1 、 Food: What are some American table manners? Dont eat too fast; Dont talk with your mouth full of food; Dont chew with mouth open; Dont talk about dirty things at the table; Dont eat with your elbows on the table; Dont sing; Dont reach for food that is far from you; Dont leave until the meal is over. Dont wave your hands around. Dont suck your soup. Dont throw anything on the floor/table; Dont keep bags or other objects on the table; Dont keep offer someone food if they say are full; Dont put food on someone elses plate. Dont pour someone a drink unless they request it. Dont drink soup from the lip of your bowl. Do pass food to others. Do ask politely for people to pass food to you. Do dab your mouth with your napkin. Do place your napkin on your lap; Do sit up straight when eating; Do keep food or anything you cant eat on your plate. Do say excuse me if you burp accidently. How are they different from Chinese? Americans do not eat: Blood, Eyes, Skin, heart, stomach, organs, feet, hands, liver, head. But Chinese eat these kinds of things. Different types of dishes: Salty; Sour ; Sweet; spicy; crunchy; Bland; Rich Tears are Salty; cherry, orange and grapes are Sour; lots of fruit taste sweet; Peppers tastes spicy; fried chicken\biscuits are crunchy; custard( 奶油蛋糕 ) tasts Bland; some fried food and butter are Rich. 2 、 Speeches: What are some qualities of a good speech? 1. Adjust yours peed of speaking; 2. Vary your pitch; 3. Use pauses; 4. Monitor your volume; 5. Body language; 6. Eye contact; 7. Show emotion; 8. Eliminate filler words; 9. Consider your audience; 10. Practice. What do you want to do?What do you not want to do? I think making a good speech needs four steps: The first step is analysis. Analyzing what? The answer includes what, whom, where, when, why and how long. That means you must know why you need to do the speech, is the speech necessary or unnecessary? What kind of information do you want to give to your audience? What kind of person want to attend your speech? Their age, job, interests, and motivation. When and where your speech will take place? Are there any special requirements for the time and place? How long will your speech last? The questions above are very important, if you havent analyzed, youll confused the focus group and what can you do for them, especially, you wont know how to enter the next step. The next step is preparation. I know your guys want to ask me prepare what. Ok, it is a good question. Let me tell you, we prepare materials and equipments, contents and emotion; we need to prepare everything if we want do a good speech. We prepare to write down all the sentences ahead, we prepare to recite it again and again until we can remember every word. We prepare to speech in front of the family or a mirror to check our gesture and expression. Id like to say if we prepare perfectly, well be confident to enter the third step. The third step is delivery. Delivery will tell us whether the speech is good or not. So, how should we deliver the speech? My suggestion is, firstly, we must be confident, we must believe were the best and we can conquer everyone. We can take a deep breath to relax before we start. Secondly, we must speak loudly and clearly, the last but not least, logic is very important also, but how can we do logically? we can list the key points and expand according to them. And I think if we can add some humorous factors to the speech, it must be excellent. Certainly, humor is not suitable for everyone, but we can learn it from me, because Im a humorous guy. The forth step is check. As we cant watch how we show in the speech, we must need help from others. After we finished the speech, we can talk with the audience to get some feedback and suggestion. So we can learn what need to be changed if we want make it better next time. Analysis, preparation, delivery and check are the four steps in a speech, we can do a perfect speech if we can finish every step perfectly. Thats my opinion, and thank you! Why are people frightened by public speaking? Forget what to say; Make some errors; Be laughed at; no self-confidence. What can they do to overcome that fear? What is needed to organize a good speech? What is needed to make a complete speech? How can you make a speech flow smoothly? 1. Know your material. Pick a topic youre interested in. Know more about it than you include in your speech. Use humor, personal stories, and conversational languagethat way, you wont easily forget what to say. 2. Practice, practice, practice! Rehearse out loud with all the equipment you plan on using. Revise as necessary. Work to control filler words; practice, pause, and breathe. Practice with a timer and allow time for the unexpected. 3. Know the audience. Greet some of the audience members as they arrive. Its easier to speak to a group of friends than it is to speak to strangers. 4. Know the room. Arrive early, walk around the speaking area, and practice using the microphone and any visual aids. 5. Relax. Begin by addressing the audience. It buys you time and calms your nerves. Pause, smile, and count to three before saying anything. Transform nervous energy into enthusiasm. 6. Visualize yourself giving your speech. Imagine yourself speaking, your voice loud, clear, and confident. Visualize the audience clappingit will boost your confidence. 7. Realize that people want you to succeed. Audiences want you to be interesting, stimulating, informative, and entertaining. Theyre rooting for you. 8. Dont apologize for any nervousness or problemthe audience probably never noticed it. 9. Concentrate on the message, not the medium. Focus your attention away from your own anxieties and concentrate on your message and your audience. 10. Gain experience. Mainly, your speech should represent youas an authority and as a person. Experience builds confidence, which is the key to effective speaking. A Toastmasters club can provide the experience you need in a safe and friendly environment. 3 、 Small talk: Why is small talk good? Small talk is gossip, chitchat, unimportant chatter, small being the significant adjective pointing to its, well, insignificance. There are a few different reasons why people use small talk. The first, and most obvious, is to break an uncomfortable silence. Another reason, however, is simply to fill time. That is why it is so common to make small talk when you are waiting for something. Some people make small talk in order to be polite. You may not feel like chatting with anyone at a party, but it is rude to just sit in a corner by yourself. After someone introduces you to another person, you do not know anything about them, so in order to show a polite interest in getting to know them better, you have to start with some small talk. talk is cheap, but chatting up strangers you meet on business trips is sometimes profitable. What does small talk do for you? It can give me some English practice that is interesting, and, second, it can lay the foundation for friendly exchange and perhaps a friendship. It makes me relax and not bored. What are some things you talk about with small talk? Weatherjob journey traveling school news What do you not talk about? politics, Religion and personal questions, Age, Money, Salary, The bad thing about others and marital status. 4 、 Values Honest: what do you find valuable? What do you value in another person? Appreciation. Taking a brief moment to say, thank you, or acknowledging the exceptional job the restaurant server did when waiting on you is not only encouraging for the beneficiary to hear; it fills your soul with more appreciation too. Believe in Others. It can be your attitude; your resolve, that can lift someone up when they are down. Their doubt can be erased by your confidence. And something else amazing happens: belief is contagious the more you believe in others; the more you will continue to believe in yourself. Caring. Caring for others, as well as self-care, allows you to extend a helping hand and to pass along some unexpected grace. When we take the time to demonstrate we care; we demonstrate the fact there are still plenty of good people left in this world. Commitment. Commitment shows loyalty and it can show bravery and tenacity as well. A commitment is a promise made and an expectation we have created. Honoring our commitments can make the difference between achieving whats most important to us or feeling disappointed and defeated. Compassion. We are all part of this thing called the human condition. No doubt we have different skin colors, religious preferences and political points-of-view, but at the end of the day, we still need to take care of one another. Cooperation. Even the most complex tasks and assignments can be made simpler when we focus on the solutions together. Courtesy. The next time you are approaching a door and someone is ten steps or so behind you, wait just one second longer before walking through. Instead hold the door for that one second. Its amazing how something that can happen in a blink of an eye can carry so much lasting value. Dedication. No matter how the circumstances may change, unless you are in a physically or emotionally abusive situation, stay the course and never give up. I would rather be called a failure than a loser. Losers give up when things become too difficult. Failures are folks who have just not found success but will. So, call me a failure if you like, because it implies I havent stop trying. Devotion. Some days are just naturally better than others. Its the same way in our interpersonal relationships and in our faith. Things can get unstable at times, but staying devoted to a cause or to a person through the uncertain times is our rock to grasp when our faith and our foundation is shaky. Effort. No matter the outcome, there is always value in the effort when the effort is authentic and well-intended. Forgiveness. To be clear, the purpose of forgiveness is not to absolve someone of the sin(s) committed against you; but to free yourself from the pain and the anger that is keeping you stuck. When you forgive, you are better able to let go of the past and keep moving forward with your life. Friendship. Friends support us and they provide an unfiltered view of our actions when asked. Friends sustain us through difficult periods and join us for the events we celebrate. Do you think it is ok to lie?when? to who? Why is it ok to lie? What are white lies and are they ok? Out of all of the virtues that is available to the human character, I prize honesty above all else. Let us start with the definition of honesty: 1. the quality or fact of being honest; uprightness and fairness. 2. truthfulness, sincerity, or frankness. 3. freedom from deceit or fraud. Although definition #2 states truthfulness, I think it is essential to discriminate two different types of honesty: #1: Objective Honesty: Truthfulness. This implies admitting ignorance if one does not know truthfulness. #2: Subjective Honesty: Sincerity. This implies that the communication of one's opinion, not necessarily truthfulness, is free from deceit or fraud. Due to the majority of peoples' communications are based in subjective ideas such as emotions and opinions, Subjective Honesty is the most common type of honesty and will be the focus of this thread. (I happen to value Objective Honesty over Subjective Honest, but that is just me being Subjectively Honest. ) To explain why I value honesty, I must start with the opposite of honesty, deceit, lies, and fraud: A lie (also called prevarication), is a type of deception in the form of an untruthful statement, especially with the intention to deceive others. People lie for many reasons, but the primary motive is fear of the consequences of telling the truth. We can all think of the cliche example of your friend asking you if they look fat when objectively, they are. Do you slip in a white lie to assuage their self esteem, or do you be brutally honest and tell them the opposite of what they want to hear? Personally, like the undiplomatic prick I am, tell the brutal and honest truth. Why? My friend is hungry for my opinion, something that is free and easy to give. Not giving your opinion to someone who really wants it is the equivalent of having an infinite supply of food but not giving it to a starving man. It is, frankly, selfish. Hey! Telling a white lie is...selfish? WHAT? Yes. It is selfish. I do not see telling white lies, or any other type of lie, as a beneficial thing at all. When you are not honest, you deprive others of something that is very easy to produce. It is deception of the very worst kind, it is personal and a breach of trust. If someone likes you when you lie and do not like you when you are brutally honest, they were never your friend to begin with. Do not think you are helping people when you tell lies, no matter how white they may seem. White is such a fucking fake color it makes me sick. White is the color of fraud, censorship, sterilization, false innocence and worst of all, insincere smiles. Nothing is pure in this world, opinions are markers of these imperfections, and they are what makes people be people. If you want convenient lies, go to your church or go to your congressman. If you want the truth, and nothing but the truth ,then I am here. There are two types of secrets; those we keep from others, and those we keep from ourselves. 5 、 Wants: What would you like to change in yourself? Change my life for the better, and more beautiful appearance, better behavior and abilities. What do you want most in your life? Have a good job, a happy family, heathy body. What do you do that you dont want to do? Sometimes I will do and sometimes I wont do.For example. What did you want to do when you were a child? I always wanted to be a teacher (and guess what - I am). I really can't remember when I decided that's what I wanted to do but it was while I was at infant school, as I can remember at some point telling my mum that I wanted to be just like Mrs Raynor (the headteacher). A story that my mum loves to retell to anyone. Although now that I have been teaching for nine years I really don't like the idea of being a head teacher, at least not at this point in my career, there is just far too much paper work being a class teacher, let alone being the head. What things do your parents for you? 1. My parents look after me sometimes 2. My parent also help me out while I have trouble! 3. My parents take me to park when I am on birthday 4. My parents buy clothes for me ! 5. My parents wish us happy 6 、 Stress What stresses you out? If Ive got the time I find going for a good long walk usually relaxes me, especially where I live as Im deep in the countryside so can walk through woods or through parks and can walk for miles without passing many cars. If I am with a friend this is our time to unburden on each other and talk through whats going on in our lives (better than therapy) So the exercise makes you feel better and the scenery is uplifting, and the various wildlife makes me smile. I always feel better when I return home. If Im stuck in the house my music helps wind me down. Is competition a good thing or bad thing? I think everything has its good and bad aspects. On the one hand,..,on the other hand, How do you handle stress? some best ways to manage the stress can be share below:- 1) good attitude to exercise 2) good tolerance of self realisation 3) modulation 4) balance 5) sharing 6) caring for society 7) emphaty Can stress be a good thing? Mostly sress is a bad thing because it can cause many problems,such as physical problems and mental problems.Some people often tense angry and overwhelems,like stress in them life is spining out of control,then stress is hurting them heart,it is very terrible,and possbility leads to death.However,there are also advantages,we can get some benifits from stress,for example,power,if there is not stress,wewillnot have any power to go long. I think stress is positive or negative, we needhave a little stress so that we had enough energy to go, moreover, we should avoid over-time in order to keep our health and happy. therefore, stress is a good thing rather than bad thing. 7 、 Thanksgiving ： What are you Thankful for? I will be thankful everything that happens in my life. My parents give me the chance to live in the world, I can feel I am loved by them every minute. I have so many friends. I often touched by their loyalty. I feel I am the flowers, which planted by my lovely teacher selfless. Anyway, all the good things around me like the sweet candy can! I will cherish them forever! Why do Americans celebrate Thanksgiving Day? There are many reasons to celebrate Thanksgiving 1 be harvest - for the past 6,000 years, ever since humanity discovered agriculture, human societies have celebrated the harvest. Globalization and industrialization has made modern man less dependent on the sesonal harvest, but we still depend upon the earth to grant us our food. 2 national unity - it was President Abraham Lincoln that first declared Thanksgiving a national holiday as one more way to unite the North and the South after the War. 3spiritual renewal - most religions teach the spiritual benefits of expressing gratitude toward God for all our good fortune. 4 national pride - although Plymouth colony was not the first English colony in North America, the story of Plymouth colony makes a far better origin story for the United States than the failed colony at Jamestown, Virginia. 5 Native American appriciation - twice a year, Americans are reminded of the pivotal role of the Native Americans in their own history. It should never be forgotten that when the Native Americans discovered the Plymouth colonists freezing and starving, they taught them how to plant food in the New World. In the early fall of 1621 the 53 surviving pilgrims celebrated their successful harvest, as was the English custom. During this time ,many of the Indians coming...amongst the rest their great king Massasoit, with some 90 men. The 1621 celebration is remembered as The First Thanksgiving. In Plymouth, Pilgrims did not call this harvest festival Thanksgiving, although, they did give thanks to God. To them, a day of thanksgiving was purely religious. The first recorded religious day of thanksgiving was held in 1623 in response to a providential rainfall. The religious day of thanksgiving and the harvest festival involved a single event. What do they do on Thanksgiving? Thanksgiving Day is the most truly American of the national Holidays in the United States and is most closely connected with the earliest history of the country. The pattern of the Thanksgiving celebration has never changed through the years. The big family dinner is planned months ahead. On the dinner table, people will find apples, oranges, chestnuts, walnuts and grapes. There will be plum pudding, mince pie, other varieties of food and cranberry juice and squash. The best and most attractive among them are roast turkey and pumpkin pie. They have been the most traditional and favorite food on Thanksgiving Day throughout the years. Everyone agrees the dinner must be built around roast turkey stuffed with a bread dressing to absorb the tasty juices as it roasts. But as cooking varies with families and with the regions where one lives, it is not easy to get a consensus on the precise kind of stuffing for the royal bird. Thanksgiving today is, in every sense, a national annual holiday on which Americans of all faiths and backgrounds join in to express their thanks for the year' s bounty and reverently ask for continued blessings. 3. Lies, honesty and value （ complementary ） Do you think it is ok to lie?when? to who? Why is it ok to lie? If it will cause someone harm in telling the truth, like someone with a gun is running after someone to kill them and they say to you which way did he go? a lie would be ok so no one gets hurt . Well, Emily Post says to tell a little white lie not to offend someone. So let's say someone has a ugly baby. You don't tell them you have an ugly baby. You say something like, oh, what a lovely baby. Or if some relative you can't stand invites you to dinner. You say you have a prior engagement or you have a headache. The lie is allowable because you don't want to offend somebody by telling the truth. What are white lies and are they ok? We have all been taught that it is wrong to lie,and yet we all tell little lies every day.These are white lies and,in my opinion,they are perfectly okey.We don't tell white lies to hurt others or gain some advantage.On the contrary,we tell them to make others feel better. White lies can accomplish many things.First of all,they can hide painful truths and thereby prevent heartache and suffering.At times,white lies are better than the truth.Second,white lies can encourage others.They are a potent psychology that can turn a life around.Third,they can bring happiness.Without white lies,children would not have the fun if believing in Santa Claus. Finally,they are a part of our culture.Everyone tells them because they make communication easier and more pleasant. In onclusion,although we all know that honesty is the best policy,sometimes a white lie is more approprite than the truth.White lies are harmless and useful and they make this world a better place. 4. Wants What would you like to change in yourself? I want to get a lot of knowledge so that I can absolve problems more easily. I want to change my character because I am not self-confidence. I like to read news ,but it waste a lot of precious time, and I want to use these time more efficient. What do you want most in your life? I want have a good memory, so I can remember everything I need to be remembered. I want to have time to travel with my family. I want to work in my hometown because there are a lot of my relatives there and I adapt the climate there. It has blue skies and fresh air and less polluted. I love my hometown. What do you do that you dont want to do? I dont want to read my PHD, but I have to because I want to be with my family. need me, My family and my lovely son need me because my wife is too tired to rear our child alone. What did you want to do when you were a child? When I was a senior middle student, I wanted to be a teacher. Now, I do be a teacher.When I was a child, my family is poor and I needed a pair of rainshoes. What things do your parents for you? They worked hard to earn money to support the family. They buy toys and candies for me. But the most important thing is they spent so much money to send me to the school. They want me healthy, wealth, and happy.
i met a middle-age man. he said that he had passed the test of English . 3 hours. 40m of writing an assay, which he like to do . it deals with such item why do persons may make diffenrenc dicions When they face the same situation. He said he like study ,but not test.
大样本 计数资料 --Karl Pearsons chi-square test 小样本 计数资料 --R.A. Fisher s exact test 四格表： Var.1 -------------- a b r1=a+b Var.2 c d r2=c+d -------------- c1=a+c c2=b+d n=c1+c2 阈值： 每一个matrix的格子的资料量在 5 以上就可以使用chi-square test，反之用 Fisher's exact test ； Fisher's exact test不需要假设资料满足什么分布。 When To Use Fishers Exact Test 統計方法應用---Fishers Exact Test 應數博黃士峰 Calling on Matlab the function Fisherextest
Psychological test The major categories of tests 1. Mental ability tests n Memory, spatial visualization, n creative thinking n IntelligenceWechsler Adult Intelligence WAIS n Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale 2.Achievement tests Attempt to assess a persons level of knowledge or skill in a particular domain. Achievement batteries used in elementary and secondary schools(Stanford achievement testSAT) All batteries consist of a series of tests in such areas as reading, mathematics , language, science and social studies. single-subject tests It covers only one area, such as psychology, or geometry An example of such a test: Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) : SUBJECT TEST IN PSYCHOLOGY the third subdivision n An incredible variety of tests used for purposes of certification and licensing in some fields such as:nursing, teaching, physical therapy, airline piloting They have important consequences for people in specific vocational fields. Statewide achievement testing programs test reading, writing, and mathematics abilities. National assessment of educational progress NAEP Government-sponsored programs These four types of achievement tests are typically group administered. Individual achievement tests It aids in the diagnosis of such conditions as learning disabilities 3 、 personality test objective personality tests Objective: the tests are objectively scored based on items answered in a true-false or similar format. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Eating Disorder Inventory EDI Beck Depression Inventory BDI Projective techniques The examinee encounters a relatively simple but unstructured task. n Rorschach Inkblot Test n Human figure drawings, n Sentence completion 4. Vocational interest measures n Encompasses measures of interests, values, attitudes. n Wildly used in high schools and colleges to help individuals explore jobs relevant to their interests. n Strong Interest Inventory SII n Kuder Occupational Interest SurveyKOIS 5. Neuropsychological tests n Designed to yield information about the functioning of the central nervous system, especially the brain. 、 n Much neuropsychological testing employs ability tests and often uses personality tests Uses and users of tests Four major uses n ①Clinical n Clinical psychology n Counseling n School psychology n neuropsychology n Testing helps to identify the nature and severity of the problem and provides some suggestions about how to deal with the problem. ②Educational Group-administered tests of ability and achievement The actual users of the test include teachers, educational administrators, parents, and the general public ③Personnel primary users : Businesses and military The first task: select individuals most qualified to fill a position The second task: provide useful information about the optimum allocation of the human resources in this scenario ④ research Used in every conceivable area of research in psychology, education, and other social /behavior science. The research usagewas identified three subcategories Fundamental questions about tests Reliability : Refers to the stability of test scores. Validity; refers to what the test is actually measuring. n Norms: n Norms are based on the test scores of large groups of individuals who have taken the test in the past. n Exercise ： n 1. Here are three traits: height, intelligence, friendliness. In which of these traits do you think people differ the most? n 2. See if you can remember the full names for each of these sets of initials. n GRE n EDI n SII n MMPI psychotherapy The systematic application of techniques derived from psychological principles by a trained and experienced professional therapist, for the purpose of aiding psychologically troubled individuals Individual psychotherapy One therapist treats one client at any one time Psychoanalysis: An attempt to induce ego-weakness so that repressed material can be uncovered The client can achieve insight into his or her inner motivations and desires Resolved childhood conflicts can be controlled It may not be appropriate for certain types of individuals: 1 Nonverbal adults 2 young children who cannot be verbally articulate or reasonable 3 Schizoid persons 4 Those with urgent problems requiring immediate reduction of symptoms and the feeble-minded. Four methods of psychoanalysis 1 Free association 2 Analysis of resistance 3 Transference 4 interpretation Hypnotherapy The use of hypnosis as an adjunct to psychotherapy. Person-centered therapy Accept clients as persons, empathic and respectful and unconditionally positive in their regard for client. A therapist should not control, inhibit, threaten, or interpret a clients behaviors. l A therapist should be in the therapeutic relationship rather than the precise techniques to use in therapy. Cognitive-behavioral therapy Helping clients develop perceptual skills with which to interpret environmental inputs and internal stimulation. Techniques of Cognitive-behavioral therapy l Cognitive restructuring The clients cognitions are changed from irrational, self-defeating, and distorted thoughts and attitudes to more rational, positive and appropriate ones. Coping skills training Help clients learn to manage or overcome stress. Group therapy A form of therapy that involves the simultaneous treatment of two or more clients. Commonalities of group therapy 1. Allow each client to become involved in a social situation and to see how his or her behavior affects others. 2. The therapist can see how clients respond in a real-life social and interpersonal context. 3. Group members can develop new communication skills, social skills and insights 4. Groups often help their members to feel less isolated and fearful about their problems. 5. Groups can provide their members with strong social and emotional support. Some types of therapy groups l Sensitivity training groups(T-groups) l Assertiveness training groups l Psychodrama Compliance Effective treatment depends on two aspects: Correct treatmentandThe patients following through with treatment Causes of Noncompliance The cause of non-compliance The chief cause: communication problems between physicians and patients The second source : the characteristics of treatment itself. Behavioral and environment factors may reduce compliance. Compliance: The extent to which patients behavior (in terms of taking medications, following diets or other lifestyle changes) coincides with medical or health advice. Try to illustratee How to improve the compliance according to the theory and your own view. Oral information 1\ primacy effect 2\ to stress the importance of compliance 3\ to simplify the information 4\ to use repetition 5\ to be specific 6\ to follow up the consultation with additional interviews. Written information Written information about medication increased knowledge in 90 per cent of the studies, Increased compliance in 60 per cent of the studies Improved outcome in 57 per cent of the studies Intervention to improve compliance Three general approaches: 1.education: Give patients clear, explicit, written instructions about how treatment is to proceed. 2. Modification of treatment plan. Reorganize the treatment in ways that facilitate an individuals adherence to it. tailoring the taking of medication to existing daily habits Giving the treatment in one or two injections rather than in several doses per day Packaging medicine in dosage strips or with pill calendars Scheduling more frequent follow-up visits to supervise compliance 3.behavior modification ①Environmental cues: such as postcard reminders telephone calls wristwatches set to emit a tone at the time a pill should be taken ②self-monitoring ③contingency contracts between patient and physician ④token economies Try to explain HBM. Originated by Rosenstock, focused by Becker and Maiman on the specific question of noncompliance. HBM is a social-psychological theory 1. How susceptible to a given illness individuals perceive themselves to be and how severe the consequences of the illness are thought to be 2. How effective and feasible versus how costly and difficult the prescribed treatment is perceived to be. 3. The influence of internal cues plus external cues in triggering health behaviors 4. Demographic and personality variables as well as structural and social characteristics that modify the influences on the other variables. placebo Which case is the one for illustrating the function of placebo? My headache went away after having a sugar pill After I had my hip operation I stopped getting headaches I had a bath and my headache went away Placebo: Inert substances which cause symptom relief. Substances that cause changes in a symptom not directly attributable to specific or real pharmacological action of a drug or operation Any therapy that is deliberately used for its non-specific psychological or physiological effects. The use of placebos n 1. increase performance on a cognitive task n 2.to be effective in reducing anxiety n 3. have effect on series of areas: allergies, asthma, cancer, diabetes, enuresis, epilepsy, insomnia, ulcers, obesity . n 4.reduce the pain which is one of the most studied areas in relation to placebo effects How do placebos work 1.Non-interactive theories Characteristics of the individual Certain individuals have characteristics that make them susceptible to placebo effects. Emotional dependency, extraversion, neurosis and being highly suggestible. Characteristics of the treatment The characteristics of the actual process involved in the placebo treatment relates to the effectiveness or degree of the placebo effect. For example: if a treatment is perceived by the individual as being serious, the placebo effect will be greater. n Characteristics of the health professional The kind of professional administering the placebo treatmentmay determine the degree of the placebo effect. For example: Higher professional status and higher concern have been shown to increase the placebo effect Interactive theories n Placebo effects should be conceptualized as a multi-dimensional process that depends on an interaction between a multitude of different factors Physiological theories Physiologists focus on pain reduction. Levine: placebos increase endorphin release-the brains natural painkillers-which therefore decreases pain.
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