，原来是便衣警察在小偷行窃时抓了个现场。一会儿警车便呼啸而至， A 和小偷都被带到了警署。为了量刑，警察要了解被窃物品的价值。 A 的钱包里有护照、信用卡、现金，这些都一一记录了下来。那个钱包呢，看起来价值不菲。值多少？民警问。 A 说不知道，因为这是太太送的生日礼物。还没有等民警继续询问，他那边就已经用手机拨通了意大利国际长途。 A 的认真倒也让中国警察有几分感动。 A 就更加感动了，因为太太送的生日礼物失而复得、安然无恙啊。一激动， A 就说起了意大利语，对警察又是 “割拉窃” （ Grazie ，谢谢） ，又是 “ 布恩救了侬” （ Buongiorno ，你好） 。弄得中国警察直纳闷，怎么？这个意大利人还知道中文的“窃”啊，“救”啊的？莫非是在说他失窃的时候我们救了他？厉害，厉害！
最新一期美国《科学》（ Science ）刊登了一篇论文，引起了世界性的轰动，撰写者为美国著名生物学家梅新梅菲德教授。据他所领导的研究机构研究表明，人类和猪拥有同一个祖先，人类的基因是由猪的基因变异而来的。 我们怎么会是猪变的呢？不少科学家对此是持异议的，甚至严重质疑《科学》的学术严谨性。 梅新梅菲德教授就此在《纽约时报》（ The New York Times ）发表申明，他和他的研究机构愿意对研究结果负责，他很能理解人们尤其是一些人类学家的反应。梅新梅菲德教授同时表示，作为我们曾经的同类——猪，人类不应该歧视它们，应给予最起码的尊重。 来自加州的国会议员海斯里女士接受美国哥伦比亚广播公司（ CBS ）记者采访时说，她准备于近期提请国会通过一项法案，旨在重新修订《美利坚合众国宪法》，保证猪享有与人平等的权利。她进一步解释说，法案一旦通过，美国将禁止屠杀牲猪，贩卖猪肉即属违法行为。 为了全面唤醒人类的良知，海斯里女士将提请国会向政府施压，敦促联合国审议通过有关禁止屠杀牲猪的国际公约，在全世界范围内维护猪与人享有的平等权利。 一场“人是猪变的”运动在华盛顿、纽约、洛杉矶、芝加哥、休斯敦等各大城市悄然兴起，正有向伦敦、巴黎、柏林、东京、北京等各大都市蔓延的趋势。世界人权组织总干事费利布特郝先生接受英国广播公司（ BBC ）记者采访时表示，世界人权组织不反对猪或其他动物享受与人同等的权利，但是在没有进一步研究可以证明“人与猪同祖”的情况下，对梅新梅菲德教授及其研究机构的研究持中立态度。 来自梵蒂冈的教皇本笃十六世的发言人则表示，教皇对梅新梅菲德教授及其研究机构的研究深表关切。发言人还进一步表示，梵蒂冈不会像对待乔尔丹诺﹒布鲁诺一样对待梅新梅菲德的“人猪同祖说”，教廷允许科学研究领域有不同的争议，希望更多的科学家致力于“上帝至高无尚”学说的研究，梵蒂冈愿意提供一切尽可能的帮助。 截止目前，美国白宫尚未对此发表任何看法，据说奥巴马总统正在研究对朝鲜的作战计划。这一计划主要是针对金正日死后，如何应对朝鲜局势可能引发战争的变化，美国必须确保韩国和日本两盟友的绝对安全。 才子 2011 年圣诞节于中国
利用电子态密度畸变增大热电材料的优值系数 热电能量转换是一种全固态技术。采用这种技术打造的发电装置以及热泵，利用电子作为工作流体（取代传统热机中的物理液体和气体），这使得装置中没有运动部件；进而，使之具有多方面竞争优势：可靠、运行中无震动、无噪声、高的功率密度。这类装置所完成的，是热（或温度梯度）与电功率（或电压）之间的直接转换，无须通过机械装置的中介，因而特别有利于：在小尺度和中等功率的应用（如废热以及太阳能转换）中保持其工作效率。不幸，上述优势受到了现有热电材料性能的制约。半个世纪以来，相关应用一直没有全面展开。 热电材料性能的优劣取决于优值系数 ZT 的大小，其中 Z 正比于 Seebeck 系数 S 2 与电导率 s 的乘积，反比于热导率 k ， T 是绝对温度。为提高 ZT ，近年来的研究努力主要集中在：制备纳米非晶结构，减小材料热导的晶格贡献。尽管已经有 ZT 值从 1 提高到 2 的相关成果报告，但所涉及的超晶格或纳米技术，不可避免地制约着实际应用（为使器件具有一定的功率，往往需使用大块材料）。 此外，由于声子的平均自由程不能小于原子间距，减小 k 的愿望还将受到材料固有极限值的挑战。最近，来自美国 Ohio 洲立大学的 J. P. Heremans 等 , 在传统材料 PbTe 中掺入微量的 ( 约 2%) III 族元素 Tl , 从而使得 ZT 值在 T = 750K 附近有了成倍的提高。 他们的技术路线是基于 Mahan-Sofo 理论， 即： Seebeck 系数 S 强烈地依赖于 Fermi 能级 E F 附近，载流子态密度 n ( E ) 随能量 E 的变化率， d n ( E )/d E 。研究者观察到，当 Tl 掺杂含量适当， Tl-Pb-Te 合金的 n ( E ) 在 E E F 处大大增强，同时 d n ( E F )/d E 达到极大。 ( 戴闻 编译自 Science 321 (2008): 554-557)
北京矿冶研究总院 矿山工程研究所 先进采矿技术的引领者 不断创新，带来最有效、最具成本效率的采矿解决方案，实现可持续发展 北京矿冶研究总院是亚太地区规模最大的、以矿冶科学与工程技术为核心的综合性研究、设计与咨询机构， 1999 转制为国资委直属的大型科技企业。矿山工程研究所是北京矿冶研究总院主体研究设计机构之一。致力于矿产资源开发利用相关的工程与技术研究，包括 5 大核心专业领域：先进采矿工艺研究，矿山岩石力学，矿山充填技术、资源开发工程咨询、矿山灾害监测及预警系统。 先进矿山充填技术，实现可持续采矿 矿山工程研究所的先进矿山充填技术研究始于 1960 年，是中国研究、发展及应用矿山充填技术的先驱者。矿山工程研究所在矿山充填技术方面提供如下专业服务：创新研究、咨询、项目设计和施工、项目管理和经济评估。具体而言，矿山工程研究所的先进矿山充填技术包括： l 矿山充填项目预可研、可行性研究及设计 l 充填材料测试与分析 l 矿山充填流体力学 l 充填站设计与建设 l 充填系统技术改造升级 l 水力充填与膏体充填输送系统设计 l 先进废石胶结充填技术 l 先进膏体充填系统解决方案研究 l 小型移动式充填站设计 l 矿山充填项目经济评估 l 矿山废料处置与管理 l 矿山充填新材料开发 l 创新课程与培训 总部 地址：北京市南四环西路188号总部基地 邮编： 100070 联系人：郭利杰 电话：010-6329 9666 传真：0 10-68339718 Email:ljguo264@126.com 网址： www.bgrimm.com
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