http://www.gopubmed.org/web/gopubmed/1?WEB019cr78ddxyt82I1bI1I00f01000j10040001rl suicide AND Genetics 3,568 documents semantically analyzed top author statistics 1 2 3 Top Years Publications 2007 249 2006 227 2004 226 2000 221 2008 219 2005 219 2001 218 2003 207 2009 204 2002 192 1998 165 1999 164 1997 155 1996 118 1995 100 1993 74 1994 66 1992 61 1991 47 1988 43 1 2 3 1 2 3 Top Countries Publications USA 1,078 Japan 278 Germany 226 China 218 France 192 United Kingdom 178 Canada 146 Italy 89 Spain 82 Sweden 70 Netherlands 48 Australia 45 Belgium 42 South Korea 32 Israel 32 Taiwan 28 Finland 27 Denmark 26 Switzerland 25 Hungary 25 1 2 3 1 2 3 ... 27 Top Cities Publications New York 85 Paris 79 London 52 Bethesda 49 Houston 48 Shanghai 48 Tokyo 46 Boston 45 Los Angeles 42 Stockholm 41 Montreal 41 Chicago 41 St. Louis 39 Munich 38 Philadelphia 37 Pittsburgh 31 Toronto 31 Baltimore 31 Guangzhou 29 Milan 28 1 2 3 ... 27 1 2 3 ... 52 Top Journals Publications Cancer Gene Ther 116 J Bacteriol 94 Gene Ther 91 Hum Gene Ther 66 Cancer Res 64 Arch Gen Psychiat 49 Mol Ther 47 J Biol Chem 47 P Natl Acad Sci Usa 41 Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 39 Biol Psychiat 38 Gene 37 Brit J Psychiat 36 Am J Psychiat 35 Appl Environ Microb 33 J Gene Med 31 Infect Immun 30 Blood 30 J Affect Disorders 30 Anticancer Res 30 1 2 3 ... 52 1 2 3 ... 572 Top Terms Publications Suicide 3,326 Humans 2,390 Genes 2,255 Animals 1,319 Gene Therapy 1,125 Neoplasms 915 Mice 789 Proteins 781 Genetic Vectors 748 Thymidine Kinase 738 Adult 727 Viruses 715 Phosphotransferases 694 Ganciclovir 614 thymidine kinase 610 Thymidine 607 Patients 578 Plasmids 572 Simplexvirus 560 Herpes Simplex 544 1 2 3 ... 572 1 2 3 ... 633 Top Authors Publications Klatzmann D 37 Turecki G 27 Mann J 25 Freytag S 19 Brent D 18 Kennedy J 18 Mller H 17 Dwivedi Y 17 Conley R 16 Rujescu D 16 Giegling I 16 Pandey G 16 Rizavi H 16 Oquendo M 15 Bucholz K 15 Bonini C 15 Tagawa M 15 Bondy B 15 Boyer O 15 Courtet P 14 1 2 3 ... 633 http://news.sciencenet.cn//htmlnews/2010/2/228067.shtm 德研究发现自杀倾向或可遗传 据英国《每日电讯报》2月3日报道，德国进行的一项研究发现，自杀倾向可能与遗传缺陷有关，这些缺陷影响神经细胞的生长。在得出这一发现前，此前进行的研究就显示自杀现象具有家族性。研究过程中，科学家对394名抑郁症患者的遗传性变异进行分析，其中有113人曾试图自杀。在此之后，他们又将参与者的DNA与从普通人群中挑选的366名健康者进行比较。 一项由1600多名德国和非洲裔美国患者参与的追踪研究证实了这一发现，其中有270人曾有过自杀经历。在有着自杀企图史的个体中，遗传密码中5个单字母发生改变的现象与其他人相比更为常见。这些变异被称之为单核苷酸多态性，能够影响两个与神经细胞形成和生长有关的基因。 研究发现刊登在《普通精神病学文献》（ Archives of General Psychiatry ）杂志上。研究报告执笔人表示：双胞胎和家庭研究显示，自杀和自杀企图是可遗传特征，在同一家族选择自杀以及有自杀企图的成员可能具有共同表型(生物学特征)。这些具有遗传性的自杀危险因素可能独立存在，与潜在的精神疾病无关。 更多阅读 英国《每日电讯报》报道原文（英文） 《普通精神病学文献》杂志论文（英文） 《自然》：人体8%遗传基因源自一种奇特病毒 《人类遗传学》：遗传缺陷让你左耳听右耳冒 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/7129291/Suicidal-tendencies-may-be-genetic.html Suicidal tendencies 'may be genetic' Suicidal tendencies may be driven by genetic defects that affect the growth of nerve cells, research suggests. Published: 7:30AM GMT 02 Feb 2010 The discovery follows previous research showing that suicide can run in families. Scientists investigated genetic variants among 394 patients diagnosed with depression, including 113 who had attempted suicide. Their DNA was compared with that of 366 healthy individuals from the general population. Related Articles Scientists discover bacteria 'which causes colon cancer' Alzheimer's study could pave way for new treatment Gene mutations that may lead to autism identified by scientists Childhood abuse leaves body physically vulnerable to mental illness Locusts swarm because they're 'high' on seratonin The results were confirmed by a follow-up study of more than 1,600 German and African-American patients, 270 of whom had attempted suicide. Five single-letter changes in the genetic code were found to be significantly more common among individuals with a history of suicide attempts. The variants, known as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), affected two genes associated with nerve cell formation and growth. Carriers of the three most important mutations were 4.5 times more likely to attempt suicide than those without them. The research was led by Dr Martin Kohli, formally at the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry in Munich, Germany, and now at the John P. Hussman Institute for Human Genomics in Miami, USA. Reporting their findings in the journal Archives of General Psychiatry, the authors wrote: ''Twin and family studies suggest that suicide and suicide attempts are heritable traits and likely part of the same phenotype (set of biological traits) with completed suicide and suicide attempts clustering in the same families. ''The genetic risk factors for suicide appear to be independent from the underlying psychiatric disorder.'' http://arrowsmith.psych.uic.edu/cgi-bin/arrowsmith_uic/edit_b.cgi Start A-Literature C-Literature B-list Filter Literature A-query: suicide AND genetic C-query: ''Twin and family The B-list contains title words and phrases (terms) that appeared in both the A and the C literature. 289 articles appeared in both literatures and were not included in the process of computing the B-list but can be viewed here . The results of this search are saved under id # 6687 and can be accessed from the start page after you leave this session. There are 782 terms on the current B-list ( 303 are predicted to be relevant), which is shown ranked according to predicted relevance. The list can be further trimmed down using the filters listed in the left margin. To assess whether there appears to be a biologically significant relationship between the AB and BC literatures for specific B-terms, please select one or more B-terms and then click the button to view the corresponding AB and BC literatures. Use Ctrl to select multiple B-terms. Rank Prob B-term 10.91promoter polymorphism 20.91serotonin transporter gene 30.91vntr 40.91vegf 50.91single nucleotide polymorphism 60.91transporter gene 70.91caspase 80.91wfs1 90.91tryptophan hydroxylase gene 100.91grp78 110.91quantitative trait loci 120.91survivin 130.91suicide gene 140.91bdnf 150.91transposable element 160.91vntr polymorphism 170.91promoter hypermethylation 180.90telomerase reverse transcriptase 190.90dopamine transporter gene 200.90gene promoter 210.90|--gene promoter polymorphism 220.90pv 230.90serpin 240.90erbb2 250.90apoe 260.90cyp2d6 270.90slc6a4 280.90promoter analysis 290.90exon 300.89gene bipolar 310.89cytokine gene 320.89genome wide 330.89egr-1 340.89thymidine kinase gene 350.89p27kip1 360.89bcl-2 370.895-ht1a 380.89nf kappab 390.89snp 400.89c jun n 410.89eif4e 420.89intron 430.88cre 440.88hydroxylase gene 450.88transgene expression 460.885-htt 470.88candidate gene 480.88histone deacetylase 490.88bcr abl 500.88repressor 510.88regulon 520.88gene encoding 530.88response regulator 540.88testing huntington 550.88comt 560.88neurotrophin 570.87catechol o-methyltransferase gene 580.87snp haplotype 590.87cyp2c19 600.87abcg1 610.87erbb-2 620.87endostatin 630.87abl 640.87targeted gene 650.87survivin gene 660.87reca 670.87rrna 680.86cancer gene 690.86bax 700.86gene environment 710.86lipase gene 720.86htra 730.86ret 740.86slc6a3 750.86pcc 760.85c jun 770.85e cadherin 780.85fas ligand 790.85kinase gene 800.85drd4 810.85promoter region 820.85enterotoxin gene 830.85cloning gene 840.85enhancer 850.85gene expressed 860.84prostate cancer gene 870.84mmp-9 880.84d2 receptor gene 890.84gene vntr polymorphism 900.84han 910.84gene chinese 920.84body mass index 930.84mdr1 940.84receptor promoter 950.83caga 960.83alpha fetoprotein promoter 970.83exon skipping 980.83gt g 990.83promoter enhancer 1000.83htr1b 1010.83tachykinin receptor 1020.83conjugative 1030.83estrogen receptor alpha 1040.83hypoxia response element 1050.82bcr 1060.82reporter gene 1070.82polymorphism promoter 1080.82htr2c 1090.82ryanodine receptor 1100.82intronic polymorphism 1110.82tryptophan hydroxylase 1120.82resistance gene 1130.82operon 1140.82serotonergic gene 1150.825-htt gene 1160.81cd34 1170.81intronic 1180.81htr2a 1190.81neurotrophic factor gene 1200.81sclc 1210.80cadherin 1220.80p53 1230.80transgene 1240.80rnai 1250.80connexin 1260.80gene variant 1270.80promoter activity 1280.80dopamine receptor d4 1290.80factor gene 1300.80adrenergic receptor gene 1310.80polymorphism promoter region 1320.80gene streptococcus 1330.80lmp1 1340.79pax2 1350.79gene patient 1360.79cyclin 1370.79receptor gene 1380.79gene escherichia coli 1390.79drd3 1400.79cd28 1410.78hdac 1420.78cdna 1430.78collagen induced arthritis 1440.78breast cancer gene 1450.78interleukin-1 gene 1460.78transcription factor 1470.78adhd 1480.78novel gene 1490.78promoter driven 1500.77xylanase gene 1510.77il-18 1520.77il-15 1530.77promoter a 1540.77gene associated 1550.77p53 gene 1560.77tyrosine hydroxylase gene 1570.77pkc 1580.77mll 1590.76yefm 1600.76p1 promoter 1610.76heat shock protein 1620.76expression e 1630.76gene schizophrenia 1640.76oprm1 1650.76tnf 1660.76aroa gene 1670.75gene involved 1680.75opioid receptor 1690.75ftsk 1700.75leptin 1710.75cd8 1720.75kinase c jun 1730.75related gene 1740.75ciliary neurotrophic factor 1750.75htert gene 1760.75cytokine 1770.75ctx 1780.74conjugative plasmid 1790.74gap-43 1800.74protein gene 1810.74ryanodine receptor gene 1820.74gene transfer 1830.7423s 1840.73expression e coli 1850.73mesothelin 1860.72multigene 1870.72nf 1880.72gene htr2a 1890.72polymorphism exon 1900.72psa 1910.72endonuclease 1920.72expression gene 1930.71monoamine oxidase a 1940.71gene coding 1950.71retinoblastoma 1960.71hiv 1970.71is3 1980.71replicon 1990.71protease gene 2000.71isoform 2010.71twin 2020.70th1 2030.70epilepsy 2040.70tcr 2050.70jun 2060.70ezh2 2070.70pdx-1 2080.70allele 2090.69protein kinase 2100.69hsf1 2110.69interleukin-12 gene 2120.69programmed cell death 2130.69gastrin releasing peptide 2140.695ht2a 2150.68fmo3 2160.68promoter 2170.68response element 2180.68norepinephrine transporter gene 2190.68gene yersinia 2200.684p 2210.68tachykinin 2220.67il-12 2230.67g protein 2240.67nf1 2250.67topoisomerase 2260.67glioma 2270.67aroa 2280.67receptor gene expression 2290.67cd20 2300.67cd95 2310.67ntrc 2320.67allelic 2330.67tolc 2340.67p75ntr 2350.66ester lipase gene 2360.66dopamine receptor 2370.65mediated allelic 2380.65stress inducible promoter 2390.65body mass 2400.65aav 2410.65muc1 2420.65transporter 2430.65il-2 2440.64il-7 2450.64thymidine kinase 2460.64inos 2470.64sacb 2480.63susceptibility gene 2490.63huntington disease 2500.62gene not 2510.62metalloprotease 2520.61trail 2530.61dna methyltransferase 2540.61phd finger 2550.61gene chromosome 2560.61gene breast cancer 2570.61virus gene 2580.61genomic 2590.60g polymorphism 2600.60copy 2610.59cytochrome p450 2620.59pcr 2630.59adenovirus gene 2640.59catechol o-methyltransferase 2650.59tnf alpha 2660.59glutathione s transferase 2670.59rna polymerase 2680.59rela 2690.58prostate cancer 2700.58e1a 2710.5823s rrna 2720.58estrogen receptor 2730.57diabetes 2740.57maoa 2750.57alzheimer disease 2760.57cho 2770.56anxiety 2780.56promoter variant 2790.56chain gene 2800.56crp 2810.56gene major depressive 2820.56association met 2830.55wolfram syndrome 2840.55epidermal growth factor 2850.55gene human colorectal 2860.55gef gene 2870.55histone 2880.55tet 2890.55p450 2900.54alpha fetoprotein enhancer 2910.54inducible promoter 2920.54protein kinase c 2930.54qki 2940.54catalytic subunit 2950.54cntf 2960.54gene mycobacterium tuberculosis 2970.53endoplasmic reticulum 2980.53sox 2990.52apoptotic gene 3000.52growth factor gene 3010.52gene cancer 3020.52rna gene 3030.52nonviral gene 3040.52polymerase 3050.52t7 3060.51fas 3070.51adeno 3080.51cd4 3090.51gene a 3100.51il-2 gene 3110.51lacz 3120.50somatostatin receptor 3130.50interleukin 3140.50genome 3150.50translocase 3160.50topoisomerase i 3170.50obesity 3180.49allelic association 3190.49promoter activation 3200.49related allele 3210.49phosphotransferase 3220.48serotonin gene 3230.48nucleotide sequence 3240.48dopamine d2 receptor 3250.48egr 3260.48allelic variant 3270.48associated protein 3280.48regulatory region 3290.47apolipoprotein e 3300.47hydrolase 3310.47rna 3320.47methyltransferase 3330.46hla 3340.46waf1 3350.46tryptophan 3-dioxygenase 3360.46trait 3370.45inducible 3380.45ornithine decarboxylase 3390.45high mobility group 3400.45ifn 3410.45phop 3420.451a 3430.44cox2 3440.44androgen receptor 3450.44domain 3460.44il-10 3470.44ctl 3480.44gm csf 3490.43huntington 3500.43specific transgene expression 3510.43hpa 3520.435-ht 3530.43interleukin receptor 3540.43capsid 3550.43luciferase 3560.42gt 3570.42dna sequence 3580.42tat 3590.42g2 3600.42peptidase 3610.41gene alcohol 3620.41locus 3630.41slpi 3640.41il-4 3650.41estrogen receptor gene 3660.41promoter targeting 3670.41cll 3680.41atr 3690.40pai-1 3700.40macrophage activation 3710.40alpha fetoprotein 3720.40alcohol dehydrogenase 3730.39meta 3740.39gene proliferation 3750.39corticotropin releasing hormone 3760.39attc 3770.38map 3780.38apolipoprotein b 3790.37protease 3800.37adp gene 3810.37exploratory gene 3820.37adp 3830.36atm 3840.36acyl carrier protein 3850.36serotonin receptor gene 3860.36pha 3870.36p11 3880.35responsive promoter 3890.34glutamate receptor 3900.34nk 3910.34carnitine palmitoyltransferase 3920.34carboxyl ester lipase 3930.34mr-1 3940.33interferon gamma 3950.33kinase 3960.33breast cancer 3970.33gap 3980.33metallothionein 3990.32suppressor gene 4000.32protooncogene 4010.32nuclease 4020.32monoamine oxidase 4030.32lac 4040.32ras 4050.32tyrosine hydroxylase 4060.32aggression 4070.32glucocorticoid receptor 4080.31oxidoreductase 4090.30rho 4100.30sigma 4110.30tropomyosin 4120.29tyrosinase 4130.29anorexia 4140.29p22 4150.29senescence 4160.29gene lung 4170.281j 4180.28spermine synthase 4190.282a 4200.28mitochondrial 4210.27cyp 4220.27trna 4230.27ligand 4240.27aldehyde dehydrogenase 4250.27sp 4260.26cml 4270.26p75 4280.26endothelial cell gene 4290.26retroviral gene 4300.26gene human 4310.26gene promoter a 4320.26dihydrofolate reductase 4330.25lox 4340.25gene knockout 4350.25sparc 4360.25immunoglobulin gene 4370.25von willebrand factor 4380.25cell specific gene 4390.24promoter specific 4400.24gene promoter region 4410.23responsive gene 4420.23fusion 4430.22mmp-9 gene 4440.22click 4450.22ltr 4460.22gene allele 4470.22islet 4480.22tumor necrosis factor 4490.22gene transfection 4500.22switch 4510.22luciferase gene 4520.21stress response gene 4530.21crp gene 4540.21fatty acid synthase 4550.21gene japanese 4560.21dopa 4570.20gpi 4580.20phospholipase 4590.20creb1 4600.20e3 4610.19promoter drive 4620.19cd 4630.18rds 4640.18alpha gene 4650.18ifn gamma 4660.18gene uterine 4670.18lipase 4680.17gene hematopoietic 4690.17synergistic antitumor 4700.17antigen gene 4710.17tor 4720.17guanylate kinase 4730.17pro 4740.16efflux 4750.16gef 4760.16novel chimeric gene 4770.15cue 4780.15gene hematopoietic cell 4790.15gene 4800.15phosphorylase 4810.15carboxypeptidase 4820.15plasminogen 4830.15promoter expression 4840.15femur 4850.15constitutive 4860.15i gene 4870.15met 4880.14transferase 4890.14cholecystokinin 4900.14vir 4910.14brain protein 4920.14chromosomal gene 4930.14superoxide dismutase 4940.14live 4950.14housekeeping gene 4960.14sex 4970.14lens 4980.13template 4990.13afp 5000.13chimeric gene 5010.13msra 5020.13renin 5030.13star 5040.13cell gene 5050.13variant 5060.13inducible gene 5070.13siga 5080.12cathepsin 5090.12amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 5100.12mhc 5110.122c 5120.12c6 5130.12gene early 5140.12men 5150.12gene encoding iron 5160.11k1 5170.11synthase promoter 5180.11tap1 5190.11nucleoside phosphorylase 5200.11gene linked 5210.11hydrolase gene 5220.10cag 5230.10protein-1 gene 5240.10tsh 5250.10pilot 5260.10phd 5270.10death 5280.10signal 5290.10reductase 5300.10keratin 5310.10gene related 5320.10g1 5330.10tubulin 5340.09act 5350.09abc 5360.09thyroglobulin 5370.09p1 5380.08siv 5390.08endoplasmic reticulum protein 5400.08clone 5410.08h ras 5420.08beta galactosidase 5430.07analysis gene 5440.07cea 5450.07defense 5460.07gene major 5470.07lacking 5480.071b 5490.07novel 5500.06coa 5510.06c g 5520.06adenosine deaminase 5530.06aid 5540.06fur 5550.06chymotrypsin 5560.06tph2 5570.06bomb 5580.06gene tumor 5590.06pet 5600.06dot 5610.06rev 5620.06somatostatin 5630.06cytochrome c 5640.06end 5650.05rs1 5660.05year 5670.05hexokinase 5680.05cytosolic 5690.05spp 5700.05mu 5710.05male 5720.05urease 5730.05decarboxylase 5740.04c1 5750.04gm 5760.04gastrin 5770.04co 5780.04d4 5790.04xx 5800.04gene repression 5810.04e coli 5820.04key 5830.04murine leukemia virus 5840.03neurofibromatosis 5850.03impact 5860.03fim 5870.03region 5880.03protein 5890.03war 5900.03interferon 5910.03operator 5920.03axis 5930.03enolase 5940.03nano 5950.03immune response 5960.03nad 5970.03care 5980.03inhibitor 5990.03atpase 6000.03gaba 6010.03receptor 6020.03arginase 6030.02fish 6040.02dba 6050.02gene carried 6060.02cher 6070.02proteinase 6080.02core 6090.02eae 6100.02large 6110.02amylase 6120.02cholesterol 6130.02b1 6140.02p4 6150.02d3 6160.02non 6170.01heme 6180.01synergistic 6190.01a2 6200.01pnp 6210.01vein 6220.01aminotransferase 6230.01killer 6240.01csf 6250.01phi 6260.01low 6270.01early 6280.01ti 6290.01iron 6300.01family 6310.01d2 6320.01dehydrogenase 6330.01poly 6340.01cell 6350.01na 6360.01envelope protein 6370.01fragment 6380.01catalase 6390.01val 6400.01group iv 6410.01gene specify 6420.00glycoprotein 6430.00rhob 6440.00fused 6450.00myocardial infarction 6460.00mcl 6470.00pai 6480.00gene bacterial 6490.00ia 6500.00tran 6510.00benign 6520.00kit 6530.00eye 6540.00gene complex 6550.00fiber 6560.00past 6570.00lie 6580.00gal 6590.00hook 6600.00ncx 6610.00epsilon 6620.00el 6630.00lethal 6640.00nt 6650.00hela 6660.00ex 6670.00cycle 6680.00stump 6690.00delta 6700.00dr 6710.00meme 6720.00nervous 6730.00cold 6740.00gene cell 6750.00theta 6760.00pump 6770.00safe 6780.00multiple sclerosis 6790.00insulinoma associated 6800.00elongated 6810.00cis 6820.00ca2 6830.00pre 6840.00ten 6850.00germ 6860.00base 6870.00fast 6880.00a1 6890.00gas 6900.00asd 6910.00evaluation e 6920.00glass 6930.00cam 6940.00psi 6950.00line 6960.00cell enhancement 6970.00trap 6980.00step 6990.00egg 7000.00p3 7010.00beta 7020.00secretion 7030.00r1 7040.00amp 7050.00double 7060.00gene effect 7070.00vi 7080.00gamma 7090.00enhancement 7100.00spatial 7110.00damage 7120.00lack 7130.00art 7140.00mice 7150.00light 7160.00vs 7170.00ep 7180.00point 7190.00membrane 7200.00mep 7210.00arm 7220.00white 7230.00van 7240.00one gene 7250.00bad 7260.00collagen 7270.00re 7280.00t2 7290.00slow 7300.00side 7310.00ray 7320.00dark 7330.00elongata 7340.003h 7350.00pc 7360.00minor 7370.00se 7380.00pig 7390.00phase 7400.00modification 7410.00t1 7420.00going 7430.00lyse 7440.00term 7450.00block 7460.00iv 7470.00abnormal 7480.00alpha 7490.00m1 7500.00mass 7510.00c2 7520.00golden 7530.00time 7540.00segment 7550.00group 7560.00shot 7570.00not 7580.00n1 7590.00inactive 7600.00dog 7610.00decay 7620.00skin 7630.00brown 7640.00mod 7650.00or 7660.00al 7670.00activity 7680.00san 7690.00far 7700.00mode 7710.00patch 7720.00urea 7730.00area 7740.00neuro 7750.00ca 7760.00band 7770.00phosphate 7780.00semi 7790.00danger 7800.00kind 7810.00fact 7820.00d Restrict by semantic categories? job id # 6687 started Wed Feb 3 10:34:50 2010 Max_citations: 50000 Stoplist: /var/www/html/arrowsmith_uic/data/stopwords_pubmed Ngram_max: 3 6687 Search ARROWSMITH A A_query_raw: suicide AND geneticWed Feb 3 10:36:04 2010 A query = suicide AND genetic started Wed Feb 3 10:36:05 2010 A query resulted in 2340 titles 6687 Search ARROWSMITH C C_query_raw: ''Twin and family Wed Feb 3 10:37:12 2010 C: ''Twin and family 680644 A: pubmed_query_A 2340 AC: ( suicide AND genetic ) AND ( ''Twin and family ) 289 C query = ''Twin and family started Wed Feb 3 10:37:12 2010 C query resulted in 50000 titles A AND C query resulted in 289 titles 7081 B-terms ready on Wed Feb 3 10:39:51 2010 Sem_filter: Genes Molecular Sequences, and Gene Protein Names 782 B-terms left after filter executed Wed Feb 3 10:44:21 2010 B-list on Wed Feb 3 10:45:14 2010 1 promoter polymorphism 2 serotonin transporter gene 3 vntr 4 vegf 5 single nucleotide polymorphism 6 transporter gene 7 caspase 8 wfs1 9 tryptophan hydroxylase gene 10 grp78 11 quantitative trait loci 12 survivin 13 suicide gene 14 bdnf 15 transposable element 16 vntr polymorphism 17 promoter hypermethylation 18 telomerase reverse transcriptase 19 dopamine transporter gene 20 gene promoter 21 gene promoter polymorphism 22 pv 23 serpin 24 erbb2 25 apoe 26 cyp2d6 27 slc6a4 28 promoter analysis 29 exon 30 gene bipolar 31 cytokine gene 32 genome wide 33 egr-1 34 thymidine kinase gene 35 p27kip1 36 bcl-2 37 5-ht1a 38 nf kappab 39 snp 40 c jun n 41 eif4e 42 intron 43 cre 44 hydroxylase gene 45 transgene expression 46 5-htt 47 candidate gene 48 histone deacetylase 49 bcr abl 50 repressor 51 regulon 52 gene encoding 53 response regulator 54 testing huntington 55 comt 56 neurotrophin 57 catechol o-methyltransferase gene 58 snp haplotype 59 cyp2c19 60 abcg1 61 erbb-2 62 endostatin 63 abl 64 targeted gene 65 survivin gene 66 reca 67 rrna 68 cancer gene 69 bax 70 gene environment 71 lipase gene 72 htra 73 ret 74 slc6a3 75 pcc 76 c jun 77 e cadherin 78 fas ligand 79 kinase gene 80 drd4 81 promoter region 82 enterotoxin gene 83 cloning gene 84 enhancer 85 gene expressed 86 prostate cancer gene 87 mmp-9 88 d2 receptor gene 89 gene vntr polymorphism 90 han 91 gene chinese 92 body mass index 93 mdr1 94 receptor promoter 95 caga 96 alpha fetoprotein promoter 97 exon skipping 98 gt g 99 promoter enhancer 100 htr1b 101 tachykinin receptor 102 conjugative 103 estrogen receptor alpha 104 hypoxia response element 105 bcr 106 reporter gene 107 polymorphism promoter 108 htr2c 109 ryanodine receptor 110 intronic polymorphism 111 tryptophan hydroxylase 112 resistance gene 113 operon 114 serotonergic gene 115 5-htt gene 116 cd34 117 intronic 118 htr2a 119 neurotrophic factor gene 120 sclc 121 cadherin 122 p53 123 transgene 124 rnai 125 connexin 126 gene variant 127 promoter activity 128 dopamine receptor d4 129 factor gene 130 adrenergic receptor gene 131 polymorphism promoter region 132 gene streptococcus 133 lmp1 134 pax2 135 gene patient 136 cyclin 137 receptor gene 138 gene escherichia coli 139 drd3 140 cd28 141 hdac 142 cdna 143 collagen induced arthritis 144 breast cancer gene 145 interleukin-1 gene 146 transcription factor 147 adhd 148 novel gene 149 promoter driven 150 xylanase gene 151 il-18 152 il-15 153 promoter a 154 gene associated 155 p53 gene 156 tyrosine hydroxylase gene 157 pkc 158 mll 159 yefm 160 p1 promoter 161 heat shock protein 162 expression e 163 gene schizophrenia 164 oprm1 165 tnf 166 aroa gene 167 gene involved 168 opioid receptor 169 ftsk 170 leptin 171 cd8 172 kinase c jun 173 related gene 174 ciliary neurotrophic factor 175 htert gene 176 cytokine 177 ctx 178 conjugative plasmid 179 gap-43 180 protein gene 181 ryanodine receptor gene 182 gene transfer 183 23s 184 expression e coli 185 mesothelin 186 multigene 187 nf 188 gene htr2a 189 polymorphism exon 190 psa 191 endonuclease 192 expression gene 193 monoamine oxidase a 194 gene coding 195 retinoblastoma 196 hiv 197 is3 198 replicon 199 protease gene 200 isoform 201 twin 202 th1 203 epilepsy 204 tcr 205 jun 206 ezh2 207 pdx-1 208 allele 209 protein kinase 210 hsf1 211 interleukin-12 gene 212 programmed cell death 213 gastrin releasing peptide 214 5ht2a 215 fmo3 216 promoter 217 response element 218 norepinephrine transporter gene 219 gene yersinia 220 4p 221 tachykinin 222 il-12 223 g protein 224 nf1 225 topoisomerase 226 glioma 227 aroa 228 receptor gene expression 229 cd20 230 cd95 231 ntrc 232 allelic 233 tolc 234 p75ntr 235 ester lipase gene 236 dopamine receptor 237 mediated allelic 238 stress inducible promoter 239 body mass 240 aav 241 muc1 242 transporter 243 il-2 244 il-7 245 thymidine kinase 246 inos 247 sacb 248 susceptibility gene 249 huntington disease 250 gene not 251 metalloprotease 252 trail 253 dna methyltransferase 254 phd finger 255 gene chromosome 256 gene breast cancer 257 virus gene 258 genomic 259 g polymorphism 260 copy 261 cytochrome p450 262 pcr 263 adenovirus gene 264 catechol o-methyltransferase 265 tnf alpha 266 glutathione s transferase 267 rna polymerase 268 rela 269 prostate cancer 270 e1a 271 23s rrna 272 estrogen receptor 273 diabetes 274 maoa 275 alzheimer disease 276 cho 277 anxiety 278 promoter variant 279 chain gene 280 crp 281 gene major depressive 282 association met 283 wolfram syndrome 284 epidermal growth factor 285 gene human colorectal 286 gef gene 287 histone 288 tet 289 p450 290 alpha fetoprotein enhancer 291 inducible promoter 292 protein kinase c 293 qki 294 catalytic subunit 295 cntf 296 gene mycobacterium tuberculosis 297 endoplasmic reticulum 298 sox 299 apoptotic gene 300 growth factor gene 301 gene cancer 302 rna gene 303 nonviral gene Start A-Literature C-Literature B-list Filter Literature AB literature B-term BC literature suicide AND genetic vntr ''Twin and family 1: Serotonin transporter gene promoter (5-HTTLPR) and intron 2 (VNTR ) polymorphisms: a study on Slovenian population of suicide victims.2006 Add to clipboard 2: Association study of serotonin transporter gene VNTR polymorphism and mood disorders, onset age and suicide attempts in a Chinese sample.2003 Add to clipboard 3: Serotonin transporter gene promoter (5-HTTLPR) and intron 2 (VNTR ) polymorphisms in Croatian suicide victims.2003 Add to clipboard 1: Gene polymorphisms of TNF-alpha-308 (G/A), IL-10(-1082) (G/A), IL-6(-174) (G/C) and IL-1Ra (VNTR ) in Egyptian cases with type 1 diabetes mellitus.2009 Add to clipboard 2: The 27-bp repeat polymorphism in intron 4 (27 bp -VNTR ) of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) gene is associated with albumin to creatinine ratio in Mexican Americans.2009 Add to clipboard 3: Epistasis between the DAT 3' UTR VNTR and the COMT Val158Met SNP on cortical function in healthy subjects and patients with schizophrenia.2009 Add to clipboard 4: Mutations in the VNTR of the carboxyl-ester lipase gene (CEL) are a rare cause of monogenic diabetes.2009 Add to clipboard 5: No association of the insulin gene VNTR polymorphism with polycystic ovary syndrome in a Han Chinese population.2009 Add to clipboard 6: VNTR typing studies of Mycobacterium leprae in China: assessment of methods and stability of markers during treatment.2009 Add to clipboard 7: VNTR typing of Mycobacterium leprae in South Indian leprosy patients.2009 Add to clipboard 8: Gene polymorphisms of IL-6(-174) G/C and IL-1Ra VNTR in asthmatic children.2008 Add to clipboard 9: Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene VNTR polymorphism is associated with coronary artery disease.2008 Add to clipboard Start A-Literature C-Literature B-list Filter Literature AB literature B-term BC literature suicide AND genetic vegf ''Twin and family 1: 2005 Add to clipboard 2: 2004 Add to clipboard 1: Screening and Improvement of an Anti -VEGF DNA Aptamer.2010 Add to clipboard 2: Secretion of MMP-2 and MMP-9 induced by VEGF autocrine loop correlates with clinical features in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.2009 Add to clipboard 3: CCN family 2/connective tissue growth factor (CCN2/CTGF) regulates the expression of Vegf through Hif-1alpha expression in a chondrocytic cell line, HCS-2/8, under hypoxic condition.2009 Add to clipboard 4: A novel peptide from human apolipoprotein(a) inhibits angiogenesis and tumor growth by targeting c-Src phosphorylation in VEGF -induced human umbilical endothelial cells.2009 Add to clipboard 5: Preoperative serum levels of serum VEGF -C is associated with distant metastasis in colorectal cancer patients.2009 Add to clipboard 6: Gene profiling studies in the neonatal ovine lung show enhancing effects of VEGF on the immune response.2009 Add to clipboard 7: Association of VEGF polymorphisms with childhood asthma, lung function and airway responsiveness.2009 Add to clipboard 8: Snake venom Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors (VEGF -Fs) exclusively vary their structures and functions among species.2009 Add to clipboard 9: Non-redundant roles of the Gab1 and Gab2 scaffolding adapters in VEGF -mediated signalling, migration, and survival of endothelial cells.2009 Add to clipboard 10: Thrombospondin-1 modulates VEGF -A-mediated Akt signaling and capillary survival in the developing retina.2009 Add to clipboard 11: Genetic variation in VEGF does not contribute significantly to the risk of congenital cardiovascular malformation.2009 Add to clipboard 12: PDGF-C induces maturation of blood vessels in a model of glioblastoma and attenuates the response to anti -VEGF treatment.2009 Add to clipboard 13: CIEF and MALDI-TOF-MS methods for analyzing forms of the glycoprotein VEGF 165.2009 Add to clipboard 14: Salivary VEGF : a non-invasive angiogenic and lymphangiogenic proxy in head and neck cancer prognostication.2009 Add to clipboard 15: Expression of angiopoietins 1, 2 and their common receptor tie-2 in relation to the size of endothelial lining gaps and expression of VEGF and VEGF receptors in idiopathic menorrhagia.2009 Add to clipboard 16: Analysis of VEGF , Flt-1, Flk-1, nestin and MMP-9 in relation to astrocytoma pathogenesis and progression.2009 Add to clipboard 17: Molecular Diversity of VEGF -A as a Regulator of Its Biological Activity.2009 Add to clipboard 18: VEGF -B: a survival, or an angiogenic factor?2009 Add to clipboard 19: VEGF (121)b, a new member of the VEGF (xxx)b family of VEGF -A splice isoforms, inhibits neovascularisation and tumour growth in vivo.2009 Add to clipboard 20: The VEGF -induced transcriptional response comprises gene clusters at the crossroad of angiogenesis and inflammation.2009 Add to clipboard 21: Investigating the differential activation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF ) receptors.2009 Add to clipboard 22: Structure-function analysis of VEGF receptor activation and the role of coreceptors in angiogenic signaling.2009 Add to clipboard 23: Unique signal transduction of the VEGF family members VEGF -A and VEGF -E.2009 Add to clipboard 24: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF )-D in association with VEGF receptor-3 in lymphatic metastasis of breast cancer.2009 Add to clipboard 25: Vascular endothelial growth factor B (VEGF -B) is up-regulated and exogenous VEGF -B is neuroprotective in a culture model of Parkinson's disease.2009 Add to clipboard 26: VEGF -mediated signal transduction in lymphatic endothelial cells.2009 Add to clipboard 27: Cardiomyocyte VEGF R-1 activation by VEGF -B induces compensatory hypertrophy and preserves cardiac function after myocardial infarction.2009 Add to clipboard 28: AlphaB crystallin regulation of angiogenesis by modulation of VEGF .2009 Add to clipboard 29: VEGF mRNA expression in jugulotympanic paraganglioma.2009 Add to clipboard 30: Expression of pro- and anti-angiogenic isoforms of VEGF is differentially regulated by splicing and growth factors.2008 Add to clipboard 31: Novel role for vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF ) receptor-1 and its ligand VEGF -B in motor neuron degeneration.2008 Add to clipboard 32: Novel regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF -A) by transforming growth factor (beta)1: requirement for Smads, (beta)-CATENIN, AND GSK3(beta).2008 Add to clipboard 33: The alternatively spliced anti-angiogenic family of VEGF isoforms VEGF xxxb in human kidney development.2008 Add to clipboard
记得我们中学的时候开始知道到生物进化论是从达尔文和拉马克开始，后来是摩尔根和米丘林。这四位历史上有名的遗传学家都是看到了物种的变化，然后提出了物种变化的理论，即进化和遗传的理论。我们现代的分子生物学研究不断的提供证据支持和证明了达尔文和摩尔根。 那么，现代生物学有没有任何的迹象表明拉马克和米丘林也有一点正确的地方呢？ 于是就想到了现在正在热起来的 Epigenetics 。 什么是 epigenetics ？ Google 上查出的定义是 The term epigenetics refers to changes in phenotype (appearance) or gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence, hence the name epi- (Greek: over; above) -genetics. 翻成中文是表观遗传学。定义是表观遗传是 DNA 序列变化之外的基因功能之变化的遗传。 听起来很耳熟，不就是拉马克和米丘林的获得性遗传吗？啊，原来获得性遗传是在体细胞遗传中（ somatic cell genetics ）起作用。 推广开来也就是：外界环境对生物体的影响得到了遗传。 对单细胞生物而言，外界环境对 DNA 的影响是很容易就被遗传下去的。获得性是被遗传了。 多细胞生物呢？尤其是生殖细胞和体细胞分开的生物呢？外界环境对多细胞生物体细胞产生的影响能通过生殖细胞遗传下去吗？这样想下来，就明白原来米丘林也是正确的。米丘林研究的是植物，许多植物的获得性性状是应该能够通过体细胞再生遗传下去的。 生命的本质是自我复制。生命的一切行为和机制都是为了能保证生命的存在和复制。 后天的获得性是一种机制，是为了适应环境而需要的一种机制。 由 DNA 的序列所决定的基因功能是相对稳定的。而环境则相对变化较大。生物体因此需要一种适应环境变化的机制来调节 DNA 的功能。这就是 Epigenetics 。 环境对 DNA 的影响可以有两种： 一种是随机的、无方向的，即 DNA 序列的变化。 环境对随机的变化是进行选择，选择合适环境生长的变化。这就是达尔文的进化理论。这种随机变化和选择性遗传对生物体来讲是被动的。 另一种是适应环境的、定向的，也就是拉马克所说的获得性遗传，即我们今天所说的 Epigenetics 。生物体能通过表观遗传的机制去主动的学习环境和适应环境，并且能将这种学习的结果传给后代，也就是获得性遗传。 生殖细胞和体细胞分开的动物后天获得的性状是否能够遗传给子一代，是通过什么机制来遗传？体细胞获得的性状如何传递给生殖细胞？这是我们今天的 Epigenetics 需要解决的一个问题吧。
The evolution of sex-biased genes and sex-biased gene expression Ellegren H, Parsch J. The evolution of sex-biased genes and sex-biased gene expression. Nat Rev Genet. 2007 Sep; 8 (9): 689-98. Epub 2007 Aug 7. Differences between males and females in the optimal phenotype that is favoured by selection can be resolved by the evolution of differential gene expression in the two sexes. Microarray experiments have shown that such sex-biased gene expression is widespread across organisms and genomes. Sex-biased genes show unusually rapid sequence evolution, are often labile in their pattern of expression, and are non-randomly distributed in the genome. Here we discuss the characteristics and expression of sex-biased genes, and the selective forces that shape this previously unappreciated source of phenotypic diversity. Sex-biased gene expression has implications beyond just evolutionary biology, including for medical genetics. The evolution of sex-biased genes and sex-biased gene expression Evolutionary complexity of MADS complexes Rijpkema AS , Gerats T, Vandenbussche M. Evolutionary complexity of MADS complexes. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2007 Feb; 10 (1): 32-8. Epub 2006 Nov 30. Developmental programs rely on the timely and spatially correct expression of sets of interacting factors, many of which appear to be transcription factors. Examples of these can be found in the MADS-box gene family. This gene family has greatly expanded, particularly in plants, by a range of duplications that have enabled the genes to diversify in structure and function. MADS-box genes appear to have been instrumental in shaping one of the great evolutionary innovations, the true flower, which originated around 120-150 million years ago and led to the enormous radiation of the angiosperms. We propose a shift from analyzing individual gene functions towards studying MADS-box gene function at the subfamily level. This will enable us to distinguish subfunctionalization events from the evolutionary changes that defined floral morphology. Evolutionary complexity of MADS complexes Evolutionary genetics: fight or flinch? Brown JK, Handley RJ. Fight or flinch? Heredity. 2006 Jan; 96 (1): 3-4. Evolutionary genetics-fight or flinch Evolving disease resistance genes Meyers BC, Kaushik S, Nandety RS. Evolving disease resistance genes. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2005 Apr; 8 (2): 129-34. Defenses against most specialized plant pathogens are often initiated by a plant disease resistance gene. Plant genomes encode several classes of genes that can function as resistance genes. Many of the mechanisms that drive the molecular evolution of these genes are now becoming clear. The processes that contribute to the diversity of R genes include tandem and segmental gene duplications, recombination, unequal crossing-over, point mutations, and diversifying selection. Diversity within populations is maintained by balancing selection. Analyses of whole-genome sequences have and will continue to provide new insight into the dynamics of resistance gene evolution. Evolving disease resistance genes
Chromosome evolution Schubert I. Chromosome evolution. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2007 Apr; 10 (2): 109-15. Epub 2007 Feb 7. The idea of evolution as a principle for the origin of biodiversity fits all phenomena of life, including the carriers of nuclear inheritance, the chromosomes. Insights into the evolutionary mechanisms that contribute to the shape, size, composition, number and redundancy of chromosomes elucidate the high plasticity of nuclear genomes at the chromosomal level, and the potential for genome modification in the course of breeding processes. Aspects of chromosome fusion, as exemplified by karyotype evolution of relatives of Arabidopsis, have recently received special attention. Chromosome evolution Steps in the evolution of heteromorphic sex chromosomes Charlesworth D, Charlesworth B, Marais G. Steps in the evolution of heteromorphic sex chromosomes. Heredity. 2005 Aug; 95 (2): 118-28. We review some recently published results on sex chromosomes in a diversity of species. We focus on several fish and some plants whose sex chromosomes appear to be 'young', as only parts of the chromosome are nonrecombining, while the rest is pseudoautosomal. However, the age of these systems is not yet very clear. Even without knowing what proportions of their genes are genetically degenerate, these cases are of great interest, as they may offer opportunities to study in detail how sex chromosomes evolve. In particular, we review evidence that recombination suppression occurs progressively in evolutionarily independent cases, suggesting that selection drives loss of recombination over increasingly large regions. We discuss how selection during the period when a chromosome is adapting to its role as a Y chromosome might drive such a process. Steps in the evolution of heteromorphic sex chromosomes Evolutionary genetics: when duplicated gene dont stick to the rules Van de Peer Y. Evolutionary genetics: when duplicated genes don't stick to the rules. Heredity. 2006 Mar; 96 (3): 204-5. when duplicated gene dont stick to the rules Junk DNA as an evolutionary force Bimont C, Vieira C. Genetics: junk DNA as an evolutionary force. Nature. 2006 Oct 5; 443 (7111): 521-4. Junk DNA as an evolutionary force The evolutionary dynamics of plant duplicate genes Moore RC, Purugganan MD. The evolutionary dynamics of plant duplicate genes. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2005 Apr; 8 (2): 122-8. Given the prevalence of duplicate genes and genomes in plant species, the study of their evolutionary dynamics has been a focus of study in plant evolutionary genetics over the past two decades. The past few years have been a particularly exciting time because recent theoretical and experimental investigations have led to a rethinking of the classic paradigm of duplicate gene evolution. By combining recent advances in genomic analysis with a new conceptual framework, researchers are determining the contributions of single-gene and whole-genome duplications to the diversification of plant species. This research provides insights into the roles that gene and genome duplications play in plant evolution. The evolutionary dynamics of plant duplicate genes The rise and falls of introns Belshaw R, Bensasson D. The rise and falls of introns. Heredity. 2006 Mar; 96 (3): 208-13. There has been a lively debate over the evolution of eukaryote introns: at what point in the tree of life did they appear and from where, and what has been their subsequent pattern of loss and gain? A diverse range of recent research papers is relevant to this debate, and it is timely to bring them together. The absence of introns that are not self-splicing in prokaryotes and several other lines of evidence suggest an ancient eukaryotic origin for these introns, and the subsequent gain and loss of introns appears to be an ongoing process in many organisms. Some introns are now functionally important and there have been suggestions that invoke natural selection for the ancient and recent gain of introns, but it is also possible that fixation and loss of introns can occur in the absence of positive selection. The rise and falls of introns Retrotransposons: central players in the structure, evolution and function of plant geneomes Kumar A, Bennetzen JL. Retrotransposons: central players in the structure, evolution and function of plant genomes. Trends Plant Sci. 2000 Dec;5 (12): 509-10. Retrotransposons-central players in the structure, evolution and function of plant geneomes
Eukaryotic evolution, changes and challenges Embley TM, Martin W. Eukaryotic evolution, changes and challenges. Nature. 2006 Mar 30; 440 (7084): 623-30. The idea that some eukaryotes primitively lacked mitochondria and were true intermediates in the prokaryote-to-eukaryote transition was an exciting prospect. It spawned major advances in understanding anaerobic and parasitic eukaryotes and those with previously overlooked mitochondria. But the evolutionary gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is now deeper, and the nature of the host that acquired the mitochondrion more obscure, than ever before. Eukaryotic evolution, changes and challenges Climbing the evolutionary tree- Andrews P Climbing the evolutionary tree- Andrews P Which evolutionar processes influence natural genetic variation for phenotypic traits Mitchell-Olds T, Willis JH, Goldstein DB. Which evolutionary processes influence natural genetic variation for phenotypic traits? Nat Rev Genet. 2007 Nov; 8 (11): 845-56. Although many studies provide examples of evolutionary processes such as adaptive evolution, balancing selection, deleterious variation and genetic drift, the relative importance of these selective and stochastic processes for phenotypic variation within and among populations is unclear. Theoretical and empirical studies from humans as well as natural animal and plant populations have made progress in examining the role of these evolutionary forces within species. Tentative generalizations about evolutionary processes across species are beginning to emerge, as well as contrasting patterns that characterize different groups of organisms. Furthermore, recent technical advances now allow the combination of ecological measurements of selection in natural environments with population genetic analysis of cloned QTLs, promising advances in identifying the evolutionary processes that influence natural genetic variation. Which evolutionar processes influence natural genetic variation for phenotypic traits Phylogenomics and the reconstruction of the tree of life Delsuc F, Brinkmann H, Philippe H. Phylogenomics and the reconstruction of the tree of life. Nat Rev Genet. 2005 May; 6 (5): 361-75. As more complete genomes are sequenced, phylogenetic analysis is entering a new era - that of phylogenomics. One branch of this expanding field aims to reconstruct the evolutionary history of organisms on the basis of the analysis of their genomes. Recent studies have demonstrated the power of this approach, which has the potential to provide answers to several fundamental evolutionary questions. However, challenges for the future have also been revealed. The very nature of the evolutionary history of organisms and the limitations of current phylogenetic reconstruction methods mean that part of the tree of life might prove difficult, if not impossible, to resolve with confidence. Phylogenomics and the reconstruction of the tree of life Variation and constraint in plant evolution and development Kalisz S, Kramer EM. Variation and constraint in plant evolution and development. Heredity. 2008 Feb; 100 (2): 171-7. Epub 2007 Jan 31. The goal of this short review is to consider the interrelated phenomena of phenotypic variation and genetic constraint with respect to plant diversity. The unique aspects of plants, including sessile habit, modular growth and diverse developmental programs expressed at the phytomer level, merit a specific examination of the genetic basis of their phenotypic variation, and how they experience and escape genetic constraint. Numerous QTL studies with wild and domesticated plants reveal that most phenotypic traits are polygenic but vary in the number and effect of the loci contributing, from a few loci of large effects to many with small effects. Further, somatic mutations, developmental plasticity and epigenetic variation, especially gene methylation, can contribute to increases in phenotypic variation. The flip side of these processes, genetic constraint, can similarly be the result of many factors, including pleiotropy, canalization and genetic redundancy. Genetic constraint is not only a mechanism to prevent change, however, it can also serve to direct evolution along certain paths. Ultimately, genetic constraint often comes full circle and is released through events such as hybridization, genome duplication and epigenetic remodeling. We are just beginning to understand how these processes can operate simultaneously during the evolution of ecologically important traits in plants. Variation and constraint in plant evolution and development
这是一个关于关于体育社会学和体质人类学的综述，涉及到体育、种族、文化和基因、兴奋剂的多个方面，共20000余字，将分4-5部分。引用的文献资料列于文后的拓展阅读部分，基本上按照在文中出现的顺序排列，但因为作者对资料数据有所编排，故未注明标号。作者已经确保所有引述的资料来源可靠，如有疏漏，敬请谅解并指出 天赋体能？ ――体育文化基因的是与非（3) 444444444444444444444444444 Black or White 当我们用平均数来表示数据总体情况时，个性也随之消弥殆尽。而很多时候，被平均数丢弃的个性，往往具有更多的意义。平均重量相等的两箱苹果，整齐划一的那箱售价高昂，而参差不齐者只能送往罐头厂。人类基因组的成果告诉我们，决定种族差异的肤色只占据整个基因组的万分之一，更多的个人特质应该归因于种族内部的个体差异，有人说是85%－－另一些人认为更高。 基因是细胞核内DNA上的小片断，由数量庞大的核苷酸以一定的顺序排列而成。虽然只有区区四种核苷酸，却足以使每个人的基因永不雷同。基因内部的核苷酸顺序就是个人的先天蓝图，每三个核苷酸对应着某个氨基酸，在译码员的帮助下翻译为多肽链，从而控制着人体的先天性状。这个过程和莫尔斯码的原理如出一辙。 继承自祖辈的基因决定了我们作为人本质，同时让我们独具特色，无可替代。基因把我们每个人都雕刻成了独一无二的橡皮图章，肤色也是图章的重要部分，不幸的是，这些特征被作为了种族分类的依据，哪怕它们只是人体所有特征的沧海一粟。 虽然在人种划分的问题上众说纷纭，但无一例外地，肤色都被作为区分种族的重要指标之一。早在三四千年前，古埃及画家就尝试用不同的色彩标示各色族人。发展到上世纪初，欧洲逐渐形成了如下的分类法：尼格罗人种（黑种人）；高加索人种（白种人）和蒙古人种（黄种人）。这种分类法因为其简洁直观而广为流传。 作为一种分类尝试，人种这一概念本身并不具备任何破坏性。问题在于，趾高气昂的殖民者把种族与智力道德水平相联系，藉此对各地文化品头论足，以满足白人贵族那高眉骨下的仁厚心智。蒙古人种的浅黄皮肤和内眦赘皮表明他们狡猾而刻板（这对反义词用得堪绝）；尼格罗人种的黑皮肤和厚嘴唇是更接近猿类的证明，而对黑猩猩的白皙皮肤和薄嘴唇这一事实置若罔闻。无论如何，这时的理论为后来的种族主义打下了理论基础，臭名昭著的纳粹和三K党成了人类最痛苦的集体记忆，其后遗症至今尚未完全消除。 出人意料的是，这个把人类历史搅得风声水起的名词，却立足于一块摇摇欲坠的基石。作为同一个物种，各人种的皮肤结构完全一致，所谓的肤色差别只是集中在厚度小于一毫米的表皮层中。表皮中黑色素密度越高，皮肤就越黑，和其它所有性状一样，影响黑色素浓度的原因来自于两个方面：基因和环境。这两者决定了在白黑之间存在一系列的过渡肤色，而不是像双眼皮一样全或无。 现在我们知道，有四对基因（共8个等位基因）插手了黑色素任务。简单说来，白人有8个使其具有浅肤色的b基因，黑人有8个相反效应的n基因，所有中间肤色都有x个b基因和8-x个n基因，b基因越多，肤色就越白。从其他血型系统得到的证据表明美国黑人大概有1/4的欧洲白人基因，也就是说决定肤色的8个等位基因都有1/4的可能是b基因，因此在2000万美国黑人中大概有几百人具有白色肌肤；同理，大概有20万人具有非洲创建者的纯粹黑色n基因。这是一个好消息，当我们发现子女肤色与父母大相径庭时，不用再满地找下巴了。 基因使得人体的天然肤色表现出至少八个等级，环境更是将肤色打造成为无级连续性状，就像身高等体质性状一般。肤色之所以在后天有如此之大的改变，是因为黑色素肩负着一项防护性的生理功能：紫外线光盾。在紫外线照射下，皮肤会合成更多的黑色素，以作防御。黑色素缺乏症患者对光线高度敏感，只能躲避一切光亮，所以荷兰人给他们起绰号叫Hakkerlaken，意即蟑螂－－虽然刻薄恶毒，却也道出了怕光的本质。同等光照下，肤色较浅的高加索人患皮肤癌的比例比黑人高50倍，比日本人高4-12倍。 在椰子油和防晒乳广泛应用之前，人类祖先们只好以黑色肌肤来抵御强烈紫外线。生活在卡拉哈里沙漠深处的布须曼人提示了人类始祖的肤色。作为人类始祖的最可能的嫡系后裔，布须曼人呈现非常广阔的肤色范围，从一个小型的布须曼人群体中，我们就足以发现三大人种的肤色倾向。正如安德烈朗加奈在《种族之间不可调和的问题》一文中写道，如果选取南非人和布须曼人作为中间人，最白的北欧人可以直接过度到最黑的萨拉人。 但是，高密度的黑色素既是紫外线之盾，也是维生素D的克星，在抵御紫外线的入侵的同时，也阻挡了后者的合成之路。维生素D是人体必需的维生素之一，在钙质代谢中起着重要作用，但却无法从食物中获得，只在阳光的照射下由胆固醇转变而来。过深的肤色阻碍了维生素D的转化，从而影响钙质吸收，甚至因此导致佝偻病－－有数据表明低日照地区的黑人儿童更容易罹患维生素D缺乏症。 因此，当10万年前的气候变迁迫使人祖走向迁徙之路时，肤色这一生死攸关而且适应性极强的表层性状逐渐发生了缓慢但醒目的改变。随着光照的减少，皮肤较浅（即b等位基因较多）者更有优势，就有更多机会生育强健后代，进而增加整个群体的b基因的频率，最终使得整个群体的肤色较浅。高加索人种和蒙古人种的浅色肌肤就是由此而来。 肤色无论深浅都是适应自然的产物，其分离不过千代。虽说肤色是最明显，最容易比较的性状，但它极不稳定，而且充其量只占人体基因组的四千分之一，似乎与任何重要的生物性状都没有关联。一个简单的例子来自于对最黑皮肤的认识。赤道附近的美拉尼西亚群岛、印度半岛和撒哈拉以南非洲等地的居民有着最深的肤色，但无论如何难以将他们归入同一种族，因为他们除了肤色这一表观现象，其他分子学证据（如血型系统）都无法指向同一群体分支。 既然肤色如此肤浅，显然，任何只以肤色为标准的种族划分都不具有生物学意义。如果说以乳糖酶的持久性作为分类标准尚且有利于选择合适牛奶的话；以显而易见的肤色差异作为特征来区分种族，又给我们带来了什么？肤色判定是如此的简便易行，然而我们是否有必要将职位、爱情、能力、智商、甚至喝茶的邀请都和对方肤色挂钩？ 虽然现在的人类学家们早已不再这么做，但这一标准在人们心中却已根深蒂固。人种的概念起源于生物学的分类尝试，在最终被证明无功而返时，却早已在社会上留下了不可磨灭的印痕。面对这些，我们唯有说 I m Not Going To Spend My Life Being A Color 。（我这辈子绝不为某种肤色而活，出自迈克杰克逊歌曲《black or white》） 55555555555555555555555555555555 镀金的基因 作为科学名词的种族和人种已经危机重重，是时候让它么回归纯粹社会学阵营了。我们一方面认同各族群文化在人类文明中的独特地位，同时也应该更坦然地面对体质上可能存在的客观差异，虽然这种体质差异极可能和体育优势无关。正如范可所言，对人群多样性的关注，应该达到对独立个体的尊重,而不是助长业已存在的不同群体人与人之间的互不信任。 无论如何，对于运动员个人而言， 种族优势 毫无意义。一个很简单的道理，哪怕周遭都是金灿灿的红富士，一只瘪三苹果仍然难逃作为有机肥的命运。竞技体育真正关心的，是如何将个人推上荣誉的最高峰，同时把国家集体（以及曾经的种族）荣誉附加其上。在这方面，运动员的个人天赋，远比种族的所谓平均体质特征更有价值。 难怪瓦里纳说：人种、肤色都没有关系，重要的是一个运动员的天赋。刘翔和我一样，都有着惊人的天赋，只要我们努力训练，就可以取得优秀的成绩。运动科学家竭力使后天训练更有效率，遗传学家们则想尽办法如何把地基打好－－天赋才是他们的专注主题。 遗传学家们用基因还原了种族的社会学之身，同时也赋予了天赋全新的含义。双眼皮、AB血型、男性、黄皮肤、189厘米的身高这些天赋决定了刘翔之为刘翔，而更多人关心的是，刘翔的成功有多少源于天赋？ 与其说天赋由上天注定，毋宁说是基因和环境的拉锯战；遗传度这个概念被用来描述基因对性状的控制程度。双眼皮、血型和性别等因素几乎完全由基因决定；而肤色、身高等数量性状则在很大程度上受到环境的影响，日光浴和牛奶所起的作用可能比基因还大。通过对比相同环境下个人对训练的应答程度，人们发现了难以用环境解释的差异，由此可知基因必定在体能上插了一脚。让人更感兴趣的是，哪些基因蹈了体能这趟浑水？ 遗传学家们只好又一次搬出相关性这一武器，虽然它射程极短而且准度难料，总归聊胜于无。以大腿力量为例，两人之间运动成绩的相关性随着亲缘关系接近而迅速升高。无关亲族几乎毫不相关（相关系数0.08），收养关系因为环境相同有着0.12的相关性，亲子关系、异卵双生的相关系数更高，同卵双生（基因完全相同）则高达0.76。很显然，共享基因的增多为成绩相关性作出了重大贡献。这个结论提示我们，如果你的立定跳远不达标，千万不要找自己的双胞胎兄弟顶替――对于裁判员这可真是个好消息。 双胞胎在运动方面的相似性也有着众多的直观证据。李小双兄弟可能是我们最熟悉的孪生兄弟，在雅典奥运会上，美国体操队的哈姆兄弟为团体夺银立下汗马功劳，新西兰的双胞胎斯文戴尔姐妹更是一举拿下女子赛艇双人双桨冠军。实在有必要在他们的金牌上刻上一副双螺旋。 更多类似研究铺垫了体能基因的红地毯。在有氧运动能力上，同卵双胞胎比异卵双胞胎有着更多的相似性。另一项关于肌肉运动能力的研究似乎开启了时空之门，让我们重回30多年前：24位大学男生的助跑跳远成绩与大学时的父亲高度相关。姚明能成为NBA现役最高球员，除了要感谢布拉德利（他在2006年退役，把这个高帽送给了姚明），其父母基因也功不可没－－这对亚洲最高夫妻中的一员更曾是国家女篮队长。这些证据都暗示着，有运动基因在家族间流动。所以，如果可以的话，我更愿意在起跑之前查查对手的家谱，对于下面这位天才，翻查家谱更是必要。 芬兰越野滑雪运动员门蒂兰塔Eero Mantyranta的成功首次投射出运动基因的清晰背影。1937年出生的Mantyranta在六十年代所有滑雪赛事中出尽风头，在三届奥运会和两届世锦赛上共获得了十枚奖牌，其中包括5枚金牌。不说别的，这些奖牌的光总重量就超过二千克。如此惊人的成绩很自然地引起了很多人的怀疑，他们认为Mantyranta体内比常人多出的20%红细胞是兴奋剂所致。 三十年后，家族系谱调查才彻底洗脱了Mantyranta的嫌疑，14名与其有血缘关系的同辈表亲中，另有8人的红细胞数量同样超出常人。研究表明这种天赋来源于EPOR（促红细胞生成素受体）基因的变异，该变异导致了过多促红细胞生成素EPO的合成，进而促进机体合成更多的红细胞。不过对于其他表亲来说，这多出的红细胞并无实际意义，反倒增加了阻塞血管的风险。幸而该突变的频率极低。 Mantyranta体内的红细胞倒是多得其所。越野、长跑等耐力项目都依靠肌肉的有氧呼吸来提供能量，而氧气从肺部到肌肉的过程，正是由红细胞来完成的，这些过多的红细胞偶然间成了制胜之道。
标签: 遗传
