INDICATORS OF SCIENTIFIC COLLABORATION 1. Co-authorship as ameasure of scientific collaboration Kretschmer, 1992 年将科研合作定义为科学内的社会分层。 The publishedresults of intra- and extramural collaboration have been compared at theinstitutional level, and the strongly intensifying domestic and international collaborationhas served as a base of several bibliometric macro studies. Co-authorship as a measure of scientific collaboration Laudel(2002) has shown on the basis of a sample of interviewedscientists that a major part of collaboration is not acknowledged eitherthrough a proper acknowledgement or through co-authorship.However, this ratherapplies to so-called intramural collaboration, that is, to collaborationwithina department, research group or institute. Laudel 发现大部分的 intramural 合作关系没有通过共作者的形式确认下来。而 extramural 合作关系，尤其是国际间的合作都非常好的通过共作者形式得到确认。 Besides the economic and political factors, manyintra-scientific factors (see, for example, studies by deB. BeaverandRosen1978, 1979, Luukkonenet al., 1992, 1993), especially changingcommunication patterns and increasing mobility of scientists, are alsoinfluencing collaboration. 经济、政治和科学内因素，尤其是不断变化的沟通方式和科学家流动性增加，影响着科研合作。（素未谋面的两个人，可以成为共作者 co-author ） DeB. Beaver(2001) 列出了 18 个科学家合作的理由 1. Access to expertise. 2. Access to equipment, resources, or “stuff” one doesn’t have. 3. Improve access tofunds. 4. To obtain prestigeor visibility; for professional advancement. 5. Efficiency:multiplies hands and minds; easier to learn the tacit knowledge that goes witha technique. 6. To make progressmore rapidly. 7. To tackle “bigger”problems . 8. To enhanceproductivity. 9. To get to knowpeople, to create a network, like an “invisible college”. 10. To retool, learn new skills or techniques, usually tobreak into a new field, subfield, or problem. 11. To satisfy curiosity, intellectual interest. 12. To share the excitement of an area with other people. 13. To find flaws more efficiently, reduce errors andmistakes 14. To keep one more focussed on research, because othersare counting on one to do so. 15. To reduce isolation, and to recharge one’s energy andexcitement. 16. To educate 17. To advance knowledge and learning. 18. For fun, amusement, and pleasure. Kretschmer(e.g., 1994) 发现 extramural 合作中作者的社会地位相当，而 intramural 合作中，作者社会地位相差较大。 ( 机构内机构间的作者合作 ) Glänzel, 2002 年研究了 Biomedical research and Mathematics 两个科学领域共作者数量的分布情况及变化趋势 生物医学领域的合作（ =5 人以上的合作逐步增加） 数学领域的合作（ 2-4 人的合作逐步增加） Glänzel (2002)analyzed the relationship between average productivity and average co-operativity in three selected fields in 1996. inbiomedical research the maximum productivity is reached for teams with 6 co-authors, whereas in mathematics, mean publication activity takes its maximumvalue in case of 1-2 co-authors. Braunet al. (2001) have shown a similar effectin the field of neuroscience. Glänzel, 2001, The positive effect of collaboration andespecially of international collaboration on citation impact has been shown,although international collaboration does not always pay for all partnersinvolved. 共作者数与平均被引频次有正相关性 R2={0.772,0.912,0.947}. 2.Indicators of co-operativity and co-publication networks co-operativity ： the number and share of co-authoredpapers of a unit, of joint publications of different units, of the strength of co-authorshiplinks and the profile and citation impact of co-publications. The first comprehensive study on international collaborationusing co-operativity measures has been published by Schubert and Braun in 1990. Schubert and Braun(1990) and Glanzel(2011a) have shown thatthe share of internationally coauthored papers in most countries dramaticallyincreased during the last two decades. 大国的国际合作文章比例小于中等国家或小国。然而，国际合作文章的比例增长率与国家大小无关。 Schubert and Braun have analysed the international collaboration of 36 countries in the sciencesin the period 1981–1985 and Glänzel has compared collaboration patterns of themost active 50 countries in 1985/1986 with those in1995/1996. 1980 1990 2000 Germany and the USA can be considered the most importantpartners for the East European countries in the period around 1990. Interestingis the great share of Romanian–French co-authorship and the almost outstanding roleof German co-operation in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. 德国和美国是东欧国家最主要的科研合作国家。与 Glänzel and Winterhager, 1992 的发现相吻合。 美国、英国、德国和法国是国际科研合作网的最重要结点。 法国 - 阿尔及利亚，法国 - 摩洛哥之间的强链接是新殖民主义的表现。 塞浦路斯 - 保加利亚，塞浦路斯 - 罗马尼亚之间也有很强的联系，链接强度基于 Salton 系数算出，整体发文量偏低。 类似的，古巴和墨西哥，捷克和斯洛文尼亚也有强链接。 中国和香港之间的链接指数，从 1980 年的 0 ，到 1990 年的 1.7% ，到 1995/1996 年的 5.9% ，再到 2000 年的 0 （已回归）。 Glanzel （ 2001 ） , 研究了 1995/96 年 50 个国际合作活跃国家的数据。发现了国际合作促进文章的被引频次提高，国际合作对于各个国家的文章被引影响是不同的，有时候国际合作甚至没有影响。研究框架如下： Share ofinternational co-publications International collaboration depends on the country’s ‘size’(cf.,for instance, Schubertand Braun, 1990). This result has recently been confirmedby Katz (2000). 国际合作与国家大小存在潜在幂律关系。 Katz 发现某些合作具有马太效应，有些合作则相反。下表列出了各个国家文献总产出和国际合作文献的各自比例。 Research profiles of domestic and international papers Relative Specialisation Index (RSI), indicates whether acountry has a relatively higher or lower share in world publications in aparticular field of science than its overall share in world total publications. RSI has been defined in REIST-2 (1997), and is closelyrelated to the Activity Index (AI) originally introduced by Frame(1977). Glänzel(2000) 对该指标进行过分析。 I. the ‘westernmodel’ with clinical medicine and biomedical research as dominating fields, II. the characteristic pattern of the former socialistcountries with excessive activity in chemistry and physics, III. the ‘bio-environmental model’ with biology and earthand space sciences in the main focus, IV. the ‘Japanese model’ with engineering and chemistrybeing predominant. 根据 RSI 指标得到的模型：西方模型 - 临床医学和生物医学占据优势；前社会主义国家 - 化学和物理学占优；生物环境模型 - 生物学，地球，空间科学占优；日本模型 - 工程和化学占优。 Mapping mutual co-authorship links Salton’s measure will be used as an indicator ofinternational collaboration strength. It is defined as the number of joint publicationsdivided by the square root of the product of the number (i.e., the geometricmean) of total publication outputs of the two countries. 采用 Salton 系数计算每两个国家之间的合作强度，采用“两国合作文章” / “两国所有文章产出总量的平方根”作为矩阵中的数值。 美国是国际合作的中心，德国是欧洲的中心，英国是连接欧洲和美国的节点，斯堪迪纳维亚以瑞典为中心。 Publication strategy of domestic vs.international papers The relative expected citation index ofinternational co-publications is a relativeindicator designed to measure thedeviation of a country’s mean expected citation rateof internationalpublications from domestic papers with respect to the world standard.Theindicator is defined in similar manner as the Relative Specialisation Index, inparticular, where MECRint (MECRdom) is the mean expected citation rateof international(domestic) publications of a selected country in a given fieldand WS is the corresponding ‘ worldstandard’of this ratio. The index takes values in the interval and itsneutral value is 0. 根据以上指标形成了各个国家不同领域国际 / 国内文章被引指标的蜘蛛网图。
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