Robert Matthews. Water: The quantum elixir. New Scientist. 2006-04-05. 原文： https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025461.200-water-the-quantum-elixir/ （需要是会员，交钱才能查看） 二次转载自： http://www.popularmechanics.co.za/science/the-quantum-elixir/ 导读 Water. It’s the foundation of life on Earth. But what is it about H 2 O that gives it this amazing ability? ROBERT MATTHEWS investigates... 正文 5 April 2006 Water: The Quantum Elixir By Robert Matthews IN NEW AGE circles, everyone is talking about it: the magical properties of the colourless, tasteless liquid the rest of us blithely refer to as water. Between frequent gulps of the life-giving elixir, those initiated into its secrets talk reverently of the work of Masaru Emoto, who is said to have proved that water responds to the emotions of those around it. They describe how Emoto has demonstrated that ice crystals made from water blessed by a Zen monk look so much more beautiful than those exposed to messages of hate. Many have bought his best-selling book detailing his findings, and many more have seen his claims covered in last year’s New Age hit movie What the Bleep!? . Many scientists view all this fuss about plain old H 2 O as standard hippy-trippy nonsense with about as much credibility as crystal therapy. Certainly Emoto’s findings don’t have much to do with the scientific method: they are hand-picked, ad hoc and impossible to replicate. Yet though these views are too far-out to take seriously, the findings of the latest bona fide research are equally bizarre. It now seems that the effects of water on living organisms transcend mere chemistry: they are intimately linked to the most basic processes in the cosmos. Put bluntly, you owe your existence to quantum effects in water that make even the wackiest New Age ideas seem ho-hum. If cornered, any scientist would have to concede that water does have some odd properties that are important for life. The fact that solid water – ice – defies convention by being less dense than its liquid state has stopped the oceans from freezing solid from the bottom up and killing all marine life. And the unusual reluctance of water to heat up has helped the oceans to iron out climatic swings, giving organisms time to adapt. The simple chemical formula of water belies the subtleties behind its weirdness. The key to many of water’s properties is not the chemical bonds between the one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms that make up the molecule. It is the links between hydrogen atoms in different molecules. These hydrogen bonds are at least 10 times as weak as a typical chemical bond, which means that, although they can bind molecules together, they also break easily at room temperature. A single drop of water is therefore a seething mle of order and disorder, with structures constantly forming and breaking up within it. The result is a liquid with dozens of anomalous bulk properties, from a boiling point more than 150 degrees C higher than that of comparable liquids to a marked reluctance to being compressed. All the bonds affecting water molecules are ultimately caused by quantum effects, but hydrogen bonds are the result of one of the strangest quantum phenomena: so-called zero-point vibrations. A consequence of Heisenberg’s famous uncertainty principle, these constant vibrations are a product of the impossibility of pinning down the total energy of a system with absolute precision at any given moment in time. Even if the Universe itself froze over and its temperature plunged to absolute zero, zero-point vibrations would still be going strong, propelled by energy from empty space. Quantum lifeline In the case of water, these vibrations stretch the bonds between hydrogen atoms and their host oxygen atoms, enabling them to link up with neighbouring molecules more easily. The result is the highly cohesive liquid that keeps our planet alive. Felix Franks of the University of Cambridge has a nice illustration of the vital role this quantum effect plays. Just take some water and swap the hydrogen for atoms of its heavier isotope deuterium. You end up with a liquid that is chemically identical, yet poisonous to all but the most primitive organisms. “The only difference is in the zero-point energy,” says Franks. A growing number of researchers are now investigating the consequences of this deep link between quantum effects and life. Recent advances in theoretical methods, experimental techniques and brute computing power have allowed them to study how water interacts with DNA, proteins and cells in unprecedented detail. The results are often unexpected, and challenge simplistic assumptions about how life works. Certainly the fashionable view that the secret of life can be summed up in a catalogue of genes and the proteins they code for looks risibly simplistic. It is becoming clear that they cannot carry out even their most basic functions without direct help from molecules of the colourless, odourless curiosity that comes out of the tap. “Without water, it is all just chemistry,” says Franks, “but add water and you get biology.” Some of the most impressive evidence is emerging from studies of proteins. Created from chains of amino acids linked up according to the instructions of DNA, proteins are the workhorse molecules of life. They perform a host of key functions, from fighting off invaders to catalysing reactions and building fresh cells. Their precise action depends largely on their physical shape, and water molecules have long been known to be vital in ensuring amino acids curl up in the right way. Only now are researchers discovering the mechanism. What they are finding is an astonishingly delicate interplay of proteins and water molecules, orchestrated by those all-important hydrogen bonds. In January, Florian Garczarek and Klaus Gerwert at the department of biophysics at the Ruhr University of Bochum, Germany, reported on the role water molecules play in a protein called bacteriorhodopsin, which is found in the outer walls of primitive life forms. Bacteriorhodopsin undergoes a simple form of photosynthesis, using light to create a source of chemical energy. Researchers have long suspected that this process relies on the incoming light shifting protons around the molecule, creating a charge difference that acts rather like a battery. An obvious source of protons is the hydrogen nuclei of the water trapped within the protein’s structure, but no one had shown how this could work. Enter Garczarek and Gerwert. They exposed bacteriorhodopsin to infrared light, and found that the behaviour of the water molecules trapped within it was far from that of idle captives. Once struck by photons of light, the shape of the protein changed, breaking some of the hydrogen bonds between the trapped water molecules. The pair found that this triggered a chain of events in which fragments of some water molecules and clusters of others interacted to move protons through the protein. This sophisticated process is all made possible by the quantum behaviour of the hydrogen bonds in water. “Having bonds that can easily be formed but are not too difficult to break is a big advantage,” says Garczarek. The results suggest that it is no accident that chains of amino acids trap water molecules as they fold up to form a protein. Hydrogen bonds are also turning out to have a profound role in the functioning of that other key constituent of life, DNA. As with proteins, new findings suggest it is time for a re-think of the familiar thumbnail sketch of DNA as a double helix of four chemical bases. To perform its biological functions, DNA has to carry out various manoeuvres, twisting, turning and docking with proteins at just the right place. No problem for a metre-long stringy molecule like DNA, one might think. Yet on the far smaller scale where the real action takes place – typically a few hundred bases – DNA is pretty rigid. And then there’s the mystery of how proteins meet up with just the right parts of the double helix. Biochemists have long suspected water molecules are important: concentrations of them around DNA appear to correlate with biological activity. It turns out that water undergoes radical changes as it approaches the surface of DNA. As the molecules draw near the double helix, the seething network of hydrogen bonds within bulk water becomes disrupted, and the motion of individual molecules becomes more and more sluggish. The latest research focuses on what happens around the “troughs” in the double helix formed by specific base pairs. It seems that water molecules linger longer and rotate more slowly around some base pairs than others. Suddenly that link between hydration levels and biological activity doesn’t seem so perplexing. After all, the base pairs on DNA are the building blocks of genes, and their sequence dictates the order in which amino acids are stitched together to make proteins. If water molecules linger longer around some base pairs than others, the level of hydration will mirror the sequence of base pairs. Monika Fuxreiter of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Biological Research Centre in Budapest believes that this explains how proteins and DNA interact. She and her colleagues at BRC’s Institute of Enzymology created a computer simulation of DNA and a protein called BamHI, which uses water molecules to cut DNA at very specific points. They saw that adding virtual water molecules to the mix had a dramatic effect. “The water molecules report the DNA sequence to the protein while it is still some distance away,” says Fuxreiter. “Then as the protein gets closer, the water molecules are ejected from the site until it binds tightly to the DNA.” According to Fuxreiter, the water molecules relay messages to the protein via electrostatic forces, which reflect the varying levels of hydration on the DNA. They can even warn the approaching protein about potential problems with the DNA before it arrives. “If the DNA is distorted due to some defect, it becomes more hydrated and the protein can’t make proper contact,” says Fuxreiter. “Instead, it moves to another site – which is very good biologically.” Fuxreiter’s team is now planning to test just how effective water molecules are in determining where and when proteins bind to DNA. That there is more to water than hydrogen and oxygen is something many researchers welcome. But Rustum Roy, a materials scientist at Pennsylvania State University in University Park goes further. He thinks it is time for a radical overhaul of the scientific view of water – one which, he believes, has been dominated by chemistry for too long. “It’s absurd to say that chemical composition dictates everything,” he says. “Take carbon, for example – the same atoms can give you graphite or diamond.” In a review paper published in in December, Roy and a team of collaborators called for a re-examination of the case against the most controversial of all claims made for water: that it has a “memory”. The idea that water can retain some kind of imprint of compounds dissolved in it has long been cited as a possible mechanism for homeopathy, which claims to treat ailments using solutions of certain compounds. Some homeopathic remedies are so dilute that they no longer contain a single molecule of the original compound – prompting many scientists to dismiss homeopathic effects as imaginary. For how can water with nothing in it act as anything other than water? Roy believes this is too simplistic: “It is a naive, chemistry-schoolbook argument.” He argues that water has proved itself capable of effects that go beyond simple chemistry, and these may imbue water with a memory. One way this may occur, he says, is through an effect known as epitaxy: using the atomic structure of one compound as a template to induce the same structure in others. Hidden depths Epitaxy is routinely used in the microprocessor industry to create perfect semiconductor crystals. And according to Roy, water already exhibits epitaxial effects. “The ‘seeding’ of clouds is the growth of crystalline ice on a substrate of silver iodide, which has the same crystal structure,” he says. “No chemical transfer whatsoever occurs.” Roy and his colleagues also point to another effect they believe has been overlooked by mainstream scientists in their rush to dismiss homeopathy: the vigorous shaking of the mixtures used, a process called succussion. The team estimates that shock waves generated by the shaking can cause localised pressures inside the water to reach over 10 000 atmospheres, which may trigger fundamental changes in the properties of the water molecules. Roy believes that, by taking homeopathy seriously, scientists may find out more about water’s fundamental properties. “The problem is that much more research needs to be done to find the right techniques to probe the properties of water reliably,” he says. However, many scientists question the very idea of taking homeopathy seriously. The most recent review of the medical evidence found that homeopathic remedies were no better than a placebo in all but a handful of cases. That is likely to put the brakes on research into this aspect of water. “Rigorous experiments need to be done to provide support for all scientific claims,” says theoretical chemist David Clary at the University of Oxford. “I don’t think it is worth spending time on this.” Chemist Martin Chaplin of London South Bank University is more sympathetic: “I think there may be something in it, but we need good experiments – and the best researchers won’t go near the subject.” The latest discoveries about the role of water in living processes may change that, however. After decades of research, Franks sums up his view of the simple little molecule we call H 2 O in terms that will put a smile on the face of New Age hippies everywhere: “It’s the magic ingredient that turns lifeless powders on laboratory shelves into living things.”
13 Reflections 第十三章 反 思 Modern urban water systems are unobtrusive by design. The pipes tha tbring water to our homes, drain our streets, and transport our wastes are hidden underground. Treatment plants are tucked away on the water’s edge or are located on a side street in an obscure part of the city that almost nobody visits. Even the huge reservoirs that hold our drinking water are usually locked behind fences in protected watersheds. By handing the management of water over to the professionals, we have reduced out daily encounters with the water cycle to the turning of a faucet and the flushing of a toilet. That’s exactly the way we have wanted it since the days of the first Roman aqueduct. 我 们 把 现 代城市水系 统 安置在很不 显 眼的地方。所有水管都 隐 藏在地下，它 们 将水 带进 我 们 的家、将街道上多余的水排掉并清除掉我 们 的 废 弃物。水 处 理厂大多 隐 匿在水 边 或坐落于城市的一个无名小巷里， 鲜 有人 问 津。即使是 贮 存我 们饮 用水的大型水 库 ，也通常被封 锁 在防 护栏栅 后面那片受保 护 的水域。通 过 将水的管理 权 移交 给专业 人士，我 们 日常接触的水循 环仅仅 是 拧 开水 龙头 和冲 厕 所。 这 也正是自古 罗马 修建第一座引水渠以来，我 们 所希望的生活方式。 When we absentmindedly pay the monthly water bill, we are not onlybuying water, pipes, and treatment plants, but also hiring someone to sweat the details for us. There is nothing unique about this behavior. We act the same way when it comes to many other elements of modern life—food, electricity, cellphone, and cable television bills—as well as toward the countless day-to-day decisions that need to be made about the infrastructure that supports our daily lives and life styles. As long as our bills are paid and the service continues, we assume that the people who provide the service and the government officials responsible for overseeing their activities will make sure that we are safe. For people in a complex, modern world, it’s difficult to imagine living any other way. 当我 们 稀里糊涂地支付每月的水 费时 ，其 实 不 仅 是在 为 水、管道和 污 水 处 理厂付 费 ，也是在 为 辛苦 劳动 着的工作人 员 付薪水。 缴这 笔 费 用并没有什么特 别 之 处 ，在日常生活的 诸 多方面，我 们 也采用同 样 的方式付 费 ，如食品、 电 力、手机和有 线电视 等的 账单 ，以及 为 支撑我 们 日常生活和生活方式的基 础设 施而做的无数次决定。只要我 们缴 清 费 用，并且 这 些服 务继续 存在，我 们 就 认为 提供 这 种服 务 的工作人 员 和有 责 任 监 督 这 些服 务 的政府官 员 ，会确保 这 种服 务 的安全。很 难 想象生活在 这 个复 杂 的 现 代化世界中，人 们还 会以其他什么方式生活。 (Last three paragraphs of Chapter 13) Modest behavioral changes also can protect aquatic ecosystems and downstream water supplies from pollution. If you are concerned about the effects of organic compounds in sewage effluent on rivers and drinking water aquifers you can make a difference by paying attention to the household products that you use and ultimately put down the drain. Reduce the impacts of pesticides and nutrients in urban runoff by using only what is needed to maintain your property or by changing your expectations about the urban landscape. If it makes sense for your location, rethink the ways that rainwater moves across your property by directing water away from impervious surface. Think about the storm sewer as if it were connected to your faucet (which in away, it is): don’t wash your car in the street and don’t pour used oil, unwanted coffee, and rinse water from dirty paint brushes into the gutter. 适度改 变 我 们 的生活方式，也可以保 护 水生生 态 系 统 和下游水源免受 污 染。如果您担心 污 水中的有机物影响河流和 饮 用水的含水 层 ，你可以关注所使用且最 终 流入下水道的家居 产 品， 这 可能会使情况有所不同。通 过 只使用 维护 你的房地 产 的必需品，或改 变 你 对 城市景 观 的期望，可以减少城市径流中 农药 和 营 养物 质 的影响。如果可能的 话 ，你可以重新考 虑 一下雨水穿 过 你家房屋的方式， 试 着引 导 雨水避开不透水的地表面。把雨水下水道想象成是 连 接到你家水 龙头 的水源（在某种程度上，它确 实 如此）：不要在大街上清洗你的汽 车 ，要把 废 机油、喝剩的咖啡和清洗 过肮脏 油漆刷的水倒 进 排水沟里。 Most importantly from the standpoint of bring about lasting change, raise awareness within your community about the importance of figuring out the right path for a local version of Water 4.0. Your water utility and the government that regulates its actions pay attention to public opinion. Until now, members of the public who worry about excessive spending on water projects have often dominated the dialogue. Make sure your opinions are heard: when decisions are being made about water infrastructure investments, speak up about the need to consider both climate change and chemicals that pose risks to human health and the environment. 从能否 带 来持久 变 化的角度来看，最重要的是提高你所在的社区居民关于 选择 适合本地“水４．０”版本的重要性的意 识 。水 务 部 门 和管理水 务 部 门 的政府 应该 重 视 民意。到目前 为 止，担心在水利工程上 过 度支出的民众往往主 导 着 话语权 。 让 决策人听到你的 观 点：在 对 水利基 础设 施的投 资 做出决策 时 ，提 议 需要考 虑 气候 变 化的影响、 对 人 类 健康和 环 境有 风险 的化学物 质 的影响。 Ultimately, no one person or small group of people will determine the path that urban water systems will follow. The map to our future will be drawn collectively by the thousands of small decisions made in our homes, at community meetings, and in the voting booth. We all have a role to play indetermining when Water 4.0 will become a reality and what it will look like when we build it. Once we better understand the costs and benefits of different approaches, we can make informed choices supporting or opposing investments in desalination plants, potable reuse systems, graywater recycling systems, and other new forms of infrastructure. We need to start learning and working on Water 4.0 now because the simple and inexpensive responses that have helped usin the past are not going to be enough to get us through future challenges. The time has come to secure the water future we want before a crisis forces it upon us. 最 终 ，不是一个人或一小部分人能决定城市水系 统 何去何从。我 们 未来的 蓝图 将由我 们 在家里、社区会 议 上和投票站的成千上万的小方案共同 绘 制而成。我 们 都有 责 任来决定，何 时 将“水４．０” 变 成 为现实 ，以及当它建成 时 会是什么 样 。一旦我 们 更好地了解不同方法的成本和收益，在支持或反 对 投 资 海水淡化厂、 饮 用水再利用系 统 、灰水回收系 统 及其他新基 础设 施 时 ，就可以做出明智的 选择 。 现 在，我 们 需要开始学 习 ，并致力于“水４．０”的工作，因 为 那些 简单 而廉价的 应对 措施， 虽 然在 过 去帮助 过 我 们 ，但并不足以 应对 未来的挑 战 。 现 在是确保未来水安全的 时 候了，我 们 不能等到危机到来 时 才开始行 动 。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
12 A Different Tomorrow 第十二章 不一 样 的明天 Ever since the Romans pioneered Water 1.0, centralization had been the big idea behind urban water systems. In fact, this original design principlehad been so potent that each of the subsequent upgrades was built on this foundation. Starting with the addition of filtration and chlorine disinfectionon the front end of water distribution systems (Water 2.0), and continuing tothe installation of biological wastewater treatment on the sewer end (Water 3.0) and beyond, modern water infrastructure is still guided by its original blueprint of ancient Roman-style aqueducts and cloacae. 自从古 罗马 人开 创 了“水１．０”，“集中化”已成 为 城市供水系 统 的重要理念。事 实 上， 这 个原始 设计 的原 则 性是如此之 强 大，以至于后 续 的每一次系 统 升 级 都是建立在此基 础 上。从水分配系 统 的初端加 过滤 和 氯 消毒 处 理，即“水２．０”；到下水道末端安装生物 污 水 处 理 设备 ，即“水３．０”；再到以后每次的升 级 更新，古 罗马 式的水渠和下水道的原始 蓝图 始 终 在指 导 着 现 代的水利基 础设 施。 (Last four paragraphs of Chapter 12) If urban runoff is ever going to help cities eliminate the need for imported water, we will have to find a way to put the water from urban runoff back into the local drinking water system. This essential next step in the development of local water supplies could follow two possible paths. The first would be to use advanced treatment technologies such as reverse osmosis and disinfection with ultraviolet light to make urban runoff safe to drink. As we have seen, these technologies can turn sewage effluent or seawater into drinking water. They could also purify urban runoff, but the cost of such projects would be five to ten times higher than it would be for treating wastewater effluent or seawater, because the reuse of urban runoff would require the construction ofnew storage and capture systems. 56 The treatment plant would also have to dealwith water of highly variable quality, which complicated treatment and drives up costs. A runoff recycling facility would have the added benefit of addressing urban drainage and might be more acceptable to the public than potable water reuse or seawater desalination, but the economic reality is that it is unlikely to be chosen over less expensive water-supply options. 如果城市径流能帮助城市消除 对输 入水的需求，我 们 必 须 找到一个方法把城市径流引入到当地 饮 用水系 统 中。 这 是 发 展当地供水至关重要的一步，它有两种可以效仿的路径。第一个是使用先 进 的 处 理技 术 ，如反渗透和紫外 线 消毒技 术 使城市径流能安全 饮 用。正如我 们 所看到的， 这 些技 术 可以把 废 水或海水 转 化 为饮 用水。它 们 也可以 净 化城市径流，但其成本将是 处 理 废 水或海水的５～１０倍，因 为 城市地表径流的重复使用，需要建 设 新的存 储 和收集系 统 ［５６］ 。水 处 理厂 还 必 须 面 对 参差不 齐 的径流水 质 ， 这 不利于水的 处 理，从而提高了成本。径流回收 设 施解决了城市排放的 污 水， 这 将是 额 外的好 处 。径流比起 饮 用水再利用或海水淡化可能也更容易 为 公众 认 可，但是， 经济现实 使人 们 不太可能 选择 径流回收，因 为还 有更便宜的供水 办 法。 The other approach would be to keep urban runoff from getting too polluted in the first place and sending the water to urban drinking water reservoirs. This idea is not as out of reach as it might seem. After all, there are plenty of cities that draw their drinking water downstream of the discharges of storm sewers. In essence, they already have urban runoff reservoirs—only they are located outside of the city. For those cities, urban runoff is converted into drinking water through a combination of dilution with water from more pristine sources and conventional drinking water treatment. 另一个方法是在城市径流被 严 重 污 染之前，将其送到城市 饮 用水水 库 。 这 个想法不像看起来那么遥不可及。 毕 竟，有很多城市在下水道排 污 口的下游抽取他 们 的 饮 用水。从本 质 上 说 ，他 们 已 经 有了城市径流水 库 ———只是它 们 位于城外而已。 对 于 这 些城市，其径流是通 过 与原始的水源混合稀 释 和通 过传统处 理后 转 化成城市的 饮 用水。 Some cities have already built systems to route urban runoff to reservoirs located within the city. In Singapore, urban runoff is piped directly into drinking water reservoirs with little or no dilution with pristine water. 57 Through an elaborate system of stormwater interception, nearly all of the rain that falls on the streets and buildings of the city’s populated residential neighborhoods is captured by a network of urban reservoirs. In part, Singapore has been able to achieve this goal because the city and surrounding region receive monsoon rains that dump large quantities of water over a short period of time. The high quality of the city’s runoff is also attributable to the vigilance of the national water utility and cith planning agencies inpreventing sewer leaks and the rigorous enforcement of laws related to landuse, automobile maintenance, and the application of chemicals on buildings and gardens. 一些城市已 经 建立了管道系 统 ，将城市径流 输 送到位于 这 座城市内的水 库 。在新加坡，城市径流直接 输 送到 饮 用水水 库 里，几乎没有用原始水先稀 释 ［５７］ 。通 过 一个精心 设计 的雨水截留盆地系 统 ，几乎所有的落在城市人口密集的居民区的街道和建筑物上的雨水，都被城市内的水 库 网 络 所收集。在某种程度上，新加坡之所以能 够实现这 一目 标 ，是因 为这 座城市以及周 边 地区的季 风 降雨能在短 时间 内 倾 泻大量的雨水。高 质 量的城市径流也可 归 因于国家水 务 部 门 和城市 规 划部 门对 防止 污 水泄漏的高度重 视 ，以及在土地利用、汽 车维 修和化学品在建筑和花园中的 应 用等相关方面的 严 格 执 法。 Because of differences in climate and political systems, this approach probably would not translate easily to many other developed countries. But contamination of urban runoff could be reduced by a combination of low-impact development and policies designed to minimize further contamination of runoff after it leaves an individual property. With some investment in clean streets and functioning sewer systems, coupled with vigilance about land development and chemical use, urban runoff might someday become an important part of our drinking water supply. 因 为 气候和政治体制的差异， 这 种方法可能不会那么 轻 而易 举 地移植到其他 发 达国家。但通 过 降低开 发对环 境的影响、制定有助于径流二次 污 染最少化的政策等手段，可以降低城市径流的 污 染。随着保持街道干 净 和 污 水 处 理系 统 相关的投 资 ，加上 对 土地开 发 和化学品使用的警惕，城市地表径流可能有一天会成 为饮 用水供 应 的一个重要 组 成部分。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
11 Turning to the Sea for Drinking Water 第十一章 向海洋索取 饮 用水 Throughout history, cities have employed a similar set of approaches for obtaining drinking water. Those urban dwellers lucky enough to live near ariver or lake have usually focused on making their local surface water safe to drink. If there is an adequate groundwater supply underneath the city, people who lack easy access to surface water have obtained their drinking water from wells. And after a city’s population had grown to a point where the local waterre sources no longer suffice, canals and aqueducts have been built to importwater from increasing distant regions. 纵观历 史，各个城市 为 了 获 得 饮 用水都采用了一套相似的方法。那些有幸生活在河流或湖泊附近的城市居民，通常会集中精力保 证 当地的地表水可以安全 饮 用。如果 这 个城市有足 够 地下水的 话 ， 获 取地表水不方便的居民 还 可以从水井 获 得 饮 用水。当一个城市人口数量增 长 ，以致当地的水 资 源 难 以 满 足其需求 时 ，人 们 就会修建运河和引水渠，把水从遥 远 的地方 输 送 进 城。 By the end of the 20 th century, many cities had become so populous that their drinking water needs could no longer be met easily by the normal sources. Initially, water-stressed cities adopted the Three R’s of reduce, reuse, and recycle to maximize their limited water resources. That strategy worked for a while, but depending on the city’s size and location, as well asthe enthusiasm of its residents for low-flow shower heads and recycled water, the costs often reached a point where further water savings became difficult. Rather than raising people’s water rates to encourage conservation or accepting the idea that water availability might limit their size, cities have increasingly looked to the sea as a means of breaking free of the water cycle. After all, two-thirds of the world’s big cities are located along a coast. 1 If water-stressed coastal cities can find a cost-effective technology for removingthe salts from seawater, they will no longer have to wait for the sun and wind to send their drinking water to them by way of the water cycle. 到２０世 纪 末， 许 多城市已 经 人 满为 患，人 们对饮 用水的需求已 经难 以再通 过这 些常用方法得到 满 足。起初，缺水的城市采用了“减少、再利用和再循 环 ”的“３Ｒ”原 则 ，使有限的水 资 源得到最大的利用。 这 一策略在一段 时间 内曾取得一定的效果，但它的 发挥过 于依 赖 城市的 规 模和位置，以及当地居民 对 低流量淋浴 喷头 和循 环 水的 积 极性。 节 水达到一个点后，要 进 一步 节 水就十分困 难 。尽管如此， 这 些城市并没有用提高水 费 去鼓励人 们节约 用水，或者接受城市 发 展受制于用水的命运，而是逐步把大海 视为摆 脱 对 水循 环 依 赖 的一种方式。 毕 竟，世界上三分之二的大城市都位于沿海地区 ［１］ 。如果用水 紧张 的沿海城市可以找到一种 经济 高效的去除海水中 盐 分的技 术 ，他 们 将再也不需要等待太阳和 风 通 过 水循 环 的方式 为 他 们 送去 饮 用水了。 (Last paragraph of Chapter 11) Despite the setbacks encountered in Tampa and Carlsbad, more proposals for coastal desalination plants are moving ahead in California and Florida. From the trials and tribulations of the pioneering projects, it is evident that desalination may be part of Water 4.0, but it is not a panacea for the clean water challenges of America’s coastal cities. With each new project it becomes easier to separate the reality of seawater desalination from the rhetoric onboth sides. Seawater desalination is a mature, reliable technology. But if countries or regions are unable to adopt a centralized planning model similarto Israel’s, and if they continue to insist on green power, carbon offsets, and lengthy environmental impact reviews, seawater desalination will remain expensive relative to other options for the foreseeable future. 虽 然海水淡化厂在坦帕和卡 尔 斯巴德遇到挫折，但更多的沿海海水淡化厂建厂 计 划正在加州和佛 罗 里达州推 进 。从 这 个前沿性 项 目的 尝试 和挫折来看，很 显 然，淡化水可能 为 “水４．０”的一部分，但它不是解决美国沿海城市的清 洁 水所面 临 困 难 的灵丹妙 药 。随着每一个 项 目的推 进 ，海水淡化的 现实 将更容易从双方的争 执 中 显 露其真面貌。海水淡化是一个成熟可靠的技 术 。但如果一个国家或地区无法采用 类 似于以色列的那种集 权 式的 规 划模式，如果他 们继续坚 持 绿 色能源、碳 补偿 和冗 长 的 环 境影响 评 价 报 告，那么相 对 于其他 获 取淡水的方式而言，近期内走海水淡化之路仍将会是一个昂 贵 的 选择 。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
10 The Toilet-to-Tap Solution 第十章 从 厕 所到水 龙头 的解决方案 Not too long ago, we lived in a wasteful world. We tossed our aluminum cans, glass bottles, and old newspapers into the trash without a second thought. We drove gas guzzlers, turned the thermostat way up in the winter, andlit our homes with hundred-watt incandescent light bulbs. Once we were done using something, it was destined for the landfill or incinerator. Energy was what we had after a second cup of coffee and definitely not something we thought about conserving. But as the world became more crowded and we startedto recognize the problems associated with our consumptive ways, we began toclose the loop on materials and started to conserve energy by embracing the “Three R’s” of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Now most places have instituted deposits on cans and bottles. Recycling bins are everywhere. Many of us drivefuel-efficient cars and light our homes with compact fluorescent light bulbs. As we enter an era of limited water supplies and increasing concerns about the effects of wastewater effluent on the environment, perhaps it is time to apply the same philosophy to water. 不久之前，我 们还 生活在一个非常浪 费 的 环 境里。我 们 曾毫不犹豫地把 铝 罐、玻璃瓶和旧 报纸 当作垃圾扔掉。我 们驾驶 高油耗的“油老虎”汽 车 ，冬天把暖气开得足足的，房 间 里开着好几 盏 一百瓦的白 炽 灯。一旦我 们 不再需要某件 产 品，就把它扔 进 垃圾填埋 场 或焚 烧 炉。Ｅｎｅｒｇｙ是我 们 喝了第二杯咖啡后才有所感 觉 的 东 西（因 为 咖啡可以提神），而 绝 非那种我 们 会去考 虑节约 的 东 西（即能源）。但随着世界人口 变 得越来越多，我 们 开始意 识 到我 们 的消 费 方式 带 来的种种 问题 ，开始考 虑 重新利用原材料，提出 节 能的“３Ｒ”原 则 ：减少（Ｒｅｄｕｃｅ）、再利用（Ｒｅｕｓｅ）和循 环 利用（Ｒｅｃｙｃｌｅ）。 现 在大多数地方已 经设 置了易拉罐和瓶子的回收点。 废 物回收箱也到 处 可 见 。我 们 当中 许 多人 现 在开低油耗的小汽 车 ，家里使用的是 节 能型 荧 光灯泡。我 们进 入了一个水源有限，且日益担 忧废 水 对环 境影响的 时 代，也 许现 在是把“３Ｒ”原 则应 用于水的 时 候了。 When we think about water, the first of the Three R’s is reduce. Anywater utility that is serious about providing an adequate quantity of water inthe face of population growth and climate change has already begun to embrace water conservation by pushing its customers to grow drought-tolerant plants andto install low-flow plumbing fixtures. Beyond its potential to extend supplies, water conservation makes a lot of sense because it also saves money, conserves energy, reduces pollution, and allows cities to build smaller reservoirs and treatment plants. As a result, there is a long history of conservation incities where water is scarce. (Chapter 12 examines the kinds of conservation programs that are already in place in water-limited cities and describes someof the up-and-coming approaches that can be used to push the practice to itslimit.) 当我 们 考 虑 用水 时 ，首先 应 想到３Ｒ 原 则 中的第一个，即减少（用水）。在面 临 人口增 长 和气候 变 化挑 战时 ，任何一个重 视 提供充足用水的水 务 部 门 ，早已通 过 推 动 种植耐旱植物和安装低流量管道 设备 等方式，开始推行 节约 用水。 节约 用水的意 义 在于，它除了可以 让 同 样 的 储 水量用得更 长 久， 还 可以 节 省 资 金、保 护 能源、减少 污 染，城市可以建 规 模稍小的水 库 和水 处 理厂。因此，那些水 资 源稀缺的城市都有着 节约 用水的悠久 传统 或 历 史。（第十二章将探 讨 水 资 源有限的城市已采用 的一些 节 水 计 划，并描述一些 崭 新的 节 水方法。 这 些新方法可使 节 水措施达到极限）。 The second and third of the Three R’s refer to the practice of putting treated sewage back into the water supply. Strictly speaking, “water reuse” involves finding an appropriate use for wastewater that has received little orno treatment beyond what is usually done when it is discharged to a river orthe ocean. “Water recycling,” by contrast, employs wastewater after it has undergone additional high-tech treatment processes for the purpose of gettingthe water to be used for a specific application. Because it is often difficult to distinguish a sewage treatment plant that had been upgraded to protect asensitive aquatic ecosystem from one in which additional treatment processes have been added to facilitate recycling, the terms “water reuse” and “water recycling” are often used interchangeably. ３Ｒ原 则 中的第二和第三条是将 处 理 过 的 污 水重新使用。 严 格来 说 ，“水的再利用”是 给 那些 经过 很少 处 理或未 经处 理的 废 水找到合适的用途，而不是将其排放到河流或海洋中。“水的循 环 利用” 则 不同，它是将水在 经过额 外的高科技 处 理 过 程后，把它用于某一个 专门 的用途。我 们现 在有两种水 处 理厂：升 级 到已 经 可以保 护 脆弱的水生生 态 系 统 的 污 水 处 理厂，以及加入了 额 外 处 理工 艺 用以促 进 水循 环 的 处 理厂。由于很 难 将 这 两种水 处 理厂区分开来，因此，“水的再利用”和“水的循 环 利用” 这 两个 术语经 常交替使用。 (Last two paragraphs of Chapter 10) By being mindful of public opinion and demonstrating a cautious, professional attitude, the Orange County Water District managed to preempt thepublic skepticism that had killed the projects in San Diego and Los Angeles. It is an exemplary model for outreach and the building of trust in the community. 橙郡水区通 过认 真听取公众意 见 ，并展示其 谨 慎、 专业 的 态 度，成功地化解了公众的 怀 疑 态 度， 这 种 怀 疑 态 度曾扼 杀 了圣迭戈和洛杉 矶 的那些工程 项 目。 这 可以作 为 一个深入社区和建立社区信任的典范。 Following the success of Orange County and a less noticed, but nearly identical, project run by the West Basin Municipal Water District on landadjacent to the Los Angeles International Airport, the failed projects in San Diego and in Los Angeles’s East Valley have come back to life, with reverse-osmosis-equipped advanced water recycling plants that are nearly identical to the design employed in the successful projects. The idea also has spread beyond California, with plants following the Orange County model comingon line over the last 15 years in Arizona, Singapore, and Belgium. 46 By employing sophisticated public communication strategies and state-of-the-art treatment technologies, the forces behind potable water recycling now appear tobe unstoppable. But questions linger about the high costs of the projects andthe willingness of communities outside of Southern California, the desert Southwest, and a few other water-stressed locales to accept the unfamiliar practice. 继 橙郡的水循 环项 目和另一个不太引人注目的、但几乎与之相同的由西部盆地市政水区在洛杉 矶 国 际 机 场 附近运行的水循 环项 目成功之后，圣迭戈和洛杉 矶东 部山谷 这 些失 败 的 项 目也因此恢复了生机。它 们 采用的先 进 的水循 环 利用工厂具有与那些成功 项 目近乎相同的反渗透技 术 装 备 。 这 一做法也在加州以外的地区蔓延。在 过 去１５年里， 亚 利桑那州、新加坡和比利 时陆续 采用橙郡 这 一模式 ［４６］ 。采用一套复 杂 的公共沟通策略和 现 代化的 处 理技 术 ，使得推 动饮 用水循 环 利用的力量 势 不可 挡 。但是， 饮 用水循 环 利用的未来依然是个未知数，因 为 它的成本高。除了南加州、西南部的沙漠，以及一些 严 重缺水的地区以外，其他社区是否愿意接受 这 种做法，尚不得而知。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
9 Paying for the Fourth Revolution 第九章 为 第四次水 变 革做准 备 My water bill is just one of many that land in my physical and virtual mailbox every month. In addition to telling me what I owe, it helpfully points out the amount of water my family used and the breakdown of fees for different tasks that my local water company does to keep the water flowing to and the sewage flowing away from my home. Fifty dollars a month puts in the same price range as the monthly bills for cell phones, electricity, and Internet service. In fact, if I calculate the cost by volume used, my family spends a little less than half a cent per liter (two cents per gallon) for our water. That’s not bad if you consider all of the hard work that went into solving the problems of thirsty cities, cholera outbreaks, and sewage-choked rivers. 我的水 费单 只是每月 进 入我普通 邮 箱和 电 子 邮 箱里众多 账单 之 一。水 费账单 除了告 诉 我 该 付的水 费 外， 还罗 列了我家的用水量，并提供当地水 务 部 门 在确保清 洁 水流 进 我家及 污 水流出我家的 过 程中，各种不同 项 目的 处 理 费 用明 细 。水 费 每月５０美元，与每月的 电话费 、 电费 和网 络费 在同一个价格范 围 。事 实 上，如果按用水的体 积计 算成本，我家每升水的花 费 不到半美分。如果考 虑 到 为 解决那些 诸 如城市缺水、霍乱疫情暴 发 ，以及充 满 下水道 污 水的河流所需要付出的辛 劳 工作，你就会 觉 得 这 些 费 用 还 是非常合理的。 Although most of us give little thought to the details of the humble water utility bill, it may well hold the key to our urban water future. If the ways in which out utilities collect money prevent them from investing in new infrastructure before water systems reach a state of emergency, the problems described in the previous chapters are going to get a lot worse before anything is done about them. And if patching up the existing system ultimately proves to be a lot less expensive than adopting radically new approaches to supplying clean water and treating wastewater, we may end up investing in repairs to the weak points in the system for decades before we upgrade to Water 4.0. 虽 然我 们 大多数人很少考 虑这 不起眼的水 费账单细节 ，但它很可能是保障城市水未来的关 键 。如果水 务 部 门 在城市水系 统濒临紧 急状 态 之前未能募集到用于投入新基 础设 施建 设 所需要的 资 金，那么在 对 城市水系 统 亡羊 补 牢之前，前面章 节 所描述的 问题 会愈加 恶 化。如果最 终证 明 维 修 现 有水系 统 （包括提供清 洁 水和 处 理 废 水），比采用全新方法要 节 省不少 资 金的 话 ，那么我 们 可能会在今后几十年里一直投 资维 修那些水系 统 中存在的薄弱 环节 ，而不是努力升 级进 入“水４．０”。 Historically, utilities in the U.S. have almost always struggled to raise the money needed to improve water treatment and delivery systems, but in recent years it has become tougher. Unbeknownst to most people, the ways in which water utilities fund their operations had shifted over the past twenty-five years: before the late 1980s, operating costs were paid mainly through utility bills, while much of the investment in new reservoirs, pipelines, and treatment plants was paid for by deferral grants. A shift away from federal funding, coupled with increasing costs of operation, means that water bills are rising at rates faster than inflation just to maintain the status quo. 从 历 史上看，美国的水 务 部 门 几乎 总 是很 费劲 地在筹集用于改善水 处 理与运送系 统 的 资 金。不 过 ，近些年来 这 种情况更 为严 重。大多数人可能不清楚，水 务 部 门 的运 营 融 资 方式在 过 去２５年已 发 生了 变 化：２０世 纪 ８０年代末之前，运 营费 用主要是靠收取居民水 电费 的形式支付，而大部分用于新修水 库 、 输 水管道、 污 水 处 理厂的投 资费 用由 联 邦政府 拨 款支付。 联 邦 资 金的减少，加上运 营 成本的增加，意味着若要 维 持 现 状，水 费 上 涨 的速度必 须 超 过 通 货 膨 胀 速度。 (Last two paragraphs of Chapter 9) New scientific research is also showing that our sewage treatment plants might not be doing a good enough job. As discussed in Chapter 8, newly discovered chemical contaminations in sewage can cause endocrine disruption and other undesirable outcomes in the fish and wildlife that live in effluent-dominated waters. Because sewage treatment plants were not designed to remove the trace concentrations of chemicals that cause these problems, it is possible that additional treatment processes will be needed to protect the aquatic ecosystems downstream of the sewage discharge points. Simultaneously, regulators around the country are reconsidering their approaches for managing nutrients released by wastewater treatment plants and storm sewers as they struggle to control algae blooms and oxygen depletion in sensitive habitats. For example, a lawsuit by a local environmental group in Florida resulted in the EPA setting controversial new discharge standards for nitrogen and phosphorus that are considerably more stringent than those currently in place. The new regulations are expected to require many of the state’s wastewater treatment plants to upgrade to state-of-the-art nutrient removal systems and the managers of storm sewers to invest in measures to remove nutrients from urban runoff. The EPA estimates that the cost will be between three to six dollars a month for a typical family, while industry groups claim it will cost the state’s utilities about $21 billion to come into compliance. 47 新的科学研究也表明， 现 在的 污 水 处 理厂可能 还 不 够 完善。正如第八章中所 讨论 的， 污 水中新 发现 的化学 污 染物，可能 导 致生活在以 污 水 为 主 导 的水体中的 鱼类 和其他野生 动 物的内分泌失 调 ，以及其他不良 结 果。由于 污 水 处 理厂原先并没有 设计 来去除引起 这 些 问题 的微量 浓 度的化学物 质 ，所以可能需要 额 外的 处 理工 艺 来保 护污 水排放口下游的水生生 态 系 统 。同 时 ，美国各地的 监 管机构正在重新考 虑 用于管理 污 水 处 理厂和雨水下水道排出的 营 养物 质 的方法，因 为 他 们 很 难 控制敏感栖息地的水 华 和耗氧 问题 。例如，佛 罗 里达州的地方 环 保 组织 的 诉讼 案， 导 致美国 环 境保 护 署 设 定了有争 议 的氮、磷排放新 标 准， 这 些排放 标 准比目前正在 实 施的更 为严 格。新 规 定将要求各个州的 许 多 污 水 处 理厂升 级 到最先 进 的脱氮除磷 处 理系 统 ，并要求雨水下水道的管理者采取措施去除城市径流中的 营 养物 质 。据美国 环 境保 护 署估 计 ，一个普通家庭每月的水 费 将增加３～６美元。然而工 业 行 业协 会声称， 为 了履行法律的相关 规 定，佛 罗 里达州的水 务 部 门 将花 费约 ２１０ 亿 美元 ［４７］ 。 As we have seen, modern water systems are being pushed to the edge by costs associated with personnel, pipes, energy, and pollution, and it seems almost certain that all or most of these pressure will continue. We can be sure, then, that our water bills will continue to increase for the next few decades. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), consumers in most developed countries already pay about twice as much as the average American for drinking water and sewer service. 48 Given the current rates at which water utility bills are increasing, it seems likely that in about 15 years our bills will reach the current levels paid in our OECD peer countries—and there is no reason to think that they will stop there. But the knowledge that a more expensive future is coming can also be the wakeup call we need to not just patch over our aging water infrastructure, but the reinvent urban water systems in a way that ensures that they provide a morereliable source of water that will simultaneously protect our health and the environment. 正如已 经 看到的那 样 ， 现 代水系 统 已被各种与人 员 、管道、能源和 污 染相关的 费 用逼到了 绝 境，并且几乎可以肯定， 这 些 费 用 带 来的 压 力，其中的全部或大部分仍将 继续 。那么可以肯定，在接下来的几十年里，水 费还 将 继续 增加。 经济 合作与 发 展 组织 （ ＯＥＣＤ） 认为 ，大多数 发 达国 家的消 费 者已 经 支付了 约 两倍于美国 饮 用水和下水道的平均服 务费 用 ［４８］ 。 鉴 于目前的增 长 速度，水 费标 准很可能在１５年后达到ＯＥＣＤ其他 发 达国家目前的支付水平，而且，没有理由 认为 水 费 在那以后不会再增 长 。但是 对 于 这 个即将到来的、更加昂 贵 的水未来的 认识 ，可以作 为 警示提醒我 们 ，我 们 需要的不只是 对 老化的水利基 础设 施的修修 补补 ，而是重塑城市水系 统 ———一种能提供更可靠水源，并能同 时 保 护 我 们 健康和 环 境的新型水系 统 。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
8 Traces of Trouble: Hormones,Pharmaceuticals, and Toxic Chemicals 第八章 “痕量”的麻 烦 ： 激素、 药 物和有毒化学品 In 1995, I was invited to give a talk at a scientific conference featuring the up-and-coming water pollution researchers. Of course I agreed to go. After all, I was flattered by the attention, and as a freshly minted assistant professor I knew that being identified as someone who stood out from his peers would be useful when it came time for tenure review. That the conference was to be held in Honolulu in mid-December had only a minor bearingon my decision to accept the invitation. １９９５年我 应 邀在一个学 术 会 议 上做 报 告， 这 个会 议 是 针对 从事水 污 染研究的学生和即将 毕业 的年 轻 人。我理所当然地接受了邀 请 。 毕 竟，能收到 这 种邀 请让 我感到非常荣幸。而且，作 为 一名新的助理教授，我也知道能被同行 认 定 为 佼佼者， 对 我以后申 请 成 为终 身教授的 审查过 程会有益。会 议 定于１２月中旬在檀香山召开， 这对 我决定接受 这 一邀 请 的影响并不大。 Like most of the other speakers, I planned to slink off to the beach for a week of rejuvenation after giving my talk. To be polite, I had to attenda day of sessions with my colleagues, but that seemed like a small price topay. I wasn’t expecting to learn much, because I already knew most of the other presenters and had read their papers or seen them give talks at other conferences. I certainly didn’t anticipate that one of the talks would change the focus of my subsequent research and cause me to develop a deep skepticism about the ways in which cities obtain, treat, and dispose of water. 像大多数其他演 讲 者一 样 ，我打算在做完 报 告后就开溜，去海 边 休假一星期。当然， 为 了礼貌，我必 须 跟我的同事 们 一起参加一天的会 议 ，不 过 ， 这 只是 为 了休假而付出的一个很小的代价。我并不期待能有很多收 获 ，因 为 我 认识 大部分演 讲 者并 阅读过 他 们 的 论 文，或者在其他会 议 上聆听 过 他 们 的 报 告。我完全没有想到其中一个 报 告会 让 我改 变 后 续 的研究重点，并 让 我深深地 质 疑城市 获 取水、 处 理水和排放（ 污 ）水的方式。 The source of my trouble was a new graduate from Brunel University in England named Susan Jobling. I had never heard of any cutting edge research outthis tiny school just outside Landon and was surprised when she reported findings unlike anything I had ever read. Jobling talked about research she had recently completed as part of her Ph.D. under the supervision of John Sumpter, a biologist who had switched his research focus from the fundamentals of fish reproduction to water pollution upon learning of the alarmingly high prevalence in British rivers of male fish with eggs growing in their testes. Sumpter found out about this unusual phenomenon from British government researchers who had observed hermaphroditic fish in the River Lea, a tributary of the Thames River, starting in the early 1980s. Scientists working for the government-run utility, Thames Water, had quietly been trying to determine the extent of the phenomenon and its causes for several years when Sumpter and his students got involved. Bythe early 1990s, the combined team had documented the occurrence of male fishwith eggs growing inside their testes in urban rivers throughout Britain. They also had learned that sewage treatment plants were the source of the problem: when they placed male trout in cages immediately downstream of treatment plants, the fish started producing eggs after as little as two weeks of exposure. Something in sewage was turning male fish into hermaphrodites. 1 我 对饮 用水安全的关注，源自 苏 珊· 乔 布林，一名 刚 从英国布 鲁 内 尔 大学 毕业 的博士。我之前从来没有听 说过 来自于 这 所 伦 敦郊外的小学校的任何前沿性研究工作，但是听完她那与众不同的 报 告后，我大吃一惊。 乔 布林 谈 到她最近完成的研究 结 果， 这 是她的博士 论 文的一部分，是在她的 导师 ———生物学家 约 翰·桑普特———指 导 下完成的。桑普特在得知英国河流中雄 鱼 睾丸内生 长鱼 卵的 现 象很普遍后，就将研究重心由 鱼类 生殖机理 转 向水体 污 染。２０世 纪 ８０年代早期，英国政府研究人 员 就 观 察到泰晤士河的支流———利河———里有雌雄同体的 鱼 。当桑普特从那些政府研究人 员 那里得知 这 一不同 寻 常的 现 象后，他就和他的一些学生加入 该 研究。那 时 ， 为 政府机构———泰晤士水 务 ———服 务 的科学家 们 早已 对这 种 现 象的 发 生范 围 和原因在内部开展了数年的 调查 。到２０世 纪 ９０年代初， 这 个 联 合研究 团队记录 下了全英国的城市河流里雄 鱼 睾丸内 产 生 鱼 卵的事件。他 们 也 认识 到 污 水 处 理厂是 该问题 的来源：当他 们 将装在网箱里的雄性 鳟鱼 放入 污 水 处 理厂的下游后， 经过 短短两个星期的 环 境暴露，雄性 鳟鱼 即开始 产 生 鱼 卵。 这 是因 为污 水里的不明物 质 使雄 鱼 雌性化了 ［１］ 。 (Last two paragraphs of Chapter 8) My encounter with Susan Jobling in 1995 led me to question the practice of using river as a dumping ground for sewage effluent. Initially, it was the presence of steroid hormones in effluent-dominated surface waters and their ability to feminize fish that drew my attention. After my colleagues and I learned that the problem could be solved by relatively simple measures, like improving the ability of the sewage treatment plant to remove organic matter or by adding a relatively inexpensive additional step, like chlorination, at the end of the treatment process, we turned our attention to the less potent manmade chemicals. We still do not know which, if any, of these chemicals might be causing subtle effects on the growth and reproduction of fish and other aquatic organisms that make their homes in effluent-dominated rivers, though it is clear that some of the compounds survive their trip to our drinking water treatment plants. In most cases, the concentrations of the difficult-to-remove compounds are so low that it is exceedingly unlikely that they will affect our health. But in a few cases, the manmade chemicals react with chemical disinfectants during drinking water treatment to produce potent mutagens or carcinogens. Initial evidence suggests that we might be able to eliminate some of these chemicals by upgrading our sewage and water treatment plants, but the total cost of such improvements is high. 我和 乔 布林在１９９５年的邂逅， 让 我开始 质 疑将 污 水排入河流 这 种做法的合理性。起初，是以 污 水 为 主 导 的地表水域存在 类 固醇激素及其能 导 致 鱼类 雌性化的 问题 引起了我的关注。我和我的同事 们 了解到， 该问题 可以采用相 对简单 的措施加以解决，如提高 污 水 处 理厂去除有机物的能力或添加一个相 对 廉价的 额 外步 骤 ，如在 处 理的最后 阶 段采用 氯 气消毒。于是，我 们 将目光 转 向了低毒性的人造化合物。我 们 依旧不知道， 这 些人造化合物中的哪些，如果有的 话 ，可以 轻 微地影响 鱼类 及其他栖息在 污 水主 导 的河流中的水生生物的生 长发 育和繁殖，尽管可以确定一些化合物在流向 饮 用水 处 理厂的途中没有被降解。大多数情况下， 这 些 难 以去除的化合物的 浓 度低至几乎不可能 对 人 类 的健康 产 生任何影响。但是在少数情况下，在 饮 用水 处 理 阶 段，人造化合物会与消毒 剂 反 应 ， 产 生有效的 诱变剂 或致癌物。初步 证 据表明，我 们 或 许 可以通 过 升 级现 有的 污 水 处 理厂和 饮 用水 处 理厂来消除其中的一些化合物，但是 这 种升 级 的 总 耗 费 是巨大的。 In addition to activated carbon and ozone, there are numerousup-and-coming water treatment technologies that might be more effective than the retrofits that are currently being contemplated. Before we start investingin Water 3.1—an upgrade of our aging wastewater and drinking water systems to address the problems caused by trace amounts of chemicals in wastewater—we should consider approaches for breaking free of the nineteenth- and twentieth-century practice of using our rivers and drinking water supplies for waste disposal. 除了活性炭和臭氧， 还 有 许 多正在开 发 中的水 处 理技 术 也 许 会比当前使用的升 级 修复 计 划更有效。即将到来的水３．１，是 为 了升 级 我 们陈 旧的 污 水和 饮 用水 处 理厂，用以解决水中痕量化合物引起的 问题 。在 为 水３．１ 时 代投 资 前，我 们应 当首先考 虑 从 传统 的生活方式中 挣 脱出来，不再沿用１９世 纪 和２０世 纪 的那套老 办 法，将河流和 饮 用水源用来 处 置 废 弃物。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
7 “Drains to Bay” 第七章 流入海湾的下水道 On the curb across the street from my office there is a sign with apicture of a little blue fish ringed by the words, “No Dumping—Drains to Bay.” Underneath the sign sits the storm sewer—an entry point for rainwater traveling through the underground pipe system designed to protect the sity of Berkeley, California, from flooding. Any water flowing into the storm sewer makes a speedy trip under the city to a pipe that ends at the edge of San Francisco Bay. Along with the rainwater, anything else that has found its way into thestreet, like trash, leaves, or dirt, gets dumped into the bay and beyond. 在我 办 公室的窗外有一条街道。街那 边 的路旁有一 块 指示牌，上面画着一条 蓝 色的小 鱼 ， 围 着小 鱼 的是英文字母 组 成的一个 圆 圈：“禁止 倾 倒（垃圾）———（ 这 是）流入海湾的（雨水）下水道！”在指示牌的下面是雨水下水道——— 这 是一个雨水的入口，雨水由 这 里流入地下管道，保 护 加州伯克利城免于洪 涝 。流入 这 个下水道的任何水，都会通 过 城市地下管网快速 汇 入主排水管， 该 管的出口在旧金山湾的 边缘 。跟随雨水一起流入海湾和更 远处 的， 还 有街道上其他可以与水一起漂流的 东 西，如垃圾、 树 叶或 尘 土。 The storm sewers in your neighborhood, which may or may not have acute sign stenciled above them, might follow the same practice, draining rain and melted snow to a local stream, river, lake, or bay. Then again, they might be connected to the same underground pipe system that carries wastes from your home to the sewage treatment plant. Either way, these long-ignored systems are falling apart. And as they deteriorate, they will endanger our health as wellas the habitats of fish, insects, and birds living in and around our inland and coastal waters. 小区的雨水下水道，无 论 是否 拥 有可 爱 的 标识 ，都具有相同的功能：将雨水、融化后的雪水排入当地的小溪、河流、湖泊或者海湾。此外，它 们还 有可能 连 通到同一个地下排 污 管系 统 ，和你家的 废 弃物一起排入 污 水 处 理厂。无 论 哪种方式， 这 些 长 期被忽 视 的地下管道系 统 ，目前正 濒临 崩 溃 。随着 这 些系 统 的老化，我 们 人 类 的健康和生活在内 陆 及沿海水域里的 鱼 、昆虫和 鸟类 的栖息地都将会受到威 胁 。 Like the underground pipe networks developed to remove wastes from homes and streets during the nineteenth century, the urban drainage systems built over the past three centuries were an expedient means of moving unwanted water out of cities. But in the process of solving one problem, we created a new one: although the sewers quickly transported large volumes of water away from flood-prone streets, they often damaged the places where the water was discharged. In light of the difficulties faced by cities currently struggling to repair decaying pipes and to keep up with the increasing volume of water their existing drainage systems, it evident that in the near future we aregoing to have to spend hundreds of billions of dollars on these concrete and cast-ion plumbing systems. 1 与１９世 纪 修建的用于移除家庭和街道 废 弃物的地下管网一 样 ， 过 去３个世 纪 里建立的城市排水系 统 也 仅仅 是一个 权 宜之 计 ，用以移除城市里不需要的水。但是在解决了一个 问题 的同 时 ，我 们 又制造出新的 问题 ：尽管 这 些下水道可以快速排掉街道上大量水，但它 们 又会 对 排水口的出口所在地造成破坏。 鉴 于城市当前面 临 着需要努力修 补 的破 损 管道，以及跟上日益增加的 污 水排出量等 问题 ，在不久的将来，我 们 将不得不花 费 上千 亿 美元的 资 金去 维护这 些由水泥和 铸铁 制造的管道系 统 ［１］ 。 The need for huge investments in urban drainage also represents an opportunity: by building new types of drainage systems that take advantage ofthe ability of natural systems to store and purify water, we might be able toend up in a better place. With a little ingenuity, we can reinvent storm sewers in a manner that saves money, improves the environment, and even replenish our drinking water supply. 更新城市排水系 统 需要巨 额 投 资 。但是， 这 也意味着一个契机：通 过 利用天然系 统 存 储 和 净 化水体的能力，建 设 新型排水系 统 ，或 许 可以使我 们获 益良多。通 过 独具匠心的 设计 ，我 们 能 够 新建一种雨水下水道，能省 钱 、改善 环 境，甚至 还 能 补 充供水。 Why does a city need a drainage system, anyway? Consider what happens when rain lands in a park, a plot of forest, or a farmer’s field. Much of thewater percolates into the soil, where it provides moisture to plants andrecharge groundwater. The water that does not soak into the soil flows gently downhill under the force of gravity. Along the way, it forms rivulets, which join together to form a network of streams and rivers. 然而， 为 何一个城市需要排水系 统 呢？想象雨水落到一个公园、一片森林或者是一 块农 田的情景。大部分水会渗入土壤里， 为 植物提供水分， 补 充地下水。未渗入土壤的水会在重力的作用下慢慢往低 处 流。 这 些水在沿途 积 流成溪、 进 而 汇 聚，形成一个由溪流与河流 组 成的网 络 。 Now consider the consequences of covering the land with buildings and other impervious surfaces that prevent water from soaking into the soil. If the hard surfaces were perfectly flat, the accumulated water would form gigantic puddles. But this rarely happens because most land is sloped, even after it iscovered with asphalt or concrete. As a result, all the rainwater still flows downhill. If this large amount of water were to stay in a city, it would turn streets into rivers every time it rained and, much to the chagrin of homeownersand insurance agents, flood the basements of homes in low-lying areas. This process is exactly what happens in slums of developing countries that have been built without storm sewers. 现 在，想象一下当土地被建筑物及其他不透水的表面所覆盖，从而阻止水分渗入土壤的 结 果 。倘若 这 个 坚 硬的地表足 够 平坦， 积 累的水将会形成一个巨大的水洼。当然 这 比 较 少 见 ，因 为 即使土地 铺 上了 沥 青或混凝土后，大部分的地面 还 是 倾 斜的。于是，所有的雨水依然往低 处 流。如果大量的水 积 存在城市里的 话 ，每次下雨 时 街道都会 变 成江河，地 势较 低的地下室会被淹没， 给 房主和保 险 机构 带 来很多 烦恼 。 这 种情况在 发 展中国家的 贫 民窟尤 为 常 见 ，因 为 他 们 没有雨水下水道。 (Last two paragraphs of Chapter 7) The public is usually oblivious to urban drainage problems. Consequently, if low-impact development is going to succeedat the scale of an entire city, committed advocates are needed from outside ofthe water sector. One of the best examples of the level of commitment needed to successfully launch a citywide low-impact development project is Philadelphia’s “Green City, Clean Waters” program. Faced with the prospect of an expensive retrofit to address its combined sewer overflow problem, Philadelphia’s mayor, Michael Nutter, decided shortly after his inauguration in 2008 to pursue low-impact development as an alternative to the conventional engineering approach. 46 But simply choosing low-impact development over underground tunnels was not enough. In addition to pushing for cooperation from the city’s water department, which had led previous efforts to combat the city’s combined sewer overflows, the mayor enlisted support from the government departments responsible for Philadelphia’s parks, schools, transportation, and taxcollection. After he got the buy-in from city agencies, he turned to sellinghis program to the public. To do this, he established a comprehensive program called “Greenworks Philadelphia” that explained his vision for the ways in which green infrastructure would transform every aspect of city life. Inessence, he made a commitment to supporting green development as mayor. 公众一般不会关心城市排水系 统 的 问题 。因此，低影响开 发 模式想要在整个城市范 围 内 获 得成功的 话 ， 还 需要 获 得水 务 部 门 之外的官方承 诺 。在城市范 围 内成功落 实 低影响开 发 模式所需要的支持的一个最好的例子，是 费 城的“ 绿 色的城市，干 净 的水域” 项 目。面 临 解决合流制排水系 统 溢流 问题 需要花 费 昂 贵资 金， 费 城市 长 米歇 尔 · 纳 特 尔 在其２００８年的就 职 演 讲 后不久，决定采用低影响开 发 模式来替代 传统 方法 ［４６］ 。但是，一步到位地 选择 低影响开 发 模式来代替地下蓄水 库这 一决定本身是不 够 的。除了 寻 求一直在 为 解决合流制下水道溢流 问题 努力的水 务 部 门 的合作外，市 长还寻 求那些 负责费 城公园、学校、交通和税收等政府部 门 的支持。在 这 些部 门 都 乐 意支持他的 时 候，他开始向公众推 销 他的 项 目 计 划。他成立了一个名叫“ 费 城 绿 色工程”的 综 合 项 目，用以 阐 明他的 远 景：采用 绿 色基 础 建 设 将会改 变 城市生活的每一方面。从本 质 上 讲 ，作 为 市 长 ，他 对 支持 绿 色事 业 的 发 展做出了一 个承 诺 。 The consent decree that the mayor signed in 2012 with the Environmental Protection Agency commits the city to a twenty-five-year program that will cover about one third of the city’s impervious surfaces with green roofs, raingardens, permeable pavement, and other low-impact development features capable of capturing and retaining the first 2.9 cm (one inch) of precipitation. 47 If everything goes according to plan, Philadelphia will invest approximately $2.5 billion in projects on city-owned land and private properties in its quest to reduce runoff. While the city’s estimates suggest that the low-impact development approach will be more cost-effective than digging underground tunnels and expanding the capacity of sewage treatment plants, Philadelphia could still end up spending more than cities that followed the conventional path. But if Nutter’s plan succeeds, the city will have gained more than a network of underground sewage tunnels. Low-impact development promises to offer energy savings, create attractive green spaces, and reintroduce residents of the city to the water cycle. Only time will tell if the investment was worth the extra effort. ２０１２年 纳 特 尔 市 长 与 环 境保 护 署 签 署了一 项协议 。根据 该协议 ， 费 城将用２５年 时间 来更 换 覆盖城市的三分之一不透水（地）表面，采用包括 绿 色屋 顶 、雨水花园、透水路面，以及其他具有低影响开 发 特性的措施来截留最初的２．５厘米降水 ［４７］ 。如果一切按 计 划行事， 费 城将会在城市和私人的房地 产 上投 资 将近２５ 亿 美元以减少径流。尽管城市的 预 算 显 示，低影响开 发 模式会比开挖地下“蓄水 库 ”和 扩 大 污 水 处 理厂的容量更划算， 费 城仍然有可能比那些遵循 传统 方法的城市花 费 更多的 钱 。但是，如果 纳 特 尔 的 计 划成功的 话 ， 费 城 获 得的将不只是地下 污 水管网。低影响开 发 模式承 诺 提供低能耗， 创 造具有吸引力的 绿 色空 间 ，以及 让 市民重新参与到水循 环 中。 现 在，只有 时间 会告 诉 我 们这项 投 资 是否 值 得。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
6 The Chlorine Dilemma 第六章 氯 化 处 理水的困境 After the publication of Silent Spring and the much-publicized fire on the Cuyahoga River, all eyesturned to Washington, D.C., where concerned politicians pushed forward pollution-control legislation. Increased public attention and the lobbying efforts of environmental groups led to the allocation of federal funds to upgrade sewage treatment plants and to standards being set to control smog-producing gases emitted by factories and cars. But the energy andinfluence of the environmental movement did not stop there. The late 1960s was a time when idealistic people put their energy into making the world a better place—and among these idealists was a brash young lawyer and a group of scientists in New York who pioneered a new way of fighting pollution. 《寂静的春天》的出版，以及媒体 对凯 霍加河大火的大量 报 道之后，公众的目光都 转 向了 华 盛 顿 特区，因 为 在那里，关注 环 境的政界人士正在 积 极推 动 通 过环 境 污 染控制法案。公众关注度的增加以及 环 保 组织 的游 说 ，使得 联 邦政府增加了 污 水 处 理厂的分配 资 金，并制定了排放 标 准用以控制工厂和汽 车 排放的那些 导 致“烟 雾 （ｓｍｏｇ）”的气体。然而， 环 保运 动 所 产 生的威 慑 和影响力，并未就此 结 束。２０世 纪 ６０年代后期是理想主 义 者把精力投入到 让 世界 变 得更美好的一个 时 代。在 这 些 理想主 义 者中，有一位性急的年 轻 律 师 ，他和一群 纽约 的科学家，开 创 了与 污 染抗争的新途径。 Alarmed by the effects of DDT described in Silent Spring, Victor Yannacone, a thirty-one-year-old lawyer, initiated a lawsuit against a Long Island mosquito control district claiming that in 1966 its use of the pesticidehad caused a fish kill in a pond near his house. 1 Armed with his motto “Sue thebastards,” Yannacone teamed up with an assistant professor of biology at nearby Stony Brook University and an ecologist from Brookhaven National Laboratory inan attempt to prove that the mosquito district’s application of DDT was not in the public’s best interest. 2 The group’s approach of using the courts when a government agency failed toprotect the public was a still untested legal concept. While it too twelve years for them to achieve their goal, the success of Yannacone and his associates gave environmentalists a new tool with which to fight pollution: the class-action lawsuit. ３１ 岁 的律 师维 克多· 阎纳 康因 为 《寂静的春天》描述了滴滴涕 产 生的不良后果而引起警 觉 ，他起 诉长岛 的一个蚊虫控制地区，在１９９６年使用 杀 虫 剂导 致他家附近池塘里的 鱼 死亡 ［１］ 。他与石溪大学的一位生物学助理教授以及布 鲁 克海文国家 实验 室 的一位生 态 学家 联 手 组 成三人小 组 ，以“起 诉这 帮混蛋” 为 座右 铭 ， 试图证 明在蚊虫控制区使用 杀 虫 剂 滴滴涕不符合公众的最大利益 ［２］ 。 该 小 组 的做法在当 时 属于法律意 义 上的新 尝试 ，即在政府机构不能保 护 公众利益 时 ，公民可以通 过 法庭 诉讼 方式来 维护 自己的利益。 虽 然他 们经过 １２年的努力才达到目的，但 阎纳 康和他的合作伙伴 们 的成功， 给环 保主 义 者提供了一种新工具：集体 诉讼 。 Shortly after the group’s high-profile DDT case went to court, they formed the nonprofit Environmental Defense Fund. Over the next few years, this non-governmental organization engaged in an ambitious campaign of class-action lawsuits against the users of DDT and other pesticides suspected of harming wildlife. They also hired a team of full-time scientists to support their efforts to branch out into new areas such as land, water, and energy conservation. 3 在引人注目的滴滴涕 杀 虫 剂污 染案件开庭后不久，他 们 成立了非 营 利性的“ 环 境保 护 基金会”。由于滴滴涕和其他 杀 虫 剂 的使用可能会 伤 害野生 动 物， 这 个非政府 组织 在接下来的几年里， 发 起了一 场轰轰 烈烈的集体 诉讼 运 动 。他 们还 雇用了一批全 职 的科学家，将 诉讼 范 围扩 展到土壤、水及能源保 护 等新的 领 域 ［３］ 。 (Last two paragraphs of Chapter 6) We now face a dilemma. Chlorine protects us from waterborne pathogens present in rivers and lakes as well as those that penetrate our water systemsafter the treatment process. It also maintains a protective coating on lead pipes, which are expensive and difficult to remove. But the use of chlorine results in the production of disinfection byproducts that cause cancer and possible other health problems, even if steps taken over the past thirty years have lowered the concentrations of these disinfection by products. The public’s recognition that cutting back on disinfectants could increase the rate of infectious disease, as well as citizens’ hesitancy to add new treatment processes, has meant that we may not be protected from the carcinogens that inspired Congress to pass the Safe Drinking Water Act. 我 们现 在面 临 着困境。 氯 气保 护 我 们 免受河水和湖水中的水媒病原体，及渗入消毒 处 理后的水分配系 统 的水媒病原体的感染。它也可以在 铅 管内壁上 维 持一 层 保 护 膜，而更 换这 些旧的 铅 管道既 费钱 又 费 事。但是， 这 些消毒副 产 物会 导 致癌， 还 可能引起其他健康 问题 ，即使 过 去３０年中采用的技 术 已 经 降低了 氯 气消毒副 产 物的 浓 度。公众不愿意增加新的（ 饮 用水） 处 理的 过 程，他 们 也 认识 到减少消毒 剂 的使用会 导 致疾病感染率的提高； 这 都表明我 们 也 许 无法避免与水中的致癌物接触，而当年促使国会通 过 《安全 饮 用水法案》的正是 这 些致癌物。 The solution to the chlorine dilemma will require an upgrade of our drinking water treatment systems. We can think of it as Water 3.1. The least expensive upgrade probably would involve the removal of humic substances—the precursors of chlorine disinfection byproducts—followed by continued use of chlorine. Activated carbon, a treatment process that is already being used insome cities, offers a viable means of accomplishing this goal. New technologies like ultrafiltration also could be used to remove humic substances. Alternatively, we could switch to chloramines or ozone and operate our distribution systemswithout residual chlorine, though this change would require large investmentsin maintaining our distribution systems and removing lead from difficult-to-reach locations. Although an increase in the monthly water bill of a few dollars per month would likely be acceptable to people worried about the health of their families, there is not yet a cry for change from the public, because utilities and regulators continue to insist that our drinking water is safe and healthy. 解决 氯 气消毒困境的 办 法是 对饮 用水 处 理厂的系 统 性升 级 。我 们 可以将它称之 为 “水３．１”。花 费 最少的升 级 系 统 是移除水体中的腐殖 质 ，因 为 它 们 是 产 生 氯 气消毒副 产 物的前提，然后再使用 氯 气消毒。一些城市已 经 在使用的活性炭 处 理工 艺 ，可 为实现这 一目 标 提供一种可行的手段。超 滤 法 这类 新技 术 也可以用来去除腐殖 质 。另外，我 们还 可以 转 用 氯 胺或臭氧，并且不用余 氯 ，但是 这 需要我 们 投 资 大量人力物力来 维护 水分配系 统 和消除偏 远 地区 饮 用水中的 铅 。 虽 然相比家人的健康而言，每个月增加几美元的水 费 开支是可以接受的。但是，迄今 为 止公众 还 没有 发 出要求改 变 水系 统 的呼声，因 为 水 务 部 门 及其 监 管机构一直 坚 持 认为 ，我 们现 在的 饮 用水是安全和健康的。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
5 Burning Rivers, Fading Paint, and the Clean Water Movement 第五章 燃 烧 的河流、褪色的油漆和清 洁 水运 动 In the 1960s, Edwin Chadwick, Victor Hugo, Karl Marx, and their fellow reformers campaigned vigorously for centralized systems to helpfarmers capture the nutrients in the sewage pouring out of rapidly growingcities. But by the end of the century the widespread availability of inexpensive synthetic fertilizers had taken away the economic incentives for sewage farming. 1 Without a market for the nutrients, it was hard to justify doing anything other than discharging sewage directly to surface waters. In locations where sewage posed obvious threats to drinking water, cities tappednew sources in distant watersheds, or they built drinking water treatment plants equipped with filters and chlorine disinfection systems. １９世 纪 ６０年代， 查 德威克、雨果、 马 克思及他 们 的改革派同仁极力推广集中式水系 统 ，以帮助 农 民从迅速增 长 的城市 污 水中 获 得 营 养元素用于耕作。但到了１９世 纪 末，廉价的人工合成化肥的广泛使用，使得 污 水灌 溉 不再有利可 图 ［１］ 。由于没有人 购买污 水中的 营 养元素，就只能直接将 污 水排入地表水中。在 饮 用水源受到明 显污 染的那些地区，地方政府要去更 远 的流域开 发 新水源，或者建立配 备 有 过滤 装置和 氯 气消毒系 统 的 饮 用水 处 理厂。 Although these measures were effective in fighting waterborne disease,they did nothing to reduce the foul smells of sewage-polluted waters. Incoastal cities located on rivers, such as London and Boston, where the odors ofsewage made downtown living unpleasant, individual sewers were hooked togetherin regional systems with outlets draining to the ocean. 2 After these sewer networks were built, wastes discharged by upstream communities and local industries still caused smells along the waterfront, but the situation wasvastly improved a few blocks from the water. 3 尽管 这 些措施有效减少了水媒疾病的 发 生，却无助于消除 污 水的 恶 臭。像 伦 敦和波士 顿这 些有河流的沿海城市，由于市中心 饱 受 污 水 恶 臭的困 扰 ，人 们 将区域系 统 内的独立管道与入海排 污 口 连 接到一起 ［２］ 。 这 些排 污 管网建成后， 虽 然上游和当地工厂排放的 废 物使得海 滨 附近的水域仍 恶 臭不断，但是在离 这 些水域稍微 远 一点的地方，情况 则 大有改善 ［３］ 。 During the nineteenth century few people paid attention to the odors caused by sewage discharges until they penetrated residential areas. While it may be hard to fathom for those of us accustomed to museums, restaurant, and condominiums situated on expensive waterfront real estate, the urban waterfronts of the early industrial period were bustling, low-rent zones where loading docks, factories, and power plants prevented the public from approaching the water. Even if people could get there, they might not be ableto distinguish the smell of sewage from the boat exhaust, burning coal, livestock, rotting vegetables and other items that moved along the docks and sometimesfell into the water. 4 在１９世 纪 ，当 污 水排放引起的 恶 臭 还 没影响到居民区 时 ，很少有人注意 这 个 问题 。 对 于我 们这 些已 经习惯 了昂 贵 的海 滨 地区的博物 馆 、 饭 店和公寓的人来 说 ，很 难 想象在工 业 化 时 代的早期，城市海 滨 竟然是繁忙的廉租区。那里有装卸 码头 、工厂和 发电 厂，人 们 无法靠近海水。即使到了海 边 ，也根本分辨不出哪是 轮 船尾气，哪是燃煤、牲畜、腐 烂 蔬菜 发 出的臭味；沿 码头 搬运和堆放的各 类 物品或者它 们 掉落入水中后，也会 释 放出怪味 ［４］ 。 (Last two paragraphs of Chapter 5) The sewage treatment plants built during the twentieth century can bethought of as the third revolution in urban water infrastructure—Water 3.0. Gradual progress began with a recognition that cities were becoming too big torely on self-purification. Initially primary treatment plants were built as ameans of eliminating the aesthetic problems caused by oxygen depletion. But, aspopulation increased, more sophisticated treatment plants were needed to protect downstream drinking water supplies and aquatic ecosystems from the negative effects of sewage. Through the efforts of engineers at places like the Lawrence Experimental Station and the University of Manchester, reliable aboveground treatment processes were developed to harness the ability of microbes to purify water. But before the situation was perceived to be a major crisis, the publicwas reluctant to spend more than about a dollar a month per person to solve the problems posed by sewage. Ultimately, a public consensus to address sewage pollution at the national level coupled with a comprehensive set of laws and funding turned the situation around. ２０世 纪兴 建的 污 水 处 理厂，可以称 为 第三次城市水 处 理基 础设 施的革命，即“水３．０”。 缓 慢的 进 步是 这样 开始的：人 们 意 识 到城市已 经 太大，不可能 仅仅 依靠水体的自 净 能力来解决 污 水 问题 。起初，初 级污 水 处 理厂的建立是 为 了消除由溶解氧的耗 损 而引 发 的 恶 臭。但是，随着人口的增 长 ，我 们 的城市需要 兴 建更复 杂 的 污 水 处 理厂，以保 护 下游的供水和水生生 态 系 统 免遭 污 水的 负 面影响。 经过劳伦 斯 实验 站和曼 彻 斯特大学等 单 位的工程 师们 的努力，利用微生物 净 化 污 水的技 术 已开 发 出来。但是，在水 污 染被公 认为 是主要危机之前，人 们 不愿意在 处 理 污 水上花 费 每人每月多于１美元的投 资 。最 终 ，多数人 认为污 水 处 理 应该 全国 统 一来解决，加上一系列配套的法律和 联 邦政府的 拨 款， 这 才扭 转 了美国水 污 染的局面。 Our modern sewage treatment plants were built to eliminate oxygen depletion, and in achieving this goal they solved many of the more pressingproblems of the day. But as cities have continued to grow, it has become clearthat treatment plants also have to remove nutrients, toxin metals, and synthetic organic chemicals. Technologies are available to accomplish thesetasks, but like the transition from primary treatment to secondary treatment, retrofitting sewage treatment plants will require additional funds. In addition, the initial rush to build treatment plants meant that adequate provisions were not made tosupport the maintenance and upgrades needed to keep the network of water and wastewater treatment systems working in the future. Now that our attention hadmoved on to other challenges, like greenhouse gases and climate change,additional regulations and government grants are unlikely to provide all of themeans necessary to replace the worn parts and make the needed improvements. We must address these problems now if we wish to avoid reversing much of the hard-won progress of the mid- to late twentieth century. 现 代 污 水 处 理厂的建立，是基于消除溶解氧耗 损 而引 发 的 恶 臭。事 实 上， 污 水 处 理厂在消除 恶 臭的同 时 ， 还 解决了 许 多当代十分 紧 迫的 问题 。然而，随着城市的持 续扩 大，人 们 意 识 到 污 水 处 理厂 还 必 须 去除 污 水中的 营 养素、有毒金属和合成有机化合物。在技 术 上， 这 些都可以做到；但是，就像从初 级处 理向二 级处 理 转变 一 样 ， 污 水 处 理厂的改造需要 额 外的 资 金。此外，当初 这 些 污 水 处 理厂匆忙上 马 ， 这 意味着 库 存不足，不能支持将来 这 些水和 废 水 处 理系 统 网 络 正常运行所需的 维护 和升 级 。 现 在，我 们 的注意力已 转 移到了其他的新的挑 战 ，如温室气体和气候 变 化， 额 外的法律条例和政府的 拨 款不可能提供所有的必要 资 源，去更 换 磨 损 的零部件和 进 行必要的改 进 。如果我 们 珍惜２０世 纪 中、后期所取得的来之不易的 进 步，不想重蹈覆 辙 ，我 们 就必 须 从 现 在开始面 对这 些棘手的 问题 。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
4 Growing Old Thanks to Water Treatment 第四章 延年益寿得力于水 处 理 During the nineteenth century, the United States matured from asleepy, isolated country to a leading industrialized nation. New York grew froma city of fewer than 70,000,000 to a metropolis of over 3 million people. Chicago went from being a tiny military outpost to a city of 1.7 million people. And just as their European counterparts had decades earlier, cities throughout the United States suffered from cholera outbreaks, filthy streets,and inadequate water supplies during the first half of the nineteenth century. 1 In response, American cities made major investments in Water 1.0. During thelast decades of the century, New York built the first sections of an aqueduct that would ultimately bring water into the city from a pristine watershed 190 km (120 miles) to the northwest. The city also built a network of underground tunnels to convey its sewage to the ocean. １９世 纪时 ，美国已 经 从一个缺乏活力的孤立国 发 展 为 一个工 业 化的 领军 国。 纽约 从一个人口不足７万的小城市， 发 展 为 人口超 过 ３００万的大都市。芝加哥也从一个小小的 军 事前哨， 变 成 拥 有１７０万人口的大城市。１９世 纪 的前五十年，美国 许 多城市也遭遇了霍乱暴 发 、街道 肮脏 和供水 问题 ，就像几十年前的欧洲城市一 样 ［１］ 。 为应对这 些棘手的 问题 ，美国政府 对 “水１．０”做了重大投 资 。在１９世 纪 最后的几十年 间 ， 纽约 完成了一条大渡槽的第一期工程， 这 个渡槽最 终 可以将城市西北方１９０公里 处 的 纯净 水引到市内。 纽约还 修建了地下隧道网 络 ，将 污 水排入海里。 Chicago was thinking big, too. There was plenty of water in Lake Michigan, but as the city expanded, water from the sewage-contaminated Chicago River kept getting sucked into the city’s drinking water intake pipes along the shore of the lake. After the city’s engineers extended the water intake pipesas far from the shoreline as they possibly could, they embarked on a more radical solution: they raised the elevation of the entire downtown and reversed the flow of the city’s main river. The canals and locks of the Sanitary and Ship Canal were completed in 1892. Thereafter, the city’s wastes flowed to the Mississippi River and not into Chicago’s Lake Michigan drinking water intakes. 2 与此同 时 ，芝加哥也在 进 行大胆的探索。密歇根湖 拥 有丰富的水 资 源，但是随着城市 扩 建，受到城市生活 污 水 污 染的芝加哥河的河水，不断 进 入沿着密歇根湖岸布 设 的 饮 用水 进 水管道。在芝加哥的工程 师们 将 进 水管道延伸至距离密歇根湖岸 线 尽可能 远 的地方之后，他 们 又开始着手 一个更激 进 的方案：抬高整个市中心区的（河床）海拔，使芝加哥河水倒流。到１８９２年，芝加哥 环 境 卫 生和航行运河的水道和船 闸 已全部建成。此后，芝加哥的 废 水流向了密西西比河 ， 不再 污 染密歇根湖的 饮 用水 进 水口 ［２］ 。 Although much of America’s growth tookplace in urban neighborhoods, like those that housed the sweatshops of New York’s garment district and the stockyards of Chicago, manufacturing was also booming in small cities scattered throughout the northeastern states and the industrializing Midwest. Pittsburgh made steel. Minneapolis milled flour. And Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Detroit made machinery. It is in one of these smallcities that we pick up the next phase of the urban water story. 尽管当 时 美国的 经济 增 长 大部分 发 生在城市里，比如那些坐落在 纽约 服装区的血汗工厂和芝加哥的畜禽养殖 场 ，但是在 东 北部和工 业 化的中西部，那些零散的小城市的制造 业 也蓬勃 发 展。匹 兹 堡生 产钢铁 。明尼阿波利斯生 产 面粉。克利夫 兰 、辛辛那提以及底特律都在制造机械 设备 。我 们 就在 这 些小城市中 选 取一个例子，接着 讲 有关城市水的故事。 (Last paragraph of Chapter 4) The combination of water filtration and chlorination was the first major innovation in drinking water since the Roman aqueducts and sewers. The newly developed system of drinking water treatment—which we’ll refer to as Water 2.0—made it possible for growing cities to obtain water from sources that would otherwise be unsafe to drink. Immense progress had been made between1890—when Lawrence, Massachusetts, first had sought Professor Sedgwick’s helpin fighting typhoid—and the 1940s, when filtration and chlorination became the norm for treating surface waters destined for water utility customers. Through these efforts, waterborne diseases like typhoid fever and cholera were largely eliminated in the United States. Consistent with Hazen’s Theorem, substantial decreases in death rates were evident wherever water treatment plants had been built. In fact, the U.S. National Academy of Engineering identified watertreatment and distribution as the fourth most important engineering feat of thetwentieth century, after electrification, automobiles, and airplanes but aheadof electronics and the Internet. 43 Filtration and disinfection revolutionized urban water. 水 过滤 技 术 和 氯 化 处 理相 结 合的方法是 饮 用水在古 罗马发 明引水渠和下水道以来的第一次大 变 革。使用 这 套 饮 用水 处 理系 统 的 时 代，我 们 称之 为 “水２．０”，它使得日益增 长 的城市 获 得安全的 饮 用水，否 则这 些水源的水是无法 饮 用的。水 处 理技 术 的巨大 进 步是在１９世 纪 ９０年代到２０世 纪 ４０年代之 间 取得的：在１８９０年，当 马萨诸 塞州的 劳伦 斯市 为 抗 击伤 寒，首先向塞奇威克教授 寻 求帮助开始；到１９４０年， 过滤 和 氯 化相 结 合的 处 理工 艺 成 为 水 务 部 门为 用 户处 理地表水的 规 范 为 止。通 过这 些努力，在美国基本上消除了 伤 寒和霍乱等水媒疾病。正如海森定理所 总结 的，一个地区的死亡率的大幅下降，很明 显 是由于在那里修建了水 处 理厂。 实际 上，美国国家工程学院 认为 ，水 处 理与水分配技 术 是２０世 纪继电 气化、汽 车 和 飞 机之后的第四个最重要的工程壮 举 ，排在 电 子和互 联 网技 术 之前 ［４３］ 。 过滤 和消毒技 术彻 底改 变 了城市的水系 统 。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
3 Europe’s Sewage Crisis 第三章 欧洲的 污 水危机 As Western civilization made the transition from medieval to the modern era, the systems that had been developed to provide water and remove wastes struggled to keep up with increasing population densities. A new approach was needed if cities were going to continue their rapid growth. In response to the problems caused by inadequate and polluted water supplies, each city relied on its own ideas about public health, aesthetics, and the role ofthe state in civil affairs in order to develop urban water systems that were best suited for their particular climates and geographic features. The differences in the water infrastructures developed in carious European cities have diminished over time, but they can still be seen in the practices andattitudes of modern Europeans. 当西方文明逐 渐 从中世 纪 向 现 代 过 渡 时 ，已有的供水和排 污 系 统 只能勉 为 其 难 地跟随着日益增 长 的人口密度。如果 这 些城市要 维 持其快速 发 展，必 须 有一套新的供水系 统 。 为应对 供水不足及水体 污 染所引起的 诸 多 问题 ，每座城市会依据其在公共 卫 生、 审 美，以及市政府在民政事 务 中所起作用的理念， 发 展一套适合各自特殊气候和地理特征的城市水系 统 。随着 时间 的推移，不同的欧洲城市开 发 的水利基 础设 施，其差异逐 渐缩 小。但从 现 代欧洲人的具体 实 践和 认 知 观 念仍能看出 这 种城市 间 的差异。 These differences are best understood by exploring the development of urban water infrastructure in the two largest cities of the period—London andParis. Both cities are located on the banks of major rivers (the Thames and the Seine, respectively), and both experienced rapid population growth starting inthe sixteenth century, with populations crossing the one million mark near the beginning of the nineteenth century. When demand for water exceeded its supplyand wastes from the densely populated cities started to foul the streets and polluted the water supply, London and Paris both started building up their water infrastructures. 厘清 这 种城市 间 差异的最好方式是探索当 时 世界上最大的两座城市——— 伦 敦和巴黎———的水利基 础设 施 发 展状况。 这 两座城市分 别 位于泰晤士河和塞 纳 河河畔。从１６世 纪 开始， 这 两座城市都 经历 了高速的人口增 长 ，１９世 纪 初的人口 规 模已超１００万。当城市的用水供不 应 求、人口密集城市的 粪 便开始 污 染街道和供水的 时 候， 伦 敦和巴黎都开始建造自己的水利基 础设 施。 (Last three paragraphs of Chapter 3) Although the attempt by Paris’s leaders to reuse its citizens’ wastesfor agriculture was laudable, it was ultimately impractical, because continued growth meant that there was not enough land to spread all of the waste close tothe city. Attempts to apply more sewage than the crops could handle would inevitably lead to decreased crop yields and foul odors emanating from the “sewage sick” farms. If sewage farms were to succeed, more land would beneeded. 37 尽管巴黎的官 员尝试 把 粪 便用于 农业 生 产 的做法 值 得称 赞 ，但 这 种做法最 终 是不切 实际 的。因 为 城市 规 模的持 续 增 长 ，意味着城市周 围 没有足 够 的土地来利用所有的 粪 便。 试图 把 过 多的 污 水用于 污 水 农场 ，可能会超 过农 作物的承受度。 这 么做，将不可避免地 导 致作物 产 量下降，以及来自“ 污 水 过饱 和” 农场 散 发 出的 恶 臭。若要 污 水 农 田 获 得成功，唯一的 办 法是要有更多的土地 ［３７］ 。 In the 1920s, civic leaders proposed an ambitious plan to build apipeline to take the wastes of Paris to sites in the Champagne region 140 km (87 miles) west of the city. 38 The project would permanently solve the city’ssewage problem by increasing the acreage of sewage farms tenfold. Ultimately, theproject was never built, because the price of fertilizer had dropped too muchto make the recycling of nutrients attractive. 39 In addition, by this time agronomistshad realized that the mixture of nutrients in human waste contained lessphosphorus than plants needed. When the lower cost of imported fertilizer andthe need to supplement sewage with phosphorus were both factored into theanalysis, sewage farms became less attractive. ２０世 纪 ２０年代，市政府官 员 提出了一个 庞 大的 计 划，即修建一条管道 线 ，将巴黎的 粪 便 输 送到市区以西１４０公里的香 槟 区 ［３８］ 。 这 个 项 目 拟 通 过 增加１０倍 污 水 农 田的面 积 ，来一 劳 永逸地解决巴黎的 污 水 处 理 问题 。但 这 个 项 目最 终 并未 实 施，因 为 化肥的价格下降得太多，以至于利用 粪 便中 营 养成分的做法不再具有吸引力 ［３９］ 。此外， 这时农 学家 们 已 经 意 识 到人 类粪 便中混合 营 养物 质 的含磷量低于植物生 长 所需的磷的用量。 综 合考 虑 廉价的 进 口肥料和需要向 污 水中 补 充磷元素两方面因素， 污 水 农 田就不再具有吸引力。 By the end of the nineteenth century, Paris and London had both givenup on the prospect of reusing human waste because other sources of fertilizerwere readily available. To protect public health, sewage was being dischargeddirectly into the Seine and Thames. The water intakes had either been moved upstream or water was being imported from less contaminated sources outside ofthe cities. The water supply was safe and secure. Problem solved—unless, ofcourse, you lived downstream. 到１９世 纪 末，巴黎和 伦 敦都放弃了 继续 利用人 类粪 便，因 为 其他来源的肥料已 经 很容易 获 得。 为 保 护 当地居民的健康， 污 水直接被排入塞 纳 河和泰晤士河。取水口移到河流的上游，或者从城外 污 染 较轻 的地方取水。 这样 的供水既安全，也有保障。城市 污 水 问题 解决了———除非你是生活在下游地区。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
2 The Bucket Era 第二章 桶的 时 代 The Western world was very different after the fall of the Roman Empire. Without Rome’s engineers, planners, and armies, cities faded into the background. Between 500 and 1400 CE, few places in Europ had populations that were greater than a fifth of thesize of Rome at its peak. To our modern eyes, most medieval cities would seem like rural towns surrounded by a protective wall. 1 Houses were clustered intight rows to protect city dwellers from the winter cold. The attached houses created the familiar narrow streets and town squares of old Europe, but hidden behind their facades were spacious backyards, where city dwellers grew food and tended livestock. Orchards, pastures, and a scattering of open countryside started just outside of the walls, with plenty of open space for farming, which was the main occupation of most of the city’s residents. 罗马 帝国衰落之后，西方世界与之前大相径庭。没有了古 罗马 的工程 师 、 设计师 及 军队 ，城市逐 渐 失去了昔日的亮 丽 色彩。公元５００至１４００年 间 ，欧洲很少有地方其人口 规 模超 过罗马 鼎盛期人口的五分之一。用 现 代的眼光看，大多数中世 纪 的城市不 过 是由城 墙 包 围 着的偏僻小 镇 ［１］ 。住房以密集的 联 排式簇 拥 在一起，有助于居民度 过 寒冷的冬天。 这 些排屋 营 造出古老欧洲典型的狭 长 街道和城市广 场 ， 隐 藏在 这 些房屋后面的 则 是 宽 敞的庭院，那是市民耕种 农 作物和 饲 养牲畜的 场 所。果园、牧 场 和零散分布的开 阔 田野是中世 纪 城市的常 见 景 观 。城 墙 之外就是偏僻的 农 村，那里有广袤的土地用于耕作，而耕种是当 时 大多数市民的主要 职业 。 In the early years, local sources provided enough water for the peopleof medieval cities. More often than not, a bucket was all that was needed. Because waterways were important as a means of transportation, many cities were located on rivers, which meant that residents could simply walk to the water’s edge to fill their buckets. If the nearest river was too far away, they would take their buckets to communal wells in the public square. 在中世 纪 早期，当地水源 为 城市居民提供了足 够 的水。只需要有个水桶一般就能 满 足日常用水的需求。因 为 水路在当 时 是一种非常重要的运 输 方式，很多城市就位于河 滨 ， 这 意味着居民只需步行到河 边 就能用水桶装 满 水。如果离河流太 远 ，他 们 就会拿着水桶到广 场 的公用水井取水。 (Last two paragraphs of Chapter 2) Although the collection of human wastes resulted in cleaner drinking water, it did not eliminate risks for pathogenic microbes. The Asian system ofcollection and distribution of night soil included a step in which wastes were aged. Yet although storing wastes for up to a year before putting them onfields may have reduced the smells and lowered the infectivity of the pathogens, it did not eliminate the risk of disease. Gastrointestinal illness was endemic among farmers and their families. Conditions were not as bad forcity dwellers who bought the produce, because before it was eaten it was cookedor pickled—practices that substantially reduced the risk of infection. 尽管人 类粪 便的收集使得 饮 用水 变 得比 较洁净 ，但 这 并没有消 除水中存在致病微生物的 风险 。 亚 洲地区收集和 输 送 粪 便的系 统 里有一个将 粪 便 陈 化 风 干的步 骤 。尽管 粪 便在撒到土地之前可能已 经储 存了 长 达一年的 时间 ，减少了臭味并降低了感染致病菌的概率，但 这 并没有完全消除感染疾病的 风险 。胃 肠 病是 农 民及其家庭成 员 常 见 的疾病。而 对 于 购买农产 品的城市居民来 说 ，情况 则 没有那么糟，因 为 他 们 吃的 农产 品都 经过 烹 饪 或者腌制， 这 些做法极大地减少了感染病菌的 风险 。 As the urban populations in Europe continued to grow during the nineteenth century, some European cities struggled to develop approaches likethose being used in Asia for moving wastes to the countryside. Modern manufacturing processes led to the use of metal containers that fit onto the bottom of a toilet seat, rather than simple buckets, which simplified the collection of night soil and reduced the smell, and to the development of mechanical pumps that made it easier to remove wastes from cesspools. By the late nineteenth century, this system was also losing its economic appeal as other sources of fertilizer were discovered and popularized. Nevertheless, the protracted early struggle to remove wastes from city streets and to find water that had not yet been contaminated had set the course for the development ofthe maze of water and sewer pipes underneath our modern cities. １９世 纪 的欧洲，随着城市人口 继续扩 增，一些城市不得不努力开 发 将 粪 便运到 农 村的途径； 这 套方法与 亚 洲城市使用的方法大致相似。 现 代制造工序促成了金属便桶的使用，不再需要用 简单 的木桶； 这 不 仅简 化了 粪 便的收集， 还 可以减少 粪 便的臭味。 现 代制造工序 还 促成了机械 泵 的 发 展， 这 使得从化 粪 池移除 粪 便更容易。到１９世 纪 后期，由于其他来源的肥料的 发现 和推广， 这 种原始 粪 便收集系 统 随之失去其 经济 价 值 。然而，早期将人 类粪 便从街道清除以及 寻 找未受 污 染水源的 实 践， 为 我 们现 代城市路面底下 错综 复 杂 的 给 排水系 统 的 发 展确定 了方向。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
1 Water Supply in Rome, the World’s First Metropolis 第一章 世界上第一个大都市 罗马 城的供水 If water is the essential ingredient of life, then water supply is the essential ingredient of civilization. In ancient times, when people first began gathering in settlements for trade and mutual protection, they tended to locate within ashort distance of their drinking water. But as settlements grew into villages and villages gave way to cities, people were forced to live farther away from their water source. Initially, the challenge of supplying areas of the city that were far from water was solved by digging a well or by paying for home delivery of water. 1 For the inhabitants of the first cities, obtaining water was just one more challenge that had to be overcome to reap the benefits of urbanliving. 如果 说 水是生命中不可缺少的一部分，那么供水就是人 类 文明史中必不可少的 组 成部分。在古代，人 类为 了 贸 易往来以及安全的需要，聚居在靠近 饮 用水的地方。但随着聚居地 发 展成小 镇 ，小 镇 又 发 展 为 城市，人 们 被迫生活在 远 离水源的地方。起初， 远 离水源的城市生活区所面 临 的挑 战 是通 过 打井或付 费 送水到 户 来解决的 ［１］ 。 对 于第一批城市居民来 说 ，如何 获 取水只是享受便利城市生活所必 须 克服的挑 战 之一。 As time passed, cities experimented with ways to import water. For example, around 700 BCE, inhabitants of the city of Erbil, in northern Iraq, dug gently sloping horizontal tunnels known as qanats to route groundwater into the city from a distance of approximately twenty kilometers (twelve miles) away. 2 Aroundthe same time, the Greeks dug shallow canals to divert water into Troy and Athens from springs in the nearby hills. 3 随着 时间 的推移，人 们尝试 了各种途径把水 输 送到城里。大 约 在公元前７００年，伊拉克北部城市埃 尔 比勒的居民，挖掘稍稍 倾 斜的水平隧道（也叫暗渠），将 远 在２０公里以外的地下水 输 送到城里 ［２］ 。就在同一 时 期，希腊人挖掘 较 浅的沟渠，将附近山上的泉水送到特洛伊和雅典 ［３］ 。 Densely packed groups of houses and the compressed soils that made upcity streets also required drainage systems to prevent flooding. Early civilizations in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia developed elaborate systems of gutters and covered channels for directing any water that accumulated in thestreets into the nearest waterway. In many cities, the drainage systems included a way to collect drinking water: cisterns were built to capture clean water that ran off the roofs of buildings. 4 密集的房屋群以及由 压实 的土壤 组 成的城市街道，需要排水系 统 的保 护 才不会被淹没。早期印度河流域和美索不达米 亚 文明 创 造了 别 具匠心的排水沟和有盖沟渠，将街道上的 积 水引入最近的水路。通常情况下，城市排水系 统 包括一条用来收集 饮 用水的通道：蓄水池就是用来收集从屋檐滴下的干 净 雨水 ［４］ 。 (Last paragraph of Chapter 1) By the time the expire fell, the system that the Romans had built in their hometown had been replicated throughout the empire, thereby spreading the concept of Water 1.0 to Europe and Asia Minor. The blueprints for building and operating aqueducts and sewers were retained in church libraries, and the promise of a reliable and convenient water system lived on among people who resided in former parts of the empire where the abandoned aqueducts remained. Even so, much of the knowledge that Roman engineers had acquired on subjects such as matching water resources to their ultimate users, surviving droughts by establishing priorities for water delivery among users, and separating waters to facilitate more efficient recycling was forgotten in the rush to build bigger and better water systems. Perhaps the rediscovery of some of these Roman approaches will help us design Water 4.0. 到 罗马 帝国崩 溃时为 止， 罗马 人在 罗马 城修建的水系 统 已 经 被复制到整个 罗马 帝国的 领 属地，水１．０的概念，就是 这样传 遍欧洲和西 亚 美尼 亚 。用于建造引水渠和下水道的 设计图 以及如何 维 修 这 些系 统 的 说 明，至今仍保存在教堂 图书馆 中。在保留着 罗马 帝国 废 弃引水渠的地方，建造可靠方便的水系 统 那个承 诺 依然没有被人 遗 忘。尽管如此，那些古 罗马 工程 师 已 获 取的大部分知 识 ，包括把不同水 质 用于 饮 用水和非 饮 用水、干旱 时 期用水分配的方法，以及分离 废 物便于更高效回收的方法，都被 现实 中 为 建造更大更好的水系 统这 股激流所淹没。也 许 重新挖掘古 罗马 人的某些水 处 理方法，会有助于我 们设计 水４．０。 ps. I typed up the English myself, so errors are possible. 水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author)
水４．０： 饮 用水的 过 去、 现 在与未来 ［美］戴 维 ·塞德拉克 著 徐向荣 等 译 虞左俊 校 上海科学技 术 出版社 出版 时间 ：2015.08 ISBN：978-7-5478-2729-1 定价：38元 Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource Paperback： March 31, 2015 by David Sedlak (Author) Turn on the faucet, and water pours out. Pull out the drain plug, and the dirty water disappears. Most of us give little thought to the hidden systems that bring us water and take it away when we’re done with it. But these underappreciated marvels of engineering face an array of challenges that cannot be solved without a fundamental change to our relationship withwater, David Sedlak explains in this enlightening book. To make informed decisions about the future, we need to understand the three revolutions inurban water systems that have occurred over the past 2,500 years and the technologies that will remake the system. 打开水龙头，水就流出来。拔出下水道活塞，脏水就流走了。城市水系统为我们带来干净的水并将用过的脏水带走，我们大多数人不会考虑对这套系统的内幕。但是，如果不从根本上改变我们与水之间的关系，这些远被低估了的工程上的奇迹将面临着一系列无法解决的挑战。戴维▪塞德拉克在这本富有启发性的书里对此进行了解释。为了能对未来城市水系统改造做出明智的决定，我们需要了解城市水系统在过去2500年里发生过的三次革命和各种技术 。 The author starts by describing Water 1.0, the early Roma naqueducts, fountains, and sewers that made dense urban living feasible. He thendetails the development of drinking water and sewage treatment systems—the second and third revolutions in urban water. He offers an insider’s look atcurrent systems that rely on reservoirs, underground pipe networks, treatment plants, and storm sewers to provide water that is safe to drink, before addressing how these water systems will have to be reinvented. For everyone who cares about reliable, clean, abundant water, this book is essential reading. 作者首先描述了“（城市）水（系统）革命第一时代(Water1.0)”，即早期的古罗马沟渠、喷泉和下水道使得人们可以在人口稠密的城市里生存。接下来，作者详细地描述了在第二次和第三次城市水革命中饮用水和污水处理系统的发展历程。现代水系统依赖于水库、地下管网、污水处理厂和雨水下水道，为我们提供可安全饮用的水。在致力于解决这些水系统如何得到进一步改造之前，他提供了一种业内人士如何看待现行水系统的独到眼光。对于每一个关心水，想得到可靠、清洁、充足的水的人来说，这本书是必不可少的读物。 第一章 世界上第一个大都市 罗马 城的供水 第二章 桶的 时 代 第三章 欧洲的 污 水危机 第四章 延年益寿得力于水 处 理 第五章 燃 烧 的河流、褪色的油漆和清 洁 水运 动 第六章 氯 化 处 理水的困境 第七章 流入海湾的下水道 第八章 “痕量”的麻 烦 ： 激素、 药 物和有毒化学品 第九章 为 第四次水 变 革做准 备 第十章 从 厕 所到水 龙头 的解决方案 第十一章 向海洋索取 饮 用水 第十二章 不一 样 的明天 第十三章 反思
内容被吃了。 Try again! I am checking the translation of Chapter 11 of book Water 4.0. It is about how to get drinking water from the sea. If you are in the field, please drop me a line?
作为自由 择稿人（freelancer)， 深感为人民币服务的辛苦，因为有的文章英文实在很差。 所以，当我有了一个“为人民服务”的 机会 ，校对“Water 4.0 （书），我 （这里没有副词）答应了。 You can tell how reluctant I was to accept this responsibility. I wrote to XR in late October 2014: Translation is very time consuming, something I try to avoid. No only that, it requires broad knowledge. Enclosed please find two SciAm articles, the original and its Chinese version. I helped to translate it into Chinese. To me, translation is like a mother bird trying to feed her newborn chicks, if you know how that goes :) I am not totally happy with the end result, partly because I had no final say of some changes that appear in the printed version. Most of the translated books on the market are less than good. Some are dreadful. If you can find someone who knows the content of the book as well as you do, please ask that person to help you. If you work with me, you may find I am VERY picky :) At the end, I accepted the challenge. What a challenge this has been! The book has 13 chapters, as you can see the author does not mind the number 13. (I would have done away with 12.) Chapter 6 is The Chlorine Dilemma. What a dilemma it is! I had to deal with Word dilemma because the file was corrupted (no tracking allowed, and no comments allowed). What a pain that was! However, I have to say that this is the chapter that concerns US all, since we all use tap water daily. You may drink bottled water, but you can't avoid using tap water. So, I would recommend everyone to read it. If you don't like to read English, you can wait for our translation. Our translation deadline is the end of Feb. 2015. So, the book may come out in 2016. Stay tuned. I kept on asking myself why I am doing this (hard work for so little pay). I guess it is because I grew up with a mother who was a water expert, and because I have a brother who is a water expert. Finally, I have something to talk to them about! In short: 为人民服务也很辛苦。
http://www.water4point0.com/reviews.html If you have read this book, or if you are using this book for teaching, etc., would you be kind enough to leave me a message? My colleague is translating this book into Chinese. We could use some help. Happy New Year!
Activation of G-protein-coupled receptors correlates with the formation of a continuous internal water pathway. Shuguang Yuan, Slawomir Filipek, Krzysztof Palczewski, Horst Vogel Nature Communication doi:10.1038/ncomms5733 full text news story A schematic view of three different rotamer conformations of the highly conserved Y7.53 residue. (a) The YII conformation is preferred in activated GPCRs; during formation it is accessed by extracellular water molecules forming a continuous internal water network. (b) For receptors similar to Rho and S1PR1 the YII state is associated with the cytoplasmic influx of water. GPCRs are shown in grey and the G-protein subunits are displayed in different colours. (c) The YI conformation is preferred in inactive GPCRs with two hydrophobic layers blocking a continuous water pathway. (d) The YIII conformation is preferred in GPCR meta states with one hydrophobic layer located next to the NPxxY motif and blocking formation of a continuous water pathway. Abstract Recent crystal structures of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have revealed ordered internal water molecules, raising questions about the functional role of those waters for receptor activation that could not be answered by the static structures. Here, we used molecular dynamics simulations to monitor—at atomic and high temporal resolution—conformational changes of central importance for the activation of three prototypical GPCRs with known crystal structures: the adenosine A 2A receptor , the β 2 -adrenergic receptor and rhodopsin . Our simulations reveal that a hydrophobic layer of amino acid residues next to the characteristic NPxxY motif forms a gate that opens to form a continuous water channel only upon receptor activation. The highly conserved tyrosine residue Y 7.53 undergoes transitions between three distinct conformations representative of inactive, G-protein activated and GPCR metastates. Additional analysis of the available GPCR crystal structures reveals general principles governing the functional roles of internal waters in GPCRs.
记得有一次开会，左其亭教授问起水资源开发利用率的英译，我说是“Water use intensity“，但似乎没有得到 他的认可。果不其 然，他后来写了专文讨论水资源开发利用率的英文翻译（ 《净水资源利用率的计算及阈值的讨论》，水利学报，2011，42（11）： 1372-1378， http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/thread-538496-1-1.html ）。左教授是有心人，提出了水资源开发利用率的英译建议：the utilization ratio of water resources。 英文中也有权威文献用 Water use intensity 表示与 中文的水资源开发利用率相同的概念： The percentage of total available water resoruces withdrawn from a country. The ratio is obtained by dividing the annual water withdrawal by the total annual renewable water resources. ( http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/resources/socioeco/Water_use_intensity.pdf ) 不过，在 英文文献中，Water use intensity 也常用来表示人均、亩均、单位产品用水量，如在引用绿很高的如下 文献中 ：Joseph Alcamo,et. al., Global change and global scenarios of water use and availability: An Application of WaterGAP1.0. http://www.usf.uni-kassel.de/usf/archiv/dokumente/projekte/watergap.teil1.pdf . 所以，在英文中，Water use intensity 有多个定义， 会造成使用不便。实际上英文中还有 water utilzation rate 的叫法, 或许比 the utilization ratio of water resources 更简洁。 (Zmarak Shalizi. Addressing China's Growing Water Shortages and Associated Social and Environmental Consequences.http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259piPK=64165421theSitePK=469372menuPK=64216926entityID=000016406_20060418155242; Current State of Water Resources in Japan. http://www.mlit.go.jp/tochimizushigen/mizsei/water_resources/contents/current_state.html ）.
China faces its worst economic crisis: water (July 31, 2013) Water woes ranging from polluted drinking water to contaminated groundwater reserves and toxic rivers, to crossborder water disputes with neighbours over transboundary river flows, are moving China towards a catastrophe with “profound implications.” In testimony to the U.S. Senate last week, the Council on Foreign Relations’ Asia director Elizabeth Economy names industry as the key culprit. The Wall Street Journal’s MarketWatch.com reports. By Michael Kitchen for The Tell, MarketWatch.com , published on July 31, 2013 China has a serious problem, bigger than the slowdown in manufacturing growth or the housing-price bubble. It's water, and it's a catastrophe that could affect the rest of Asia and the larger world. In testimony to the U.S. Senate last week, the Council on Foreign Relations’ Asia director Elizabeth Economy said China is facing a water crisis with “profound implications” if the government doesn’t get a grip on it over the next few years. According to China's own water resources officials, more than 400 Chinese cities lacked enough water last year, with 110 of those facing serious scarcity. The key culprit is industry, which Economy said uses 4 to 10 times more water per unit of GDP than similar economies and is polluting the nation's existing water resources at an alarming rate. She cited a February 2013 report by the Geological Survey of China saying a full 90% of the country's groundwater was polluted, while the Ministry of Environmental Protection said the water from about 25% of China's major river systems was so filthy that it couldn't be even used for industry or agriculture. Read the full article on the publisher’s website here .
http://www.theatlanticcities.com/technology/2013/08/6-mind-boggling-facts-about-farms-china/6617/ Ever since May, when a state-controlled Chinese company agreed to buy U.S. pork giant Smithfield , reportedly with an eye toward ramping up U.S. pork imports to China, I've been looking into the simultaneously impressive and vexed state of China's food production system. In short, I've found that in the process of emerging as the globe's manufacturing center—the place that provides us with everything from the simplest of brooms to the smartest of phones—China has severely damaged its land and water resources, compromising its ability to increase food production even as its economy thunders along, its population grows (albeit slowly), and its people gain wealth, move up the food chain, and demand ever-more meat. Now, none of that should detract from the food miracle that China has enacted since it began its transformation into an industrial powerhouse in the late 1970s. This 2013 report from the United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organization and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) brims with data on this feat. The nation slashed its hunger rate—from 20 percent of its population in 1990 to 12 percent today —by quietly turbocharging its farms. China's total farm output, a broad measure of food churned out, has tripled since 1978. The ramp-up in livestock production in particular is even more dizzying—it rose by a factor of five. Overall, China's food system represents a magnificent achievement: It feeds nearly a quarter of the globe's people on just 7 percent of its arable land. But now, 35 years since it began reforming its state-dominated economy along market lines, China's spectacular run as provider of its own food is looking severely strained. Its citizens' appetite for meat is rising along with incomes, and mass-producing steaks and chops for 1.2 billion people requires tremendous amounts of land and water. Meanwhile, its manufacturing miracle—the very thing that financed its food miracle—has largely fouled up or just plain swallowed those very resources. In this post from a few weeks ago, I told the story of the dire state of China's water resources, which are being increasingly diverted to, and fouled by, the country's insatiable demand for coal to power the manufacturing sector. Then there's land. Here are just a few of the findings of recent investigations into the state of Chinese farms: China's farmland is shrinking. Despite the country's immense geographical footprint, there just isn't that much to go around. Between 1997 and 2008, China saw 6.2 percent of its farmland engulfed by factories and sprawl. The United States has six times the arable land per capita as China. Today, the FAO/OECD report states, China has just 0.09 hectares of arable land per capita—less than half of the global average and a quarter of the average for OECD member countries. A fifth of China's land is polluted. The FAO/OECD report gingerly calls this problem the declining trend in soil quality. Fully 40 percent of China's arable land has been degraded by some combination of erosion, salinization, or acidification—and nearly 20 percent is polluted, whether by industrial effluent, sewage, excessive farm chemicals, or mining runoff, the FAO/OECD report found. China considers its soil problems state secrets . The Chinese government conducted a national survey of soil pollution in 2006, but it has refused to release the results. But evidence is building that soil toxicity is a major problem that's creeping into the food supply. In May 2013, food safety officials in the southern city of Guangzhou found heightened levels of cadmium, a carcinogenic heavy metal, in 8 of 18 rice samples picked up at local restaurants, sparking a national furor. The rice came from Hunan province—where expanding factories, smelters and mines jostle with paddy fields, the New York Times reported. In 2011, Nanjing Agricultural University researchers came out with a report claiming they had found cadmium in 10 percent of rice samples nationwide and 60 percent of samples from southern China. China's food system is powered by coal. It's not just industry that's degrading the water and land China relies on for food. It's also agriculture itself. China's food production miracle has been driven by an ever-increasing annual cascade of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer (it now uses more than a third of global nitrogen output)—and its nitrogen industry relies on coal for 70 percent of its energy needs. To grow its food, in other words, China relies on an energy source that competes aggressively with farming for water. Five of China's largest lakes have substantial dead zones caused by fertilizer runoff. That's what a paper by Chinese and University of California researchers found after they examined Chinese lakes in 2008. And heavy use of nitrogen fertilizer takes its toll on soil quality, too. It causes pH levels to drop, turning soil acidic and less productive—a problem rampant in China. Here's a 2010 Nature article on a national survey of the nation's farmland: The team's results show that extensive overuse has caused the pH of soil across China to drop by roughly 0.5, with some soils reaching a pH of 5.07 (nearly neutral soils of pH 6-7 are optimal for cereals, such as rice and grain, and other cash crops). By contrast, soil left to its own devices would take at least 100 years to acidify by this amount. The acidification has already lessened crop production by 30-50% in some areas, Zhang says. If the trend continues, some regions could eventually see the soil pH drop to as low as 3. No crop can grow at this level of acidification, he warns. If the trend continues… That, I guess, is the broad question here. A global economic system that relies on China as a manufacturing center, in a way that undermines China's ability to feed itself, seems like a global economic system headed for disaster.
Each time when we run pdb2gmx in gromacs, if we select charmm36 FF for our system, we always have following informations: Select the Water Model: 1: TIP3P TIP 3-point 2: TIP4P TIP 4-point 3: TIPS3P CHARMM TIP 3-point with LJ on H's (note: twice as slow in GROMACS), recommended for lipids 4: SPC simple point charge 5: SPC/E extended simple point charge 6: None Do we really need CHARMM TIP3P model for our system, especially for membrane system? That's could be very important issue since the simulation speed will decrease dramatically if we introduce this TIP3P solvent model, comparing with traditional TIP3P model. three-site models have three interaction sites, corresponding to the three atoms of the water molecule. Each atom gets assigned a point charge, and the oxygen atom also gets the Lennard-Jones parameters. The 3-site models are very popular for molecular dynamics simulations because of their simplicity and computational efficiency. Most models use a rigid geometry matching the known geometry of the water molecule. An exception is the SPC model, which assumes an ideal tetrahedral shape (HOH angle of 109.47°) instead of the observed angle of 104.5°. The table below lists the parameters for some 3-site models. TIPS SPC TIP3P SPC/E r(OH), Å 0.9572 1.0 0.9572 1.0 HOH, deg 104.52 109.47 104.52 109.47 A × 10 −3 , kcal Å 12 /mol 580.0 629.4 582.0 629.4 B, kcal Å 6 /mol 525.0 625.5 595.0 625.5 q(O) −0.80 −0.82 −0.834 −0.8476 q(H) +0.40 +0.41 +0.417 +0.4238 The SPC/E model adds an average polarization correction to the potential energy function: where μ is the dipole of the effectively polarized water molecule (2.35 D for the SPC/E model), μ 0 is the dipole moment of an isolated water molecule (1.85 D from experiment), and α i is an isotropic polarizability constant, with a value of 1.608 × 10 −40 F m 2 . Since the charges in the model are constant, this correction just results in adding 1.25 kcal/mol (5.22 kJ/mol) to the total energy. The SPC/E model results in a better density and diffusion constant than the SPC model. The TIP3P model implemented in the CHARMM force field is a slightly modified version of the original. The difference lies in the Lennard-Jones parameters: unlike TIP3P, the CHARMM version of the model places Lennard-Jones parameters on the hydrogen atoms too, in addition to the one on oxygen. The charges are not modified. According to Gromacs CHARMM FF paper (J. Chem. Theory Comput., 2010 , 6 (2), pp 459–466 DOI: 10.1021/ct900549r), as indicated in the benchemark, no obvious differences were found between CHARMM TIP3P model and traditional TIP3P model. More extensive discussions can be found in both Gromacs and CHARMM commnunity: http://www.charmm.org/ubbthreads/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflatNumber=23727 http://www.charmm.org/ubbthreads/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflatNumber=23422#Post23422 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/ct900549r http://lists.gromacs.org/pipermail/gmx-users/2010-September/053966.html It seems that most people holde similar opinions towards this question. Actually, in one of the recent De.Shaw CELL paper (Cell (2013), 152 (3), 557–569), they also introduced normal TIP3P water model+ CHARMM36 FF for their system. In this work, they performed 100+ us long time scaled MD simulation for an extremely large membrane protein and the results were supported well by biochemical experiments. Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_model CHARMM GROMACS community
土壤持水量 Water holding capacity (WHC) is the ability of a soil to contain and to retain water. Dependent upon the factors, which determine hydraulic conductivity and permeability e.g., texture, organic matter, porosity, interconnectednessof pores and so on. The water is held in the spaces, or pores, between soil particles and in thin films surrounding those particles. It iscalculated by mass of (water contained in the saturated soil / mass of the saturated soil)*100 or water holding capacity (%) = (m (water in saturated soil) / m (saturated soil) ) * 100. Therefore it should be a fixed value during short time. 田间持水量 (Field water capacity) 田间持水量是在地下水位较低(毛管水不与地下水相连接)情况下，土壤所能保持的毛管悬着水的最大量，是植物有效水的上限。田间持水量是衡量土壤保水性能的重要指标，也是进行农田灌溉的重要参数。田间持水量的测定大多采用田间小区灌水法，当土壤排除重力水后，测定的土壤湿度即为田间持水量，其技术操作简介如下： 1 仪器及工具准备 测定前应准备好土壤水分快速测试仪(TSC-1型土壤水分快速测试仪)、土钻(长不小于60cm)、卷尺、草席、塑料布、铁锨、水表或水桶，如果测定地块附近没有水源，还要准备足够的水量等。 2 测定场地的选择 根据我县不同的区域，我们分别选择了代表南部二阴高寒山区的马坡乡、代表北部干旱山区的上花岔乡、代表中部川水地区的清水驿乡3个样地进行测定。 3 测定程序 3.1 测定场地的准备 在所测定的地段上量取面积为4m2(2m×2m)的平坦场地，拔掉杂草，稍加平整，周围做一道较结实的土埂，以便灌水。 3.2 灌水前土壤湿度的测定 在准备好的场地外1～1.50m处，根据应测定田间持水量的深度(0.60m)以内，取2个重复的土样测定土壤湿度，最后求出所有测量值的平均值。 3.3 灌水前土壤湿度的确定 用水分快速测试仪分别对两个重复采样点按0～10cm、10～20cm、20～40cm、40～60cm的4个土层深度进行测量，再取其各层次平均值为该地面测定样方每层的测量值。根据公式 θ0-60cm =(θ0-10cm+θ10-20cm +2θ20-40cm+2θ40-60cm )/6计算得出：马坡乡为17.30%、上花岔乡为8.58%、清水驿乡为10.82%。 3.4 灌水 根据公式Q=2(θ1-θ2 )×S×H／100计算灌水量。其中Q：灌水量，单位m3。θ1 ： 假设的所测深度土层中的平均田间持水量，用体积含水量表示，壤土一般取37.50%，以百分值表示。θ2 ： 灌水前所测深度的各层平均土壤湿度，以百分值表示。S：灌水场地面积，以平方米为单位。H：所要测定的深度，以米为单位。常数2：保证小区需水量的保证系数。经计算，马坡乡灌水量为0.97m3，清水驿乡灌水量为1.39m3，上花岔乡灌水量为1.28m3。 3.5 覆盖 所有水应在1天内分次灌完，为避免水流冲刷表土可先在小区内放一些蒿草(秸秆)或在地埂边放些塑料再灌水。当水分全部下渗后，再覆盖上草席和塑料布，以防止蒸发和降水落到小区内。 3.6 测定时间 灌水后当重力水下渗后，开始用土壤水分快速测试仪测定土壤湿度。壤土在灌水2～3d后开始第1次测定，每天取1次，每次取4个重复，4个重复测点不应靠近小区边缘。 3.7 确定田间持水量 每次测定后，逐层计算同一层前后2次测定的土壤湿度差值，若某层差值≤3%，则第2次测定值即为该层土壤的田间持水量，下次测定时该层土壤湿度可不测定。若同一层次前后2次测定值 ＞3%，则需继续测定，直到出现前后2次测定值之差 ≤3%时为止。在实际操作中， 一定要注意多测量几次，直到前后两次值出现比较稳定为止，不能因为头两三次之差小于3%就确定最后一次值为田间持水量。 空隙含水量 Water filled pore space (WFPS) is also known as degree of saturation; it is the volume of water present in the soil relative to total volume of pores. It is calculated as (percentage ofvolumewater content / percentage of soil pore space) * 100, or WFPS (%) =(percentage ofvolumewater content / percentage of soil pore space) * 100 = (m water / m dry soil ) * soil bulk density / (1 - soil bulk density / soil particle density) * 100. Normally soil particle density is assumed as 2.65 g/cm 3 . 参考: http://bettersoils.soilwater.com.au/module3/3_09.htm ogden_water_holding_capacity_exercise.pdf PDF File.pdf sept 18.pdf SOIL_water_holding_capacity_LAB.doc WFPS.pdf
A friend said he was cheated out of paying for expensive tea leaves. He tasted tea from a big tea-leave bag, liked it, and bought some (from the same bag). After he got home, he made tea himself but it did not taste good. He concluded that he was cheated by the tea farmer. The same thing happened to me, right now; but I came up with a different conclusion. It's not the tea, stupid; it's the water (from the pipes in Beijing) that tastes bad. What do you think?
Twenty-nine percent cited water and air pollution as the most pressing concern, the Washington Post-Stanford University poll indicated, followed by 18 percent who pointed to climate change... http://news.yahoo.com/climate-change-no-longer-tops-us-environment-worries-134721404.html
It's Sunday afternoon in Toulouse, and everyone is out drinking wine or beer. I finally realized why they drink, because I can't find a place that sells water much cheaper than wine/beer! I got a bottle of waterfrom a vending machine for 2 Euro. Maybe I should join them, too! Actually, French smokes a lot, too. Luckily, most hotels in France band smoking now.
日前，2011国家杰出青年基金名单已公示，中国农业大学黄冠华老师名列其中！祝贺！黄老师是我国农业水土工程学科继两位康老师（康绍忠、康跃虎老师）之后为数不多的杰青，进一步提升了农大在农水方向的地位。黄老师主要研究方向为农业水土环境，现在正在致力于建设农水与水文水资源交叉的学科方向“农业水土资源与环境”。近年来已在国际主流期刊发表了一系列成果，据检索，在Water Resources Research、Journal of Hydrology、Advance in water Resources、Agricultural Water Management发表的文章位于中国大陆研究学者前列。
Report “Confronting the Global Water Crisis through Research” Uncovers Key Trends in Water Resources Research Global water research grows nearly 30 percent annually during past decade Amsterdam, March 22 nd , 2011 – The report “Confronting the Global Water Crisis through Research – 2010”, carried out by Elsevier and released today, reveals the increasingly international and strategic nature of water resources research. Examining major trends in water research at the international, national and institutional levels, the report highlights the escalation in the article output of countries conducting water resources research and the expansion of such research into strategic disciplines. Elsevier used Scopus data and one of the solutions from its performance and planning suite, SciVal Spotlight, to develop a detailed analysis of country and institutional strengths in the field. “Most countries realize the importance of multidisciplinary research in water research as they face climate change and population growth,” said Dr. Christiane Barranguet, Executive Publisher of Elsevier Aquatic Sciences. “This is reflected by the nearly 30% annual growth rate in global water resources research from 2000 to 2009, as countries increasingly look to science to find answers to pressing questions regarding local and global water resources demands.” Key findings from the report include: • The Emergence of China While the U.S. leads in producing water resources research and yields the widest variety of such research, China is quickly emerging as a key player in the field. From 2003 to 2010, the number of articles published on water resources research from institutions in China increased by 28% annually while the number of articles published by U.S. institutions increased at a rate of 11%. If a straight-line growth trend is assumed, China will surpass the U.S. in the number of articles published on water resources research in 2014. • International Growth Given the strengths of its research and grant-making institutions, the U.S. will likely maintain a leading role in water resources research. However, the international focus on water resources suggests that the U.S. will increasingly share the research stage with other countries. The data indicates a rapid growth of water resources research throughout the world, including some countries where until recently, there was very little of such research. Faced with economic expansion, rising populations and growing industrialization, countries such as Iran, India, Russia, South Africa, Brazil and Mexico have experienced severe water problems and have subsequently seen dynamic increases in water research. For example, Iran produced only 12 papers on water resources between 1970 and 2000, but produced more than 60 papers each year from 2005 to 2008. • Multidisciplinary Growth By extensively mapping research articles by discipline, data from SciVal Spotlight reflects the increasingly multidisciplinary nature of water resources research. While environmental sciences, earth sciences, engineering and biological sciences continue to dominate the field, disciplines such as economics, math, computer science, chemistry and biochemistry are rapidly expanding into water research. Economics in particular, has seen significant growth. From 2004 to 2008, the annual growth rate in economics articles within water resources research was 100%. The rise of these disciplines highlights the changing interests of governments and grant-making institutions as they work to solve a variety of problems associated with water resources. To receive a copy of the report, please contact Sandra Plasse at +1 212-752-8338 or splasse@psbpr.com . # # # Survey Methodology The analysis was split in to two phases: phase I looked at the water resources literature landscape and phase II, which took a look at a number of well performing nations and one of their institutions that is a main contributor to the subject field. Phase I - To construct the initial data pool, the keywords "water resources*" were used to search titles, abstracts, and keywords of original articles, reviews, and proceedings papers published in the SciVerse Scopus™ database (http://www.info.sciverse.com) from Elsevier between January 1, 2004 and Dec 31, 2008. The resulting pool of research papers related to water resources was then analyzed. The data pool was used to generate list of subject categories, institutions, and nations ranked in three ways: according to total number of papers, total cites, and total cites/paper. Phase II - SciVal® Spotlight (http://www.info.scival.com/) was used to gain deeper insights into the core strengths of these top nations and the institutions that are contributing to these national strengths. About the Elsevier SciVal ® Suite Elsevier’s SciVal suite ( http://www.info.scival.com ) of services supports academic and government leadership in evaluating, establishing and executing research strategies that optimize the performance of existing assets and maximize investments to enhance near and long-term productivity. SciVal tools leverage Scopus® data, Elsevier’s trusted source of bibliometric data, to offer innovative yet authoritative solutions. Current suite offerings include: SciVal Spotlight™, a strategic tool that generates unique institutional and country maps of existing and emerging strengths based on an interdisciplinary perspective of current performance; SciVal Funding™, an online solution that provides targeted recommendations on grants to pursue based on pre-populated research profiles and historical awards; SciVal Experts, a semantic technology-based application that enables researchers to identify and locate sources of expertise at an individual or departmental level within and across institutions. About Elsevier Elsevier is a world-leading publisher of scientific, technical and medical information products and services. The company works in partnership with the global science and health communities to publish more than 2,000 journals, including The Lancet and Cell , and close to 20,000 book titles, including major reference works from Mosby and Saunders. Elsevier’s online solutions include SciVerse ScienceDirect , SciVerse Scopus , Reaxys , MD Consult and Nursing Consult , which enhance the productivity of science and health professionals, and the SciVal suite and MEDai’s Pinpoint Review , which help research and health care institutions deliver better outcomes more cost-effectively. A global business headquartered in Amsterdam, Elsevier employs 7,000 people worldwide. The company is part of Reed Elsevier Group PLC , a world-leading publisher and information provider, which is jointly owned by Reed Elsevier PLC and Reed Elsevier NV. The ticker symbols are REN (Euronext Amsterdam), REL (London Stock Exchange), RUK and ENL (New York Stock Exchange). Media Contacts Sandra Plasse/Jen Saunders +1 212-752-8338 splasse@psbpr.com jsaunders@psbpr.com
Although some tests continue, state and federal health officials say the tiny amounts found in milk so far are not dangerous By William Cole State health officials are testing large rainwater catchment systems this week on the Big Island, Maui and Kauai for radiation from Japan's nuclear release, but re-emphasized that radiation in milk, rainwater and likely in locally grown produce remains minute. Lynn Nakasone, administrator of the Health Department's Environmental Health Services Division, said produce will not be tested, as other officials noted there is concern about creating a health scare and hurting local farmers. "I know people are thinking, ‘Oh, a little bit (of radiation) here, a little bit there (adds up),' " Nakasone said. "But think of it as calories. What if milk had 0.000004 calories and produce had 0.000003 calories and so on? So you add up all these little calories, but then you probably won't get to even one calorie. "(The radiation from Japan) is kind of like that. We're talking about so minute amounts. Even if you took all the cumulative doses for everything, you are still way below any kind of action level and it's not a health risk at all." http://www.staradvertiser.com/news/hawaiinews/20110419_radiation_no_problem.html
很有意思，为一个病原写一首歌，这个微生物曾经震动美国朝野。 Title:Cryptosporidium Septicemia, Yersinia Pestis Delusional Hyponatremia H2O poisoning without knowing Tap water infects my throat Nausea, retching, pallor bowel movements Epigastric discomfort Consume water from the sink Trying to rehydrate myself Virulent liquid maggots produce Rapid progressive condition Instant depletion of body fluids Electrolyte balance precarious Secretion of intestinal polypeptide Dilation of blood vessels Asiatic cholera secreting fluid and salt In the intestinal tract, viremia, vipoma, Water born epidemic Confusion in thought Intestinal rot, Bacterial Fate Trying to rehydrate Leading to hypovolemia... chronic renal dysfunction Massive loss of potassium, ion (K) from diarrhea and vomiting, Reaching for the stash tray Load a bowl... fire it up Trying to control nausea Internal anal hemorrhaging, bleeding sphincter and constantly wiping, Lying in pain slowly dying Wandering in disbelief Yearning at the terror inside me Cramping in unbearable I want to cry Somehow this has to end Same bacteria eats my friends Drink Pepto-Bismal to remiss Smoke a joint to progress Pale and pink... acid vomit sprays Dizziness erupts... I slip away Immune system starts to fade A fight with time Antibiotics will save my life Cryptosporidium killing inside Burning and churning, intestines writhe I am still breathing, but barely alive Parasites dying, I come back to life Cheating death, smoke another bowl Regaining hope, bless my soul The body is gaining strength No more bloody stool, I hit the bong Eating to constipate Hoping I won't defecate Water epidemic deploys town A defective filter is what was found At the water treatment plant, Intake/Outtake valves Were somehow crossed, sending untreated sewage Into the home, community infected... Cryptosporidium infecting my body, Living to tell the this purulent story Smoking some kind and feeling alive
http://www.flowthefilm.com/trailer About the Film Irena Salina's award-winning documentary investigation into what experts label the most important political and environmental issue of the 21st Century - The World Water Crisis. Salina builds a case against the growing privatization of the world's dwindling fresh water supply with an unflinching focus on politics, pollution, human rights, and the emergence of a domineering world water cartel. Interviews with scientists and activists intelligently reveal the rapidly building crisis, at both the global and human scale, and the film introduces many of the governmental and corporate culprits behind the water grab, while begging the question "CAN ANYONE REALLY OWN WATER?" Beyond identifying the problem, FLOW also gives viewers a look at the people and institutions providing practical solutions to the water crisis and those developing new technologies, which are fast becoming blueprints for a successful global and economic turnaround. On December 10th, 2008 FLOW was invited to screen at the United Nations as part of the 60th Anniversary of the Declaration of Human Rights. Watch the video here: FLOW at the UN
水循环过程中，除了自然力驱动的水的自然水循环，还包括社会力所驱动的社会水循环。在社会水循环过程中，内在驱动力是水的经济社会效益，而外在的物化表现则是电力驱动的水泵。 Vast amounts of energy are needed for the transportation, distribution and treatment of water. Pumping it over mountain ranges or from deep underground aquifers also requires a significant amount of energy. But the largest share of energy use comes from individual customers who heat water to bathe, cook and run businesses. 研究结果正如上面所说， 能源消耗最大的位于用水终端的个体水消费者。 Results： （1）In the sector of water extraction and delivery, only 23% of electricity requirements are used for water pumping out, purification, and distribution. Energy costs varydepending on the pumping distance, water quality, water pipelines, and water source. Groundwater pumping can increase energy use 30% over surface water sources. (2) End use: In this sector, up to 73% electricity requirements are needed in water cycle by homes, farms, and businesses. It is reported that household appliance such as washing machine, dishwasher, water heaters, and dryers use the largest amount of electricity in water cycle, 28%. (3) Waste water management just costs only 4% energy, which not only reveals waste treatment currently need less energy but shows there is lot of potentiality we can clean much moredischargedwater again. So far, only 4% electricity was used for water cleaning before it is discharged to water source. However, with the population growth and increasingly stringent treatment standards, more and more energy is needed, which could soon lead to increased wastewater management costs. Discussion Based on the results above, I suggest we should shift our eyes from water to energy and water together. How to do some comprehensive research on water cycle driven by energy requirements should be the focus of water cycle research in the future.
Hydrogen is one of the most pervasive elements in the crust and upper mantle of our planet. It is a mobile, reactive component which can cause major changes in the chemical, physical, rheological, and electronic properties of the host phase. Much of the effort of our group is directed at investigating the possibility that hydrogen, in some chemical form (typically OH - and H 2 O), can enter the structure of major minerals which are usually formulated as anhydrous. These studies rely heavily upon spectroscopic methods of analysis because they can determine both the chemical species present and, with proper calibration, the amount of hydrogen present. Both water molecules and hydroxide groups are found in a variety of minerals. Initial studies focused on water in quartz because of its weakening effect upon the mechanical strength of this mineral. We showed that while OH groups have no effect upon the strength of quartz, the amount of water present as clusters of a few water molecules was directly associated with mechanical weakening. Hydroxide groups have subsequently been found in plagioclase feldspars, garnets, sillimanite and other aluminosilicates, olivines, clinopyroxenes, orthopyroxenes, quartz, rutile and zircon. Water molecules occur in nepheline, potassium feldspar, cordierite and other ring silicates. These molecules and ions are structurally bound in the mineral in definite sites with distinct orientations. They often persist in the minerals even at elevated temperatures (up to 1200C). The hydrogarnet substitution (SiO 4 = H 4 O 4 ) has commonly been assumed to represent the mechanism of entry of OH into silicates. Consequently, we are particularly interested in characterizing hydrous components in garnets. We have examined hundreds of garnets of diverse composition and occurrence but rarely find one which is devoid of bound OH. When present in garnets at high concentration (more than 0.5% wt ), hydrogen is in the hydrogarnet substitution. When present at low concentration, infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic data suggest a variety of other incorporation mechanisms. In some silicate minerals, the incorporation of hydrogen is coupled with other light elements such as boron. Much of our interest in hydrous components has focused on the volatile reservoirs and inventories in the upper mantle. We have identified distinctly measurable and petrologically significant quantities of OH in a variety of mantle minerals. Olivine, pyrope, clinopyroxene, rutile, kyanite, and zircon from diamond pipes and other upper mantle sources are among the most OH-rich examples of these particular species. Pyrope garnets, in particular, reflect the buildup of water in their differentiating parent magmas. The thesis of a recent graduate, David Bell, showed that the garnet megacrysts from kimberlites are more hydrous than compositionally equivalent garnets from alkali basalts, eclogitic paragenesis or from inclusions in diamonds. The typical OH concentrations of garnets from southern African mantle samples are significantly lower than those from the mantle of the Colorado Plateau. This observation re-enforces suggestions of significant large-scale regional mantle heterogeneity. We also characterized sub-micrometer inclusions in turbid diamonds which represent samples of fluids trapped in the upper mantle. The high content of H 2 O, CO 2 , carbonate, and enrichment in K, Na, P, Ti, and incompatible trace elements in these inclusions suggest that these fluids are a metasomatizing agent in the mantle.
Ultrafast vibrational dynamics of interfacial water Avishek Ghosh a, Marc Smits a, Maria Sovago a, Jens Bredenbeck a,1, Michiel Mu ller b, Mischa Bonn a,* Chemical Physics 350 (2008) 2330 摘要 We report investigations of the vibrational dynamics of water molecules at the waterair and at the waterlipid interface. Following vibrational excitation with an intense femtosecond infrared pulse resonant with the OH stretch vibration of water, we follow the subsequent relaxation processes using the surface-specific spectroscopic technique of sum frequency generation. This allows us to selectively follow the vibrational relaxation of the approximately one monolayer of water molecules at the interface. Although the surface vibrational spectra of water at the interface with air and lipids are very similar, we find dramatic variations in both the rates and mechanisms of vibrational relaxation. For water at the waterair interface, very rapid exchange of vibrational energy occurs with water molecules in the bulk, and this intermolecular energy transfer process dominates the response. For membrane-bound water at the lipid interface, intermolecular energy transfer is suppressed, and intramolecular relaxation dominates. The difference in relaxation mechanism can be understood from differences in the local environments experienced by the interfacial water molecules in the two different systems. 正文 本文作者利用IR pump VSFG Probe的方法研究了waterair和waterlipid界面水分子的OH伸缩振动的弛豫动力学。实验技术是通过add to the VSFG scheme an additional 'pump', or excitation, pulse, which excites a significant fraction of OH groups to their first vibrationally excited state 。 The femtosecond time-resolved SFG study presented here allows to selectively probe the lifetime dynamics (T1) of the OH stretch vibration and provides new insights in the structure and dynamics of interfacial water. Comparing the waterair interface and the waterlipid interface , pronounced differences of the mechanism and timescale of interfacial vibrational energy flow are found. 实验结果发现，waterair界面的水分子振动弛豫中有两个timescales而waterlipid界面水分子只有一个timescales。所以waterair界面的水分子的弛豫动力学中包含了一个中间态，而waterlipid界面水分子则是不包含中间态的一个单指数的过程。 For the waterair interface (Fig. 3A), two timescales seem apparent: a fast (200 fs) relaxation time corresponding to the recovery of the pump-induced bleach signal (most clearly evident at m = 3500 cm1, and a slower (500 fs) timescale by which the final SFG level is reached (most apparent at m = 3200 cm1). Such dynamics are reminiscent of previous observations for bulk water and observations for water at the waterquartz interface . Hence, it is clear that the hydrogen-bonded network vibrational dynamics at the waterair interface are dominated by ultrafast vibrational energy transfer processes. This also explains the similarity between the dynamics at the waterair interface and those at the hydrophilic and hydrophobic silica/water interface recently reported using SFG in total internal reflection (TIR) geometry . For the latter interface, McGuire and Shen reported somewhat slower dynamics, with T1 = 300 fs and Tthermalization = 700 fs. The rigid silica surface (required for TIR-SFG) has been shown to induce order in the interfacial water compared to water at the waterair interface . The effect of the increased order on the vibrational dynamics is limited due to the ultrafast energy transfer processes that dominate the observed relaxation behavior. Remarkably, Fig. 3B reveals that the behavior of water at the waterlipid interface is very different from that at the waterair interface. Unlike the waterair interface, the data can be described very well by a single exponential decay, with distinct time constants at different probe frequencies within the hydrogen-bonded regime. Reference: J.A. McGuire, Y.R. Shen, Science 313 (2006) 1945. M. Smits, A. Ghosh, M. Sterrer, M. Muller, M. Bonn, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98 (2007) 4. A. Ghosh, M. Smits, J. Bredenbeck, M. Muller, M. Bonn, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129 (2007) 9608.
Is the liquid water surface basic or acidic? Macroscopic vs. molecular-scale investigations 摘要 Many physical phenomena are affected by the intrinsic acidity/basicity of the free liquid water surface, yet it remains an active and controversial subject. Macroscopic bubble and droplet experiments have been interpreted to indicate an airwater interface covered with hydroxide, whereas recent molecularscale studies produce the opposite conclusion, viz. that hydroxide is repelled from the interface while hydronium is strongly adsorbed. Here we report results from resonant UV second harmonic generation (SHG) experiments that are best modeled by surface depletion of hydroxide and establish at most a weak surface adsorption. This finding is consistent with our earlier SHG measurements indicating surface enhancement of hydrated protons, as well as with other molecular-scale experiments and simulations, but stands in stark contrast to the results from macroscopic studies. The acidity, or basicity, of aqueous surfaces could strongly influence heterogeneous atmospheric chemical processes, such as aerosol reactions and gas uptake. SHG方法能够从微观的角度研究界面离子浓度，他们研究组之前的UV SHG研究空气水界面的工作中发现了hydrated protons在表面的富集。但是这和一些宏观研究方法的结果似乎有些矛盾。UV SHG可以直接和溶液中的CTTS共振，Hydroxide exhibits a broad charge-transfer-to-solvent (CTTS) transition centered at 187 nm in the bulk ，从而可以研究溶液界面的离子，We have taken a different approach and applied SHG in the UV to directly probe the interfacial ions. At the UV wavelengths used in these experiments, water possesses no resonances, whereas several anions exhibit strong charge-transfer-to-solvent (CTTS) transitions . 本文题目是水的界面是酸性还是碱性？ At 225 nm, the SHG intensity remains constant, within experimental uncertainty, due to the limited concentration range explored. At 200 nm, however, the SHG intensity increases significantly at high bulk concentration. Since such a bulk concentration-dependence increase is not observed at the non-resonant wavelengths, this constitutes a direct measurement of surface hydroxide ions at these high concentrations. However, this does not in itself imply surface enhancement of hydroxide. As described above, a small fraction of hydroxide will always exist at the interface despite a repulsive Gibbs free energy due to thermal fluctuations. 讨论 Our direct experimental support for weak hydroxide and strong hydronium propensities for the water surface agrees with the other molecular-level investigations, as described above, but are in stark contrast to the interpretations of macroscopic bubble and droplet electrophoresis experiments . Those experiments measure the motion of gas bubbles or oil droplets in aqueous solution when an electric field is applied. The motion of the droplets/bubbles is analyzed in terms of their zeta-potential and is interpreted as a measure of the overall charge of the droplet/bubble. For neutral and basic pH, the derived zeta-potential is negative, implying that the droplets and bubbles carry a negative surface charge, and only at low pH is a positive zeta-potential observed, i.e. the isoelectric point is around pH 34. Such findings appear universal for hydrophobic interfaces and have been interpreted as clear evidence for a strong surface enhancement of hydroxide . However, those experiments only show that the bubbles and droplets behave as though they are negatively charged, moving in a solvent bath that would have to be positively charged, and not directly establishing that the outermost liquid layer is covered by hydroxide.
标签: Water
