双语网页资源在多语言信息处理（特别是机器翻译和跨语言信息检索）中，是一项极其宝贵的资源。在机器翻译领域，现在各种投入使用的系统拼模型的同时，也在拼其掌握的资源。当前学术界对双语资源获取的研究中，一个代表性的方法是根据URL的组成，利用启发式规则从双语站点上自动发现双语网页资源（暂且称该方法为基于URL模式的方法），该方法需要事先制定一些启发式规则。我们(Kit Ng, 2007; Zhang, Yao Kit, 2013)试图通过机器自动发现一些规则，来降低基于URL模式的方法对外部先验知识的依懒性。 （Kit Ng, 2007）主要工作是自动发现双语URL模式、然后根据这些模式发现双语网页资源。（Zhang, Yao Kit, 2013)进一步对双语URL模式的可信度进行度量、并依据链接关系发现更多高可信度的双语网页资源，我们的实验表明，该方法大概可以找到20%额外的真实双语网页。 该工作的有趣之处在于： （1）区分URL模式的全局可信度（依据所有种子站点计算得到的URL模式可信度）和局部可信度（依据当前站点计算得到的URL模式可信度），这样可以召回一些局部可信度低、但全局可信度高的双语网页； （2）利用学习到的高可信度的双语URL模式，寻找一些原本没有链接关系的双语网页（我们称之为Deep Bilingual Webpages)； （3）利用链接关系，以双语种子站点为基础、发现更多的种子站点之外的高可信度双语站点，然后进一步发现更多的高可信度双语网页。 相关工作介绍，请参见如下论文： 2. Chengzhi Zhang, Xuchen Yao and Chunyu Kit. Finding More Bilingual Web Pages with High Credibility via Link Analysis . In: Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Building and Using Comparable Corpora (BUCC2013) . August 8, 2013, Sofia, Bulgaria. 1. Chunyu Kit and Jessica Y. H. Ng. An intelligent Web agentto mine bilingual parallel pages via automatic discovery of URL pairing patterns . In Proceedings of the2007IEEE/WIC/ACM International Conferences on Web Intelligence and Intelligent Agent Technology - Workshops: Workshopon Agents and Data Mining Interaction (ADMI-07),Silicon Valley,California, November 2-5, 2007， Silicon Valley,California. 当然基于URL模式的方法也有其不可避免的弱点。除基于URL模式的方法之外，另外一种方法则直接计算候选双语网页之间的结构或内容相似度，通常该过程要耗费大量的计算资源或时间（比如抓到尽量多的源语言和目标语言网页，然后进行跨语言相似度计算）。个人认为，目前关于这个工作的进一步工作还有很多，比如怎么不需要人为地给出种子站点或者尽量给较少的站点，结合半监督学习发现更多高可信度的种子站点可能是个不错的想法。 关于（Zhang, Yao Kit, 2013)中使用到源代码（Pupsniffer)与数据集（种子站点、采集的双语网页以及测评结果等）可以见Pupsniffer的测评网站： http://mega.lt.cityu.edu.hk/~czhang22/pupsniffer-eval/
英国Manchester大学的学术论文语料库 http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/index.htm Academic Phrasebank Writing Introductions There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or assignment. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions: establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic indicate a problem, controversy or a gap in the field of study define the topic or key terms state of the purpose of the essay/writing provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing Examples of phrases which are commonly employed to realise these functions are listed below. Note that there may be a certain amount of overlap between some of the categories under which the phrases are listed. Introductory sections for research dissertations , are normally much more complex than this and, as well as the elements above, may include the following: a synopsis of key literature/current state of knowledge, synopsis of methods, lists of research questions or hypotheses to be tested, significance of the study, recognition of the limitations of the study, reasons for personal interest in the topic. Establishing the importance of the topic: One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is ...... It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the ..... X is the leading cause of death in western industrialised countries. X is a common disorder characterised by ...... X is an important component in the climate system, and plays a key role in Y. In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ...... In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in ....... Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and ...... Xs are the most potent anti-inflammatory agents known. X is a major public health problem, and the cause of about 4% of the global burden of disease. X is an increasingly important area in applied linguistics. Central to the entire discipline of X is the concept of ....... X is at the heart of our understanding of ...... Establishing the importance of the topic (time frame given): Recent developments in X have heightened the need for ...... In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ...... Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ...... Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ...... The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ....... The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of...... Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in ...... One of the most important events of the 1970s was ...... Traditionally, Xs have subscribed to the belief that ...... X proved an important literary genre in the early Y community. The changes experienced by Xs over the past decade remain unprecedented. Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and have been extensively used for decades to ....... Highlighting a problem in the field of study: However, these rapid changes are having a serious effect ...... However, a major problem with this kind of application is ...... Lack of X has existed as a health problem for many years. Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks: However, research has consistently shown that first year students have not attained an adequate understanding of ...... There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ...... Despite its long clinical success, X has a number of problems in use. Questions have been raised about the safety of prolonged use of ...... Highlighting a controversy in the field of study: To date there has been little agreement on what ...... More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about ..... One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ...... In many Xs a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...... The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century. Debate continues about the best strategies for the management of …… This concept has recently been challenged by ……. studies demonstrating ……. One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is ...... One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ...... In many Xs a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...... The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century. Questions have been raised about the safety of prolonged use of ...... The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of ....... The issue has grown in importance in light of recent ...... One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years concerns ...... One major issue in early X research concerned....... Highlighting a knowledge gap in the field of study (for research): So far, however, there has been little discussion about ...... However, far too little attention has been paid to ...... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ....... So far this method has only been applied to ...... Several studies have produced estimates of X (Smith, 2002; Jones, 2003), but there is still insufficient data for ..... However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in ...... The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ...... However, there is no reliable evidence that ...... X's analysis does not take account of ..... nor does he examine ...... Focus, aim, argument: This paper will focus on/examine/give an account of ...... This essay seeks to remedy these problems by analyisng the literature of ...... The objectives of this research are to determine whether ...... This paper seeks to address the following questions: This essay critically examines/discusses/traces ...... The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into the ...... This paper will review the research conducted on ...... This chapter reviews the literature concerning the usefulness of using ...... The aim of this paper is to determine/examine ...... The aim of this study was to evaluate and validate ..... In this paper I argue that ..... In the pages that follow, it will be argued that …… This paper attempts to show that ...... In this essay, I attempt to defend the view that ...... Outline of structure: The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c). This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ...... The essay has been organised in the following way. This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X. This paper reviews the evidence for ..... This paper begins by ...... It will then go on to ...... The first section of this paper will examine ...... Finally, ....... Chapter 2 begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research, and looks at how ...... Chapter 3 describes the design, synthesis, characterization and evaluation of ...... The last chapter assesses the ...... Explaining Keywords While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... Throughout this paper the term X will refer to/will be used to refer to ....... In this article the acronym/abbreviation XYZ will be used. Referring to Literature One important characteristic of academic writing is that all the sources of information that the writer has used need to be indicated, not just as a bibliography or list of references, but also in or alongside the text. In some cases the source will be the main subject of the sentence, in others the sources may be mentioned parenthetically (in brackets) or via a notation system (eg. footnotes). The more common verbs and verb phrases used in academic writing for referring to sources are given below. Note that different referencing systems are used in different disciplines. In the examples, the Harvard in-text referencing system has been used. Also note that the "author as subject" style is less common in the sciences. "Ideally, your review should be evaluative and critical of the studies which have a particular bearing on your own. For example, you may think a particular study did not investigate some necessary aspect of the area, or that the authors failed to notice some problem with their results." Taken from the Manchester Good Practice Guide: http://www.man.ac.uk/goodpractice/ General descriptions of the relevant literature: A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies ...... There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of …… The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with ...... The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic. What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how ...... During the past 30 years much more information has become available on ...... In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on ....... A large and growing body of literature has investigated ...... General reference to previous research/scholarly activity (usually more than one author) Many historians have argued that ...... (eg. Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994) Numerous studies have attempted to explain ..... (for example, Smith , 1996; Kelly, 1998; Johnson, 2002) Recent evidence suggests that ....... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Recently, in vitro studies have shown that T.thermophylus EFTu can ...... (Patel et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1998). Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1988) have shown that ...... Several attempts have been made to ....... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Several studies have revealed that it is not just X that acts on ...... (Smith, 1996; Jones ....... Several biographies of Harris have been published . Smith presents an ........ account, whilst Jones ..... Several studies investigating X have been carried out on ...... Data from several sources have identified the increased morbidity and mortality associated with obesity Previous studies have reported ...... (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1992). Previous research findings into X have been inconsistent and contradictory (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999, ...... A number of studies have found that ...... (Smith , 2003; Jones, 2004). Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between ....... At least 152 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between...... Other studies have considered the relationship ...... The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987, ....... The causes of X have been widely investigated (Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994). The geology of X has been addressed in several smallscale investigations and ....... Xs have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many species (1). X has also been shown to reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids in murine-induced arthritis (11). I t has been suggested that levels of X are independent of the size of the Y (Smith et al., 1995) It has conclusively been shown that X and Y increase Z (Smith et al., 1999; Jones, 2001 ...... It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to ...... (Smith, 1998; ...... Reference to current state of knowledge A relationship exists between an individual's working memory and their ability to ...... (Jones et al.,1998). GM varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM varieties (Smith, 1998; Jones, 1999). There is an unambiguous relationship between spending on education and economic development (Rao, 1998). X is one of the most intense reactions following CHD (Lane, 2003). MIF has been found to oppose the anti-infammatory actions of X on Y (Alourfi, 2004). Reference to single investigations in the past: researcher(s) as sentence subject Smith (1999) found that as levels of literacy and education of the population rise ............. showed that reducing X to 190oC decreased ...... (see figure 2) . demonstrated that when the maximum temperature is exceeded ....... Jones et al. (2001) investigated the differential impact of formal and non-formal education on ...... analysed the data from 72 countries and concluded that ....... reviewed the literature from the period and found little evidence for this claim. interviewed 250 undergraduate students using semi-structured questionnaires. studied the effects of Cytochrome P450 on unprotected nerve cells. performed a similar series of experiments in the 1960s to show that ...... carried out a number of investigations into the ...... conducted a series of trials in which he mixed X with different quantities of .... measured both components of the ...... labelled these subsets as ....... examined the flow of international students ...... ...... identified parents of disabled children as ..... used a survey to assess the various ....... Wang et al. (2004) have recently developed a methodology for the selective introduction of ...... Reference to single investigations or publications in the past: time frame prominent In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described ..... In 1990 Patel et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to ...... Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of Candida Albicans which ....... In the 1950s Gunnar Myrdal pointed to some of the ways in which …………… (Myrdal, 1957) In 1981, Smith and co workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to ....... In 1990, El-Guerrouj et al. reported a new and convenient synthetic procedure to obtain ...... In 1984 Jones et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as water-soluble pro-drugs. Reference to single publication: no time frame Smith has written the most complete synthesis to date of ...... Reference to single investigations in the past: investigation prominent Preliminary work on X was undertaken by AbdulKarim (1992). The first systematic study of X was reported by Patel et al. in 1986. The study of the structural behavior of X was first carried out by Rao et al. (1986)...... Analysis of the genes involved in X was first carried out by Smith et al (1983). A recent study by Smith and Jones (2001) involved ...... A longitiudinal study of X by Smith (2002) reports that ...... A small scale study by Smith (2002) reaches different conclusions, finding no increase in ...... Smith's cross-country analysis (2002) showed that ...... Smith's comparative study (2002) found that ...... Detailed examination of X by Smith and Patel (1961) showed that ...... In another major study, Zhao (1974) found that just over half of the ...... In a radomised controlled study of X, Smith (2004) reported that ...... In a large longitudinal study, Boucahy et al. 2004) investigated the incidence of X in Y. Reference to single investigations in the past: research topic as subject Classical conditioning was first demonstrated experimentally by Pavlov (Smith, 2002). In his seminal study ...... The electronic spectroscopy of X was first studied by Smith and Douglas 1 in 1970 The acid-catalyzed condensation reaction between X and Y was first reported by Baeyer in 1872 X formed the central focus of a study by Smith (2002) in which the author found ...... X was originally isolated from Y in a soil sample from ...... (Wang et al., 1952). The way in which the X gene is regulated was studied extensively by Ho and colleagues (Ho et al. 1995 and 1998). To determine the effects of X, Zhao et al (2005) compared ...... Reference to what other writers do in their text (author as subject) Smith (2003) identifies poor food, bad housing, inadequate hygiene and large families as the major causes of ...... Rao (2003) lists three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are: ...... Smith (2003) traces the development of Japanese history and philosophy during the 19th century. Jones(2003) provides in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle showing its relevance to contemporary times. Smith (2003) draws our attention to distinctive categories of motivational beliefs often observed in ....... Smith (2003) defines evidence based medicine as the conscious, explicit and judicious use of ..... Rao (2003) highlights the need to break the link between economic growth and transport growth ...... Smith (2003) discusses the challenges and strategies for facilitating and promoting ...... Toh (2003) mentions the special situation of Singapore as an example of ..... Smith (2003) questions whether mainstream schools are the best environment for ...... Smith (2003) considers whether countries work well on cross-border issues such as ...... Smith (2003) uses examples of these various techniques as evidence that ...... In her major study, In her seminal article, In her classic critique of ......, In her case study of ......, In her review of ......, In her analysis of ......, In her introduction to ......,' Smith (2004) identifies five characteristics of ....... Some analysts (eg Carnoy, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between ........ Other authors ( see Harbison, 2003; Kaplan, 2004) question the usefulness of such an approach. Reference to other writers' ideas (author as subject) According to Smith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world. Smith (2003) points out argues maintains claims concludes suggests that preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world Smith (2003) argues for offers proposes suggests an explanatory theory for each type of irrational belief. This view is supported by Jones (2000) who writes ...... Smith argues that her data support O'Brien's (1988) view that ...... As Smith reminds us, .............. Elsewhere, Smith has argued that ...... Some ways of introducing quotations In the final part of the Theses, Marx writes: "Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point ......." Sachs concludes: "The idea of development stands today like a ruin in the intellectual landscape…" (Sachs, 1992a: 156). As Smith argues: "In the past, the purpose of education was to ......" (Smith , 2000:150). As Carnoy (2004: 215) states: "there are many good reasons to be sceptical". Being Critical As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writer's arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other people's criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved. ...... being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking. Edward de Bono Introducing questions, problems and limitations (theory) One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether ...... A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ...... One of the limitations with this explanation is that it does not explain why... . One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ...... The key problem with this explanation is that ...... The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. Smith's argument relies too heavily on qualitative analysis of ...... It seems that Jones' understanding of the X framework is questionable. Smith's interpretation overlooks much of the historical research ...... One major criticism of Smith's work is that ..... Many writers have challenged Jones' claim on the grounds that ....... X's analysis does not take account of ..... nor does he examine ...... Introducing questions, problems and limitations (method/practice) Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account. Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that ..... Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made to implement the policy. Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped criticism from governments, agencies and academics. One major drawback of this approach is that ...... The main limitation of biosynthetic incorporation, however, is ...... However, this method of analysis has a number of limitations. However, approaches of this kind carry with them various well known limitations. All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that ....... However, there are limits to how far the idea of/concept of X can be taken. However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that...... However, one of the problems with the instrument the researchers used to measure X was ...... However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious limitations weaknesses disadvantages drawbacks. Identifying a study's weakness (However,) the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how ....... the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that ..... the research does not take into account pre-existing ...... such as ...... the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between various different types of X. Jones fails to fully acknowledge the significance of ...... the paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between ...... another weakness is that we are given no explanantion of how ...... no attempt was made to quantify the association between X and Y. Offering constructive suggestions Smith's paper Her conclusions The study The findings would have been might have been more much more far more useful convincing interesting persuasive original if he/she had if the author had included ...... considered ...... adopted ...... used ...... A better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with ...... A much more systematic study would identify how X interacts with other variables that are believed to be linked to ...... Highlighting inadequacies of previous studies Most studies in the field of X have only focussed on ...... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic. The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ...... Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they ..... However, few writers have been able to draw on any structured research into the opinions and attitudes of ...... The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. Researchers have not treated X in much detail. Previous studies of X have not dealt with ...... However, these studies used non-validated methods to measure ..... Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether ...... However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature …. Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which adequately covers ...... However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if these differences still persist. Introducing other people's criticisms However, Jones (2003) points out that ..... Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that ..... Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies. The X theory has been / vigorously / strongly challenged in recent years by a number of writers. Smith's analysis has been criticised by a number of writers. Jones (1993), for example, points out that …… Smith's meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism. The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that ...... Jones (2003) is probably the best known critic of the X theory. He argues that .…. The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones (2003). Critics have also argued that not only do social surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the...... Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide ...... More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982): Jones (2003) is critical of the conclusions that Smith draws from his findings. Describing Methods In the Methods section of a dissertation or research article, writers give an account of how they carried out their research.The Materials and Methods section should be clear and detailed enough for another experienced person to repeat the research and reproduce the results. Typical features with examples of this language are listed below. Describing different methods To date various methods have been developed and introduced to measure X: In most recent studies, X is measured in four different ways. Radiographic techniques are the main non-invasive method used to determine .... Different authors have measured X in a variety of ways. Previous studies have based their criteria for selection on ...... A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and drawbacks. Data were gathered from multiple sources at various time points during the 2007–2008 academic year. Giving reasons why a particular method was adopted The semi-structured approach was chosen because ...... Smith et al (1994) identify several advantages of the case study, ....... It was decided that the best method to adopt for this investigation was to ...... A case study approach was chosen to allow a ...... The design of the questionnaires was based on ...... The X method is one of the more practical ways of ...... It was considered that quantitative measures would usefully supplement and extend the qualitative analysis. Many of the distributions were not normal so non-parametric signed rank tests were run. The X approach has a number of attractive features: ...... Indicating a specific method Article references were searched further for additional relevant publications. Articles were searched from January 1965 until April 2008. Publications were only included if ……. X was prepared according to the procedure used by Patel et al. (1957). The synthesis of X was done according to the procedure of Smith (1973). X was synthesised using the same method that was detailed for Y, using ...... This compound was prepared by adapting the procedure used by Zhao et al. (1990). For this study the X was used to explore the subsurface …… An alternative method for making scales homogenous is by using ….. Describing the characterisitics of the sample The initial sample consisted of 200 students of whom 13 did not complete all of the interviews All studies described as using some sort of X procedure were included in the analysis. A systematic literature review was conducted of studies that ..... All of the participants were aged between 18 and 19 at the beginning of the study..... Two groups of subjects were interviewed, namely X and Y. The first group were ...... A random sample of patients with ...... was recruited from ....... Forty-seven students studying X were recruited for this study. The students were divided into two groups based on their performance on ...... The project used a convenience sample of 32 first year modern languages students. Just over half the sample (53%) was female, of whom 69% were ...... Participants were recruited from 15 clinics across ......, covering urban and rural areas …… Eligibility criteria required individuals to have received …. Five individuals were excluded form the study on the basis of …. Eligible women who matched the selection criteria were identified by …… Semi structured interviews were conducted with 17 male offenders with a mean age of 38 years A comparison group of 12 male subjects without any history of X was drawn from a pool of ……. Indicating reasons for sample characteristics A small sample was chosen because of the expected difficulty of obtaining ...... The subjects were selected on the basis of a degree of homogeneity of their ....... Criteria for selecting the subjects were as follows: Describing the process: infinitive of purpose In order to identify the T10 and T11 spinous processes, the subjects were asked to ...... In order to understand how X regulates Y, a series of transfections was performed.. To enable the subjects to see the computer screen clearly, the laptop was configured with ...... To see if the two methods gave the same measurement, the data was plotted and ...... To control for bias, measurements were carried out by another person. To measure X , a question asking ...... was used. To determine whether ......, KG-1 cells were incubated for ...... To establish whether ......, To increase the reliability of measures, each X was tested twice with a 4-min break between ....... To compare the scores three weeks after initial screening, a global ANOVA F-test was used The vials were capped with ..... to prevent volatisation. In an attempt to make each interviewee feel as comfortable as possible, the interviewer ...... Describing the process: other phrases expressing purpose For the purpose of height measurement, subjects were asked to stand ..... For the purpose of analysis, 2 segments were extracted from each ...... For the estimation of protein concentration, 100 μ L of protein sample was mixed with ...... Describing the process: typical verbs (note use of passive form) Data management and analysis was performed using SPSS 8.0 (1999). Published studies were identified using a search startegy developed in ..... The experiments were carried out over the course of the growing period from ....... Injection solutions were coded by a colleague to reduce experimenter bias. Drugs were administered by icv injection under brief CO2 narcosis; The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine ...... The subjects were asked to pay close attention to the characters whenever ...... Prompts were used as an aid to question two so that ...... The pilot interviews were conducted informally by the trained interviewer ...... Blood samples were obtained with consent, from 256 caucasian male patients ...... Independent tests were carried out on the x and y scores for the four years from ...... This experiment was repeated under conditions in which the poor signal/noise ratio was improved. Significance levels were set at the 1% level using the student t-test. A total of 256 samples were taken from 52 boreholes (Figure 11). Describing the process: sequence words/phrases Prior to commencing the study, ethical clearance was sought from ...... In the end, the EGO was selected as the measurement tool for the current study. After "training", the subjects were told that the characters stood for X and that their task was to ....... After collection, the samples were shipped back to X in ...... After conformational analysis of X, it was necessary to ...... Once the Xs were located and marked , a thin clear plastic ruler ...... Once the positions had been decided upon , the Xs were removed from each Y and replaced by ..... Once the exposures were completed , the X was removed from the Y and placed in ...... On completion of X, the process of model specification and parameter estimation was carried out . Following this, the samples were recovered and stored overnight at ...... These ratings were then made for the ten stimuli to which the subject had been exposed ...... The analysis was checked when initially performed and then checked again at the end of ...... The subjects were then shown a film individually and were asked to ...... The soil was then weighed again, and this weight was recorded as ...... The results were corrected for the background readings and then averaged before being converted to...... Finally , questions were asked as to the role of ...... Describing the process: adverbs of manner The soil was then placed in a furnace and gradually heated up to ..... The vials were shaken manually to allow the soil to mix well with the water. The medium was then aseptically transferred to a conical flask. The resulting solution was gently mixed at room temperature for ten minutes and ...... A sample of the concentrate was then carefully injected into ...... The tubes were accurately reweighed to six decimal places using ...... Describing the process: passive verb + using .... for instruments 15 subjects were recruited using email advertisements requesting healthy students from ...... All the work on the computer was carried out using Quattro Pro for Windows and ......l. Data were collected using two high spectral resolution spectroradiometers. The data was recorded on a digital audio recorder and transcribed using a ....... Semi-automated genotyping was carried out using X software and .... Statistical significance was analysed using analysis of variance and t-tests as appropriate. Comparisons between the two groups were made using unrelated t -tests. Using the X-ray and looking at the actual X, it was possible to identify ...... Using an Anthos Microplate Reader were able to separate single cells into different ...... Describing the process: giving detailed information Compounds 3 and 5 were dissolved in X at apparent pH 2.5 to give concentrations of 4mM ..... ...... and the solutions were degraded at 55°C or 37°C for a total time of 42 hours. At intervals of 0.5 min, 50 μ Lof the X was aliquoted into 0.5mL of cooled boric acid buffer (pH 7.5) to ...... Indicating problems or limitations In this investigation there are several sources for error. The main error is ...... Another major source of uncertainty is in the method used to calculate X.. It was not possible to investigate the significant relationships of X and Y further because the sample size was too small. Further data collection is required to determine exactly how X affects Y. Reporting Results The standard approach to this section of a dissertation is to merely present the results, without elaborate discussion or comment. This does not mean that you do not need any text to describe data presented in tables and figures. Writers usually comment on the significant data presented in the tables and figures. This often takes the form of the location or summary statement, which identifies the table or figure and indicates its content. This is normally followed by a statement or statements which point out and describe the relevant or significant data. All your tables should be numbered and given a title. More elaborate commentary on the results is normally restricted to the Discussion section. In research articles, however, authors may comment extensively on their results as they are presented, and it is not uncommon for the Results section to be combined with the Discussion section under the heading: Results and Discussion. Reference to aim/method To assess X, the Y questionnaire was used. To distinguish between these two possibilities, ...... To compare the scores three weeks after initial screening, a global ANOVA F-test was used In order to assess Z, repeated measures of ANOVA were used. Regression analysis was used to predict the ...... Changes in X and Y were compared using ...... The average scores of X and Y were compared in order to ...... Nine items on the questionnaire measured the extent to which ...... The correlation between X and Y was tested. The first set of analyses examined the impact of ...... Simple statistical analysis was used to ...... A scatter diagram and a Pearson's product moment correlation were used to determine the relationship between ...... T-tests were used to analyse the relationship between ...... Comparisons between the two groups were made using unrelated t -tests. Location and summary statements: Table 1 Figure 1 shows compares presents provides the experimental data on X. the results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X. the intercorrelations among the nine measures of X. The results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X are shown can be compared are presented in Table 1. in Fig 1. As shown in Figure 12.1, As can be seen from the table (above), It can be seen from the data in Table 12.1 that From the graph above we can see that the X group reported significantly more Y than the other two groups. The table below illustrates The pie chart above shows some of the main characteristics of the ...... the breakdown of ...... Highlighting significant data in a table/chart It is apparent from this table that very few ...... This table is quite revealing in several ways. First, unlike the other tables ...... Data from this table can be compared with the data in Table 4.6 which shows ...... From the data in Figure 9, it is apparent that the length of time left between ...... From this data we can see that Study 2 resulted in the lowest value of ...... The histogram in Fig 1. indicates that ...... What is interesting in this data is that ...... In Fig.10 there is a clear trend of decreasing ...... As Table III shows, there is a significant difference ( t = -2.15, p = 0.03) between the two groups. Statements of result (positive) Strong evidence of X was found when ...... This result is significant at the p = 0.05 level. There was a significant positive correlation between ...... There was a signifcant difference between the two conditions ...... On average, Xs were shown to have ...... The mean score for X was ...... Interestingly, for those subjects with X, ...... A positive correlation was found between X and Y. The results, as shown in Table 1, indicate that …. Further analysis showed that ...... Further statistical tests revealed ..... Statements of result (negative) There was no increase of X associated with ..... There were no significant differences between ...... No significant differences were found between ..... No increase in X was detected. No difference greater than X was observed. The Chi-square test did not show any significant differences between ...... None of these differences were statistically significant. Overall, X did not affect males and females differently in these measure. No significant reduction in X was found with Y compared with placebo. A clear benefit of X in the prevention of Y could not be identified in this analysis. Highlighting significant, interesting or surprising results The most striking result to emerge from the data is that ...... Interestingly, this correlation is related to ..... The correlation between X and Y is interesting because ...... The more surprising correlation is with the ...... The single most striking observation to emerge from the data comparison was ...... Reporting results from questionnaires and interviews The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. Of the study population, 90 subjects completed and returned the questionnaire. Of the initial cohort of 123 students, 66 were female and 57 male. Thirty-two individuals returned the questionnaires. The majority of respondents/those who responded felt that ..... Over half of those surveyed reported that ...... 70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ...... Almost two-thirds of the participants (64%) said that ...... Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ...... A small number of those interviewed suggested that ...... Only a small number of respondents indicated that ...... Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that ....... A minority of participants (17%) indicated ...... In response to Question 1, most of those surveyed indicated that ...... The overall response to this question was very positive. When the subject were asked ......, the majority commented that ..... Other responses to this question included ...... The overall response to this question was poor. Some participants expressed the belief that ….. One individual stated that …. And another commented ……. Transition statements Turning now to the experimental evidence on ...... Comparing the two results, it can be seen that ...... A comparison of the two results reveals ...... If we now turn to ...... Discussions The term discussion has a variety of meanings in English. In academic writing, however, it usually refers to two types of activity: a) considering both sides of an issue, or question, b) considering the results of research and the implications of these. Discussion sections in dissertations and research articles are probably the most complex in terms of their elements. The most common elements and some of the language that is typically associated with them are listed below: Background information (reference to literature or to research aim/question) A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature. Prior studies that have noted the importance of ...... In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y. As mentioned in the literature review, ...... Very little was found in the literature on the question of ..... This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of X in ...... The third question in this research was ...... It was hypothesized that participants with a history of ...... The present study was designed to determine the effect of ...... Statements of result (usually with reference to results section) The results of this study show/indicate that ....... This experiment did not detect any evidence for ...... On the question of X, this study found that ...... The current study found that ...... The most interesting finding was that ...... Another important finding was that ..... The results of this study did not show that ....../did not show any significant increase in ...... In the current study, comparing X with Y showed that the mean degree of ...... In this study, Xs were found to cause ..... X provided the largest set of significant clusters of ...... It is interesting to note that in all seven cases of this study...... Unexpected outcome Surprisingly, X was found to ....... Surprisingly, no differences were found in ...... One unanticipated finding was that ..... It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition ...... What is surprising is that ...... Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference between ....... However, the observed difference between X and Y in this study was not significant. However, the ANOVA (one way) showed that these results were not statistically significant. This finding was unexpected and suggests that ...... Reference to previous research (support) This study produced results which corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work in this field. The findings of the current study are consistent with those of Smith and Jones (2001) who found ...... This finding supports previous research into this brain area which links X and Y. This study confirms that X is associated with ...... This finding corroborates the ideas of Smith and Jones (2008), who suggested that ...... This finding is in agreement with Smith's (1999) findings which showed ....... It is encouraging to compare this figure with that found by Jones (1993) who found that ..... There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by X in this study and those described by (Smith, 1987, 1995) and Jones (1986) These findings further support the idea of ..... Increased activation in the PCC in this study corroborates these earlier findings. These results are consistent with those of other studies and suggest that ...... The present findings seem to be consistent with other research which found ...... This also accords with our earlier observations, which showed that ...... Reference to previous research (contradict) However, the findings of the current study do not support the previous research. This study has been unable to demonstrate that ...... However, this result has not previously been described. In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected. Although, these results differ from some published studies (Smith, 1992; Jones, 1996), they are consistent with those of ...... These results results differ from X's 2003 estimate of Y, but they are broadly consistent with earlier ..... Explanations for results: There are several possible explanations for this result. These differences can be explained in part by the proximity of X and Y. A possible explanation for this might be that ..... Another possible explanation for this is that ...... This result may be explained by the fact that ...../ by a number of different factors. It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to ...... It seems possible that these results are due to ...... The reason for this is not clear but it may have something to do with ...... It may be that these students benefitted from ...... This inconsistency/discrepancy may be due to ...... This rather contradictory result may be due to ...... These factors may explain the relatively good correlation between X and Y. There are, however, other possible explanations. The possible interference of X can not be ruled out. The observed increase in X could be attributed to ..... The observed correlation between X and Y might be explained in this way. ..... Some authors 9,30 have speculated that ...... Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to ...... A possible explanation for some of our results may be the lack of adequate ...... Advising cautious interpretation These data must be interpreted with caution because ...... These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution. However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ...... These findings cannot be extrapolated to all patients. Although exclusion of X did not reduce the effect on X, these results should be interpreted with caution. However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ...... Suggesting general hypotheses The value of X suggests that a weak link may exist between ..... It is therefore likely that such connections exist between ..... It can thus be suggested that ...... It is possible to hypothesise that these conditions are less likely to occur in ...... It is possible/likely/probable therefore that ...... Hence, it could conceivably be hypothesised that ...... These findings suggest that ...... It may be the case therefore that these variations ...... In general, therefore, it seems that ...... It is possible, therefore, that ...... Therefore, X could be a major factor, if not the only one, causing ...... It can therefore be assumed that the ...... This finding, while preliminary, suggests that…… Noting implications This finding has important implications for developing ..... An implication of this is the possibility that ...... One of the issues that emerges from these findings is ...... Some of the issues emerging from this finding relate specifically to ...... This combination of findings provides some support for the conceptual premise that ..... Commenting on findings However, these results were not very encouraging. These findings are rather disappointing. The test was successful as it was able to identify students who ...... The present results are significant in at least major two respects. The results of this study do not explain the occurrence of these adverse events. Suggestions for future work However, more research on this topic needs to be undertaken before the association between X and Y is more clearly understood. Further research should be done to investigate the ...... Research questions that could be asked include ..... Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended. A further study with more focus on X is therefore suggested. Further studies, which take these variables into account, will need to be undertaken. Further work is required to establish this. In future investigations it might be possible to use a different X in which ...... This is an important issue for future research. Writing Conclusions Conclusions are shorter sections of academic texts which usually serve two functions. The first is to summarise and bring together the main areas covered in the writing, which might be called "looking back"; and the second is to give a final comment or judgement on this. The final comment may also include making suggestions for improvement and speculating on future directions. In dissertations and research papers, conclusions tend to be more complex and will also include sections on significance of the findings and recommendations for future work. Conclusions may be optional in research articles where consolidation of the study and general implications are covered in the Discussion section. However, they are usually expected in dissertations and essays. Summarising the content This paper has given an account of and the reasons for the widespread use of X ...... This essay has argued that X is the best instrument to ...... This assignment has explained the central importance of X in Y. This dissertation has investigated ...... Restatement of aims (research) This study set out to determine ...... The present study was designed to determine the effect of ....... In this investigation, the aim was to assess ...... The purpose of the current study was to determine ...... This project was undertaken to design ...... and evaluate ..... Returning to the hypothesis/question posed at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to state that ..... Summarising the findings (research) This study has shown that ...... These findings suggest that in general ...... One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that ..... It was also shown that...... This study has found that generally ....... The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study ...... The relevance of X is clearly supported by the current findings. This study/research has shown that ...... The second major finding was that ........ The results of this investigation show that ....... The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that ...... X, Y and Z emerged as reliable predictors of ...... Multiple regression analysis revealed that the ...... Suggesting implications The evidence from this study suggests that ...... The results of this study indicate that ...... The results of this research support the idea that ....... In general, therefore, it seems that ...... Taken together, these results suggest that ...... An implication of this is the possibility that ...... The findings of this study suggest that ...... Significance of the findings (research contribution) The X that we have identified therefore assists in our understanding of the role of ...... These findings enhance our understanding of ...... This research will serve as a base for future studies and ...... The current findings add substantially to our understanding of ...... The current findings add to a growing body of literature on ...... The study has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of ...... The methods used for this X may be applied to other Xs elsewhere in the world. The present study, however, makes several noteworthy contributions to...... The empirical findings in this study provide a new understanding of …… The findings from this study make several contributions to the current literature. First,…… The present study provides additional evidence with respect to …… Taken together, these findings suggest a role for X in promoting Y. The present study confirms previous findings and contributes additional evidence that suggests .... . Whilst this study did not confirm X, it did partially substantiate ....... Limitations of the current study (research) Finally, a number of important limitations need to be considered. First, ...... A number of caveats need to be noted regarding the present study. The most important limitation lies in the fact that ...... The current investigation was limited by ...... The current study was unable to analyse these variables. The current research was not specifically designed to evaluate factors related to ...... The current study has only examined ...... The project was limited in several ways. First, the project used a convenience sample that ...... However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ...... The sample was nationally representative of X but would tend to miss people who were ...... A limitation of this study is that the numbers of patients and controls were relatively small. Thirdly, the study did not evaluate the use of ...... However, these findings are limited by the use of a cross sectional design. Our findings in this report are subject to at least three limitations. First, these data apply only to ….. An issue that was not addressed in this study was whether….. One source of weakness in this study which could hare affected the measurements of was that …… Several limitations to this pilot study need to be acknowledged. The sample size is ...... The main weakness of this study was the paucity of…… Recommendations for further work (research) This research has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation. Further work needs to be done to establish whether ...... It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the following areas: Further experimental investigations are needed to estimate ...... What is now needed is a cross-national study involving ...... More broadly, research is also needed to determine ..... It is suggested that the association of these factors is investigated in future studies. Further research might explore/investigate ...... Further research in this field/regarding the role of X would be of great help in ....... Further investigation and experimentation into X is strongly recommended. A number of possible future studies using the same experimental set up are apparent. It would be interesting to assess the effects of ...... More information on X would help us to establish a greater degree of accuracy on this matter. If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding of ...... needs to be developed. I suggest that before X is introduced, a study similar to this one should be carried out on ..... These findings provide the following insights for future research: ..... Considerably more work will need to be done to determine ...... Future trials should assess a full selective decontamination regimen including More research is needed to better understand when implementation ends and ....... It would be interesting to compare experiences of individuals within the same … group. A further study could assess …... A future study investigating …... would be very interesting. The issue of X is an intriguing one which could be usefully explored in further research. Future research should therefore concentrate on the investigation of …... Large randomised controlled trials could provide more definitive evidence. Implications/recommendations for practice or policy These findings suggest several courses of action for ...... An implication of these findings is that both X and Y should be taken into account when ...... The findings of this study have a number of important implications for future practice. There is, therefore, a definite need for ...... There are a number of important changes which need to be made. Another important practical implication is that ...... Moreover, more X should be made available to ...... Other types of X could include : a), b). ...... Unless governments adopt X, Y will not be attained. This information can be used to develop targetted interventions aimed at ...... A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to ...... Writing Definitions In academic work students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms clearly. Academic writers generally, however, define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise as a result of different interpretations of the same term. In academic writing, teachers and their students often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to study a topic. Introductory phrases: It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by ..... This shows a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by the word X. X is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about ...... Simple three-part definitions A university is an institution where knowledge is "produced" and passed on to others. Social Economics may be broadly defined as the branch of economics concerned with the measurement, causes and consequences of social problems. Research may be defined as a systematic process which consists of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation of data. General meanings / application of meanings: The term X has come to be used to refer to ...... The term X is generally understood to mean ...... The term X has been applied to situations where students ...... In broad biological terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is ....... The broad use of the term X is sometimes equated with ...... The term disease refers to a biological event characterised by ....... In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to ...... X can be defined as ...... It encompasses ...... The term X is a relatively new name for a Y, commonly referred to...…. X can be loosely described as a correlation. Indicating difficulties in defining a term: In the field of language teaching, various definitions of fluency are found. Fluency is a commonly used notion in language learning and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely . A generally accepted definition of fluency is lacking. Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term fluency: a) ..... The term poststructuralism embodies a multitude of concepts which ...... Although differences of opinion still exist, there appears to be some agreement that X refers to ...... Specifying terms that are used in an essay/thesis: In this essay the term overseas student will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all students who ...... Throughout this thesis, the term education is used to refer to informal systems as well as formal systems. While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested , this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is X In this dissertation the terms X and Y are used interchangeably to mean ...... Referring to people's definitions (author prominent): Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term ...... Chomsky writes that a grammar is a 'device of some sort for producing the .....' (1957, p.11). According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), fluency is 'the maximally ...... The term "fluency" is used by Smith (2001) to refer to ...... Smith (2001) uses the term "fluency" to refer to ...... For Smith (2001), fluency means/refers to ....... Macro-stabilisation policy is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as "......................" Aristotle defines the imagination as "the movement which results upon an actual sensation." The term "matter" is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying ....... Secondly, it is the potential which ...... Smith et al. (2002) have provided a new definition of health: "health is a state of being with physical, cultural, psychological ....." In 1987, sports psychologist John Smith popularized the term X to describe ...... Referring to people's definitions (author non-prominent): Validity is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures what it is intended to measure (Smith et al., 1986) Giving Examples Writers may give specific examples as evidence to support their general claims or arguments. Examples can also be used to help the reader or listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, and they tend to be easier to remember. For this reason, they are often used in teaching. Finally, students may be required to give examples in their work to demonstrate that they have understood a complex problem or concept. Many paragraphs in academic writing show development from general statements to specific details or examples. In most paragraphs, therefore, examples usually come after a more general statement, as in the short extract below. Many words can often acquire a more narrow meaning over time, or may come to be chiefly used in one special sense. A classic example of this practice is the word doctor. There were doctors (i.e., learned men) in theology, law, and many other fields beside medicine, but nowadays when we send for the doctor we mean a member of only one profession. Examples as the main information in a sentence: For example / instance, the word doctor used to mean a learned man. For example , Smith and Jones (2004) conducted a series of semi-structured interviews in ...... By way of illustration , Smith (2003) shows how the data for ..... A classic / well-known example of this is ....... An example of this is the study carried out by Smith (2004) in which ....... X is a good example / illustration of ....... X illustrates this point / shows this point clearly. This can be illustrated briefly by ....... Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons. They may, for example , be influenced by their peers, or they may see their parents as role models. The evidence of X can be clearly seen in the case of..… Another example of what is meant by X is ...... Diseases that can result at least in part from stress include arthritis, asthma, migrane, headaches and ulcers. Examples as additional information in a sentence Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons, such as pressure from peers and the role model of parents. Pavlov found that if some other stimulus, for example the ringing of a bell, preceded the food, the dog would start salivating. In Paris, Gassendi kept in close contact with many other prominent scholars such as Kepler, Galileo, Hobbes, and Descartes. The prices of resources, such as copper, iron ore, oil, coal and aluminium, have declined in real terms over the past 20 years. Many diseases can result at least in part from stress, including: arthritis, asthma, migrane, headaches and ulcers. Classifying and Listing When we classify things, we group and name them on the basis of something that they have in common. By doing this we can understand certain qualities and features which they shares as a class. Classifying is also a way of understanding differences between things. In writing, classifying is often used as a way of introducing a reader to a new topic. Along with writing definitions, the function of classification may be used in the early part of an essay, or longer piece of writing. We list things when we want to treat and present a series of items or different pieces of information systematically. A list is series if items. The order of a list may indicate rank importance. General Classifications X may be divided into three main classes sub-groups categories X may be classified on the basis of according to depending on in terms of Y into Xi and Xii Bone is generally classified into two types: cortical bone, also known as ....., and cancellous bone or ...... Aristotle's systematic treatises may be grouped in several divisions: logic, psychological works, physical ...... The works of Aristotle fall under three headings: (1) dialogues and ......; (2) collections of facts and ......; and (3) systematic works. There are two basic approaches currently being adopted in research into X. One is the Y approach and the other is ..... Associative learning can be categorised into classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning was first ...... Generally, spectratyping provides two types of information: band intensity pattern and band number. Specific Classifications: In the U.S. system, X is graded according to whether ..... on the basis of ...... in terms of Smith (1966) divided classified grouped Xs into two broad types: Xi's and Xii's Thomas and Nelson (1996) describe four basic types of validity: logical, content, criterion and contruct. Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are : a) ...... and b) .... For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds : (1) motion which ......; (2) motion which ......; (3) motion which ......; and (4) motion which....... Introducing Lists: The key aspects of management can be listed as follows: There are three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are: There are two types of effect which result when a patient undergoes X. These are ...... Appetitive stimuli have three separable basic functions. Firstly, they ....... Secondly, they ...... The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are : ...... This topic can best be treated under three headings: X. Y and Z. This section has been included for several reasons: it is ......; it illustrates ......; and it describes....... The "Mass for Four Voices" consists of five movements, which are : the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Santus and Agnus Dei. The "Three Voices for Mass" is divided into six sections. These are : the Kyrie, Gloria, ....... Refering to other people's lists Smith (2003) suggests three conditions for its acceptance. Firstly, X should be ..... Secondly, it needs to be.... Thirdly, ..... Smith and Jones (1991) list X, Y and Z as the major causes of infant mortality. Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are : a) ...... and b) .... For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds : (1) motion which ......; (2) motion which ......; (3) motion which ......; and (4) motion which....... Smith (2003) lists the main features of X as follows : it is X; it is Y; and has Z. Describing Causes and Effects A great deal of academic work involves understanding and suggesting solutions to problems. At postgraduate level, particularly in applied fields, students search out problems to study. In fact, one could say that problems are the food for a significant proportion of academic activity. However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a thorough understanding of the causes. Some of the language that you may find useful for explaining causes and effects is listed below: Verbs expressing causality Lack of protein may cause can lead to can result in mental retardation. Low levels of chlorine in the body can give rise to high blood presssure. Much of the instability stems from the economic effects of the war. Kwashiorkor is a disease Beri-beri is a disease Scurvy is a disease caused by resulting from stemming from insufficient protein. vitamin deficiency. lack of vitamin C. Nouns expressing causality The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of exercise. A consequence of vitamin A deficiency is blindness. Physical activity is an important factor in maintaining fitness. Many other medications have an influence on cholesterol levels. Another reason why Xs are considered to be important is that ....... Prepositional phrases expressing causality 200,000 people per year become deaf owing to because of as a result of a lack of iodine. Sentence connectors expressing causality If undernourished and retarded children do survive to become adults, they have decreased learning ability. Therefore, Consequently, Because of this, As a result (of this), when they grow up, it will probably be difficult for them to find work. Adverbial phrases expressing causality Malnutrition leads to illness and a reduced ability to work in adulthood, thus/thereby perpetuating the poverty cycle. The warm air rises above the surface of the sea, thus/thereby creating an area of low pressure. Other examples As a consequence of X , it appears that winds alone are not the causative factor of....... Due to X and Y inflowing surface water becomes more dense as it ....... X and Y are important driving factors of Z. The mixing of X and Y exerts a powerful effect upon Z through ...... Possible cause and effect relationships (expressed tentatively) This suggests a weak link may exist between X and Y. The human papilloma virus is linked to most cervical cancer. Stomach cancer in many cases may be associated with certain bacterial infections. A high consumption of seafood could be associated with infertility. There is some evidence that X may affect Y. Comparing and Contrasting By understanding similarities and differences between two things, we can increase our understanding and learn more about both. This usually involves a process of analysis, in which we compare the specific parts as well as whole. Comparison may also be a preliminary stage of evaluation. For example, by comparing specific aspects of A and B, we can decide which is more useful or valuable. Many paragraphs whose function is to compare or contrast will begin with an introductory sentence expressed in general terms. Note the introductory sentences below: Introductory Sentences: Differences X is different from Y in a number of respects . There are a number of important differences between X and Y. X differs from Y in a number of important ways . Smith (2003) found distinct differences between X and Y. Women and men differ not only in physical attributes but also in the way in which they ...... Introductory Sentences: Similarities The mode of processing used by the right brain is similar to that used by the left brain. The mode of processing used by the right brain is comparable in complexity to that used by the left brain. The effects of nitrous dioxide on human health are similar to those of ground level ozone. Both X and Y generally take place in a "safe environment". There are a number of similarities between X and Y. Numerous studies have compared the brain cells in man and animals and found that the cells are essentially identical. Comparison within one sentence In contrast to oral communities, it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. Compared with people in oral cultures, people in literate cultures organise their lives around clocks and calendars. Oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present, whereas literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. Whereas Ghazali rejected non-Islamic philosophers, Aquinas incorporated ancient Greek thought into his own philosophical writings. Women's brains process language simultaneously in the two sides of the brain, while men tend to process it in the left side only. This interpretation contrasts with that of Smith and Jones (2004) who argue that ...... Comparison within one sentence (comparative forms) Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as placing pegs in holes on a board. Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed. Further, men are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills. The corpus callosum, a part of the brain connecting the two hemispheres, may be more/less extensive in women. Women are more/less likely than men to suffer aphasia when the front part of the brain is damaged. Adolescents are less likely to be put to sleep by alcohol than adults. Women tend to have greater/less verbal fluency than men. Men learned the route in fewer trials and made fewer errors than did women. Comparison across two sentences It is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. By contrast/in contrast , many people in oral communities have little idea of the calendar year of their birth. Tests show that women generally can recall lists of words or paragraphs of text better than men. On the other hand , men usually perform better on tests that require the ability to mentally rotate an image in order to solve a problem. Young children learning their first language need simplified, comprehensible input. Similarly , low level adult L2 learners need graded input supplied in most cases by a teacher. Speech functions are less likely to be affected in women because the critical area is less often affected. A similar pattern emerges in studies of the control of hand movements. Writing about the Past Writing about the past in English is made diffcult by the rather complex tense system. However the phrases grouped below give an indication of the uses of the main tenses in academic writng. For a comprehensive explanation of the uses of the various tenses you will need to consult a good English grammar book. A good recommendation is Practical English Usage by Michael Swan, OUP. Time phrases associated with the use of the simple past tense (specific times or periods of time in the past completed) For centuries, In the second half of the 19th century, At the end of the nineteenth century, church authorities placed restrictions on academics. During the Nazi period, Between 1933 and 1945, From 1933 to 1945, In the 1930s and 1940s, restrictions were placed on German academics. Reference to single investigations or publications in the past: simple past tense used The first systematic study of the X was reported by Patel et al. in 1986. Erythromycin was originally isolated from X in a soil sample from ...... (Wang et al., 1952). In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described ..... In 1990 Patel et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to ...... Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of Candida Albicans which ....... In the 1950s Gunnar Myrdal pointed to some of the ways in which …………… (Myrdal, 1957) In 1981, Smith and co workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to ....... In 1984 Jones et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as water-soluble pro-drugs. An experimental demonstration of this effect was first carried out by ...... The first experimental realisation of ......, by Smith et al. , used a ...... Time phrases associated with the use of the present perfect tense (for situations/actions which began in the past and continue up to the present, or for which the period of time is unspecified): Over the past few decades, the world has seen the stunning transformation of X, Y and Z. Since 1965, these four economies have doubled their share of world production and trade. Until recently, there has been little interest in X. Recently, these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields. In recent years researchers have investigated a variety of approaches to X but .... Up to now, the research has tended to focus on X rather than on Y. To date, little evidence has been found associating X with Y. So far, three factors have been identified as being potentially important: X, Y, and Z. The present perfect tense may also be used to describe recent research or scholarly activity with focus on the area of enquiry - usually more than one study There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987). The relationship between a diet high in fats and poor health has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985, Jones, 1987, Johnson, 1992). The new material has been shown to enhance cooling properties (Smith, 1985, Jones, 1987, Johnson, 1992). Invasive plants have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many North American species (1). A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. Describing Trends and Projections A trend is a description of change over time. A projection is a prediction of future change. Trends and projections are usually illustrated using line graphs in which the horizontal axis represents time. Some of the language commonly used for writing about trends and projections is given below. Describing trends The graph shows that there has been a slight gradual steady marked steep sharp increase rise decrease fall decline drop in the number of divorces in England and Wales since 1981. Describing high and low points in figures The number of live births outside marriage reached a peak during the second world war. The peak age for committing a crime is 18. Oil production peaked in 1985. Gas production reached a (new) low in 1990. Projecting trends The number of Xs The amount of Y The rate of Z is projected to is expected to is likely to will probably decline steadily drop sharply level off after 2010. Describing Quantities Describing ratios and proportions The proportion of live births outside marriage reached one in ten in 1945. The annual birth rate dropped from 44.4 to 38.6 per 1000 per annun. Describing fractions Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that ....... The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. Over half of those surveyed indicated that ...... 70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ..... Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ...... Nearly half of the respondents (48%) agreed that ...... Less than a third of those who responded (32%) indicated that ...... The number of first marriages in the United Kingdom fell by nearly two-fifths. Describing percentages 13.1% of young men and 23.1% of young women who had married said that they ...... Returned surveys from 34 radiologists yielded a 34% response rate. The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. East Anglia had the lowest proportion of lone parents at only 14 per cent. Since 1981, England has experienced an 89 % increase in crime. The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to ....... A study in Java found that of 2,558 abortions, 58% were in young women aged 15-24, of whom 62% were ..... He also noted that less than 10% of the articles included in his study cited ...... In 1960 just over 5% of live births in 1960 were outside marriage. Describing averages This figure can be seen as the average life expectancy at various ages. The proposed model suggests a steep decline in mean life expectancy ...... Roman slaves probably had a lower than average life expectancy. The average of 12 observations in the X, Y and Z is 19.2 mgs/m ..... The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine ...... The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to ....... Describing ranges The evidence shows that life expectancy from birth lies in the range of twenty to thirty years. Between 575 and 590 metres depth the sea floor is extremely flat, with an average slope of only 1 : 400 The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from 10 , 716 i n 1970 t o 10,716 in 1970 to 9,833 in 1990. The respondents had practiced for an average of 15 years (range 6 to 35 years) The participants were aged 19 to 25 and were from both rural and urban backgrounds. They calculated ranges of journal use from 10.7%–36.4% for the humanities, 25%–57% for the ...... Rates of decline ranged from 2.71– 0.08 cm day-1 (Table 11) with a mean of 0.97 cm day-1. It has been estimated that 300,000 people suffer form ......
Corpus Linguistics 2013 语料库语言学2013国际会议 Lancaster University, UK – 22nd to 26th July 2013 The seventh international Corpus Linguistics conference ( CL2013 ) will be held at Lancaster University from Tuesday 23rd July 2013 to Friday 26th July 2013. The main conference will be preceded by a workshop day on Monday 22nd July. The conference is hosted by the UCREL research centre , which brings together the Department of Linguistics and English Language with the School of Computing and Communications at Lancaster. About the conference The goals of the conference are as follows. To gather together current and developing research in the study and application of corpus linguistics; To push the field forwards by promoting dialogue among the many different users of corpora across interconnected sub-disciplines of linguistics – be they descriptive, theoretical, applied or computational; To explore new challenges both within corpus linguistics, and in the extension of corpus approaches to new fields of study. With these goals in mind, we invite contributions on as broad and inclusive a basis as possible. The areas in which we particularly welcome submissions include but are not limited to: Critical explorations of existing measures and methods in corpus linguistics; New methods and techniques in corpus development, annotation and analysis; Corpus approaches to the study of new media; New tools and techniques developed in corpus-based computational linguistics; The application of corpus approaches in the social sciences and humanities; The extension of corpus linguistics to an ever-wider range of (non-English) languages; The interface between corpus and theory; The use of corpora in discourse analysis; The use of corpora in second language acquisition studies and language pedagogy. Plenary speakers We are delighted to announce that the following speakers have accepted our invitation to give plenary lectures at CL2013: Karin Aijmer Guy Cook Michael Hoey Ute Rmer Key dates 31st October 2012 – abstract submission opens via conference website 31st October 2012 – deadline for proposals for workshops 8th January 2013 – deadline for abstract submission 15th February 2013 – notification of the outcome of peer review; early bird registration opens 1st April 2013 – early bird registration closes 30th June 2013 – final deadline for registration 22nd / 23rd July 2013 – workshop day / main conference begins 会议网站： http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/cl2013/
http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/index.htm Academic Phrasebank Writing Introductions There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or assignment. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions: establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic indicate a problem, controversy or a gap in the field of study define the topic or key terms state of the purpose of the essay/writing provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing Examples of phrases which are commonly employed to realise these functions are listed below. Note that there may be a certain amount of overlap between some of the categories under which the phrases are listed. Introductory sections for research dissertations , are normally much more complex than this and, as well as the elements above, may include the following: a synopsis of key literature/current state of knowledge, synopsis of methods, lists of research questions or hypotheses to be tested, significance of the study, recognition of the limitations of the study, reasons for personal interest in the topic. Establishing the importance of the topic: One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is ...... It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the ..... X is the leading cause of death in western industrialised countries. X is a common disorder characterised by ...... X is an important component in the climate system, and plays a key role in Y. In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ...... In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in ....... Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and ...... Xs are the most potent anti-inflammatory agents known. X is a major public health problem, and the cause of about 4% of the global burden of disease. X is an increasingly important area in applied linguistics. Central to the entire discipline of X is the concept of ....... X is at the heart of our understanding of ...... Establishing the importance of the topic (time frame given): Recent developments in X have heightened the need for ...... In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ...... Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ...... Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ...... The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ....... The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of...... Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in ...... One of the most important events of the 1970s was ...... Traditionally, Xs have subscribed to the belief that ...... X proved an important literary genre in the early Y community. The changes experienced by Xs over the past decade remain unprecedented. Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and have been extensively used for decades to ....... Highlighting a problem in the field of study: However, these rapid changes are having a serious effect ...... However, a major problem with this kind of application is ...... Lack of X has existed as a health problem for many years. Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks: However, research has consistently shown that first year students have not attained an adequate understanding of ...... There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ...... Despite its long clinical success, X has a number of problems in use. Questions have been raised about the safety of prolonged use of ...... Highlighting a controversy in the field of study: To date there has been little agreement on what ...... More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about ..... One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ...... In many Xs a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...... The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century. Debate continues about the best strategies for the management of …… This concept has recently been challenged by ……. studies demonstrating ……. One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is ...... One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ...... In many Xs a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...... The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century. Questions have been raised about the safety of prolonged use of ...... The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of ....... The issue has grown in importance in light of recent ...... One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years concerns ...... One major issue in early X research concerned....... Highlighting a knowledge gap in the field of study (for research): So far, however, there has been little discussion about ...... However, far too little attention has been paid to ...... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ....... So far this method has only been applied to ...... Several studies have produced estimates of X (Smith, 2002; Jones, 2003), but there is still insufficient data for ..... However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in ...... The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ...... However, there is no reliable evidence that ...... X's analysis does not take account of ..... nor does he examine ...... Focus, aim, argument: This paper will focus on/examine/give an account of ...... This essay seeks to remedy these problems by analyisng the literature of ...... The objectives of this research are to determine whether ...... This paper seeks to address the following questions: This essay critically examines/discusses/traces ...... The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into the ...... This paper will review the research conducted on ...... This chapter reviews the literature concerning the usefulness of using ...... The aim of this paper is to determine/examine ...... The aim of this study was to evaluate and validate ..... In this paper I argue that ..... In the pages that follow, it will be argued that …… This paper attempts to show that ...... In this essay, I attempt to defend the view that ...... Outline of structure: The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c). This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ...... The essay has been organised in the following way. This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X. This paper reviews the evidence for ..... This paper begins by ...... It will then go on to ...... The first section of this paper will examine ...... Finally, ....... Chapter 2 begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research, and looks at how ...... Chapter 3 describes the design, synthesis, characterization and evaluation of ...... The last chapter assesses the ...... Explaining Keywords While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... Throughout this paper the term X will refer to/will be used to refer to ....... In this article the acronym/abbreviation XYZ will be used. Referring to Literature One important characteristic of academic writing is that all the sources of information that the writer has used need to be indicated, not just as a bibliography or list of references, but also in or alongside the text. In some cases the source will be the main subject of the sentence, in others the sources may be mentioned parenthetically (in brackets) or via a notation system (eg. footnotes). The more common verbs and verb phrases used in academic writing for referring to sources are given below. Note that different referencing systems are used in different disciplines. In the examples, the Harvard in-text referencing system has been used. Also note that the "author as subject" style is less common in the sciences. "Ideally, your review should be evaluative and critical of the studies which have a particular bearing on your own. For example, you may think a particular study did not investigate some necessary aspect of the area, or that the authors failed to notice some problem with their results." Taken from the Manchester Good Practice Guide: http://www.man.ac.uk/goodpractice/ General descriptions of the relevant literature: A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies ...... There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of …… The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with ...... The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic. What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how ...... During the past 30 years much more information has become available on ...... In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on ....... A large and growing body of literature has investigated ...... General reference to previous research/scholarly activity (usually more than one author) Many historians have argued that ...... (eg. Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994) Numerous studies have attempted to explain ..... (for example, Smith , 1996; Kelly, 1998; Johnson, 2002) Recent evidence suggests that ....... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Recently, in vitro studies have shown that T.thermophylus EFTu can ...... (Patel et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1998). Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1988) have shown that ...... Several attempts have been made to ....... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Several studies have revealed that it is not just X that acts on ...... (Smith, 1996; Jones ....... Several biographies of Harris have been published . Smith presents an ........ account, whilst Jones ..... Several studies investigating X have been carried out on ...... Data from several sources have identified the increased morbidity and mortality associated with obesity Previous studies have reported ...... (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1992). Previous research findings into X have been inconsistent and contradictory (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999, ...... A number of studies have found that ...... (Smith , 2003; Jones, 2004). Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between ....... At least 152 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between...... Other studies have considered the relationship ...... The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987, ....... The causes of X have been widely investigated (Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994). The geology of X has been addressed in several smallscale investigations and ....... Xs have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many species (1). X has also been shown to reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids in murine-induced arthritis (11). I t has been suggested that levels of X are independent of the size of the Y (Smith et al., 1995) It has conclusively been shown that X and Y increase Z (Smith et al., 1999; Jones, 2001 ...... It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to ...... (Smith, 1998; ...... Reference to current state of knowledge A relationship exists between an individual's working memory and their ability to ...... (Jones et al.,1998). GM varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM varieties (Smith, 1998; Jones, 1999). There is an unambiguous relationship between spending on education and economic development (Rao, 1998). X is one of the most intense reactions following CHD (Lane, 2003). MIF has been found to oppose the anti-infammatory actions of X on Y (Alourfi, 2004). Reference to single investigations in the past: researcher(s) as sentence subject Smith (1999) found that as levels of literacy and education of the population rise ............. showed that reducing X to 190oC decreased ...... (see figure 2) . demonstrated that when the maximum temperature is exceeded ....... Jones et al. (2001) investigated the differential impact of formal and non-formal education on ...... analysed the data from 72 countries and concluded that ....... reviewed the literature from the period and found little evidence for this claim. interviewed 250 undergraduate students using semi-structured questionnaires. studied the effects of Cytochrome P450 on unprotected nerve cells. performed a similar series of experiments in the 1960s to show that ...... carried out a number of investigations into the ...... conducted a series of trials in which he mixed X with different quantities of .... measured both components of the ...... labelled these subsets as ....... examined the flow of international students ...... ...... identified parents of disabled children as ..... used a survey to assess the various ....... Wang et al. (2004) have recently developed a methodology for the selective introduction of ...... Reference to single investigations or publications in the past: time frame prominent In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described ..... In 1990 Patel et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to ...... Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of Candida Albicans which ....... In the 1950s Gunnar Myrdal pointed to some of the ways in which …………… (Myrdal, 1957) In 1981, Smith and co workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to ....... In 1990, El-Guerrouj et al. reported a new and convenient synthetic procedure to obtain ...... In 1984 Jones et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as water-soluble pro-drugs. Reference to single publication: no time frame Smith has written the most complete synthesis to date of ...... Reference to single investigations in the past: investigation prominent Preliminary work on X was undertaken by AbdulKarim (1992). The first systematic study of X was reported by Patel et al. in 1986. The study of the structural behavior of X was first carried out by Rao et al. (1986)...... Analysis of the genes involved in X was first carried out by Smith et al (1983). A recent study by Smith and Jones (2001) involved ...... A longitiudinal study of X by Smith (2002) reports that ...... A small scale study by Smith (2002) reaches different conclusions, finding no increase in ...... Smith's cross-country analysis (2002) showed that ...... Smith's comparative study (2002) found that ...... Detailed examination of X by Smith and Patel (1961) showed that ...... In another major study, Zhao (1974) found that just over half of the ...... In a radomised controlled study of X, Smith (2004) reported that ...... In a large longitudinal study, Boucahy et al. 2004) investigated the incidence of X in Y. Reference to single investigations in the past: research topic as subject Classical conditioning was first demonstrated experimentally by Pavlov (Smith, 2002). In his seminal study ...... The electronic spectroscopy of X was first studied by Smith and Douglas 1 in 1970 The acid-catalyzed condensation reaction between X and Y was first reported by Baeyer in 1872 X formed the central focus of a study by Smith (2002) in which the author found ...... X was originally isolated from Y in a soil sample from ...... (Wang et al., 1952). The way in which the X gene is regulated was studied extensively by Ho and colleagues (Ho et al. 1995 and 1998). To determine the effects of X, Zhao et al (2005) compared ...... Reference to what other writers do in their text (author as subject) Smith (2003) identifies poor food, bad housing, inadequate hygiene and large families as the major causes of ...... Rao (2003) lists three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are: ...... Smith (2003) traces the development of Japanese history and philosophy during the 19th century. Jones(2003) provides in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle showing its relevance to contemporary times. Smith (2003) draws our attention to distinctive categories of motivational beliefs often observed in ....... Smith (2003) defines evidence based medicine as the conscious, explicit and judicious use of ..... Rao (2003) highlights the need to break the link between economic growth and transport growth ...... Smith (2003) discusses the challenges and strategies for facilitating and promoting ...... Toh (2003) mentions the special situation of Singapore as an example of ..... Smith (2003) questions whether mainstream schools are the best environment for ...... Smith (2003) considers whether countries work well on cross-border issues such as ...... Smith (2003) uses examples of these various techniques as evidence that ...... In her major study, In her seminal article, In her classic critique of ......, In her case study of ......, In her review of ......, In her analysis of ......, In her introduction to ......,' Smith (2004) identifies five characteristics of ....... Some analysts (eg Carnoy, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between ........ Other authors ( see Harbison, 2003; Kaplan, 2004) question the usefulness of such an approach. Reference to other writers' ideas (author as subject) According to Smith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world. Smith (2003) points out argues maintains claims concludes suggests that preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world Smith (2003) argues for offers proposes suggests an explanatory theory for each type of irrational belief. This view is supported by Jones (2000) who writes ...... Smith argues that her data support O'Brien's (1988) view that ...... As Smith reminds us, .............. Elsewhere, Smith has argued that ...... Some ways of introducing quotations In the final part of the Theses, Marx writes: "Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point ......." Sachs concludes: "The idea of development stands today like a ruin in the intellectual landscape…" (Sachs, 1992a: 156). As Smith argues: "In the past, the purpose of education was to ......" (Smith , 2000:150). As Carnoy (2004: 215) states: "there are many good reasons to be sceptical". Being Critical As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writer's arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other people's criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved. ...... being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking. Edward de Bono Introducing questions, problems and limitations (theory) One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether ...... A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ...... One of the limitations with this explanation is that it does not explain why... . One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ...... The key problem with this explanation is that ...... The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. Smith's argument relies too heavily on qualitative analysis of ...... It seems that Jones' understanding of the X framework is questionable. Smith's interpretation overlooks much of the historical research ...... One major criticism of Smith's work is that ..... Many writers have challenged Jones' claim on the grounds that ....... X's analysis does not take account of ..... nor does he examine ...... Introducing questions, problems and limitations (method/practice) Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account. Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that ..... Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made to implement the policy. Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped criticism from governments, agencies and academics. One major drawback of this approach is that ...... The main limitation of biosynthetic incorporation, however, is ...... However, this method of analysis has a number of limitations. However, approaches of this kind carry with them various well known limitations. All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that ....... However, there are limits to how far the idea of/concept of X can be taken. However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that...... However, one of the problems with the instrument the researchers used to measure X was ...... However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious limitations weaknesses disadvantages drawbacks. Identifying a study's weakness (However,) the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how ....... the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that ..... the research does not take into account pre-existing ...... such as ...... the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between various different types of X. Jones fails to fully acknowledge the significance of ...... the paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between ...... another weakness is that we are given no explanantion of how ...... no attempt was made to quantify the association between X and Y. Offering constructive suggestions Smith's paper Her conclusions The study The findings would have been might have been more much more far more useful convincing interesting persuasive original if he/she had if the author had included ...... considered ...... adopted ...... used ...... A better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with ...... A much more systematic study would identify how X interacts with other variables that are believed to be linked to ...... Highlighting inadequacies of previous studies Most studies in the field of X have only focussed on ...... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic. The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ...... Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they ..... However, few writers have been able to draw on any structured research into the opinions and attitudes of ...... The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. Researchers have not treated X in much detail. Previous studies of X have not dealt with ...... However, these studies used non-validated methods to measure ..... Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether ...... However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature …. Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which adequately covers ...... However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if these differences still persist. Introducing other people's criticisms However, Jones (2003) points out that ..... Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that ..... Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies. The X theory has been / vigorously / strongly challenged in recent years by a number of writers. Smith's analysis has been criticised by a number of writers. Jones (1993), for example, points out that …… Smith's meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism. The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that ...... Jones (2003) is probably the best known critic of the X theory. He argues that .…. The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones (2003). Critics have also argued that not only do social surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the...... Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide ...... More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982): Jones (2003) is critical of the conclusions that Smith draws from his findings. Describing Methods In the Methods section of a dissertation or research article, writers give an account of how they carried out their research.The Materials and Methods section should be clear and detailed enough for another experienced person to repeat the research and reproduce the results. Typical features with examples of this language are listed below. Describing different methods To date various methods have been developed and introduced to measure X: In most recent studies, X is measured in four different ways. Radiographic techniques are the main non-invasive method used to determine .... Different authors have measured X in a variety of ways. Previous studies have based their criteria for selection on ...... A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and drawbacks. Data were gathered from multiple sources at various time points during the 2007–2008 academic year. Giving reasons why a particular method was adopted The semi-structured approach was chosen because ...... Smith et al (1994) identify several advantages of the case study, ....... It was decided that the best method to adopt for this investigation was to ...... A case study approach was chosen to allow a ...... The design of the questionnaires was based on ...... The X method is one of the more practical ways of ...... It was considered that quantitative measures would usefully supplement and extend the qualitative analysis. Many of the distributions were not normal so non-parametric signed rank tests were run. The X approach has a number of attractive features: ...... Indicating a specific method Article references were searched further for additional relevant publications. Articles were searched from January 1965 until April 2008. Publications were only included if ……. X was prepared according to the procedure used by Patel et al. (1957). The synthesis of X was done according to the procedure of Smith (1973). X was synthesised using the same method that was detailed for Y, using ...... This compound was prepared by adapting the procedure used by Zhao et al. (1990). For this study the X was used to explore the subsurface …… An alternative method for making scales homogenous is by using ….. Describing the characterisitics of the sample The initial sample consisted of 200 students of whom 13 did not complete all of the interviews All studies described as using some sort of X procedure were included in the analysis. A systematic literature review was conducted of studies that ..... All of the participants were aged between 18 and 19 at the beginning of the study..... Two groups of subjects were interviewed, namely X and Y. The first group were ...... A random sample of patients with ...... was recruited from ....... Forty-seven students studying X were recruited for this study. The students were divided into two groups based on their performance on ...... The project used a convenience sample of 32 first year modern languages students. Just over half the sample (53%) was female, of whom 69% were ...... Participants were recruited from 15 clinics across ......, covering urban and rural areas …… Eligibility criteria required individuals to have received …. Five individuals were excluded form the study on the basis of …. Eligible women who matched the selection criteria were identified by …… Semi structured interviews were conducted with 17 male offenders with a mean age of 38 years A comparison group of 12 male subjects without any history of X was drawn from a pool of ……. Indicating reasons for sample characteristics A small sample was chosen because of the expected difficulty of obtaining ...... The subjects were selected on the basis of a degree of homogeneity of their ....... Criteria for selecting the subjects were as follows: Describing the process: infinitive of purpose In order to identify the T10 and T11 spinous processes, the subjects were asked to ...... In order to understand how X regulates Y, a series of transfections was performed.. To enable the subjects to see the computer screen clearly, the laptop was configured with ...... To see if the two methods gave the same measurement, the data was plotted and ...... To control for bias , measurements were carried out by another person. To measure X , a question asking ...... was used. To determine whether ......, KG-1 cells were incubated for ...... To establish whether ......, To increase the reliability of measures, each X was tested twice with a 4-min break between ....... To compare the scores three weeks after initial screening, a global ANOVA F-test was used The vials were capped with ..... to prevent volatisation. In an attempt to make each interviewee feel as comfortable as possible, the interviewer ...... Describing the process: other phrases expressing purpose For the purpose of height measurement, subjects were asked to stand ..... For the purpose of analysis , 2 segments were extracted from each ...... For the estimation of protein concentration, 100 μ L of protein sample was mixed with ...... Describing the process: typical verbs (note use of passive form) Data management and analysis was performed using SPSS 8.0 (1999). Published studies were identified using a search startegy developed in ..... The experiments were carried out over the course of the growing period from ....... Injection solutions were coded by a colleague to reduce experimenter bias. Drugs were administered by icv injection under brief CO2 narcosis; The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine ...... The subjects were asked to pay close attention to the characters whenever ...... Prompts were used as an aid to question two so that ...... The pilot interviews were conducted informally by the trained interviewer ...... Blood samples were obtained with consent, from 256 caucasian male patients ...... Independent tests were carried out on the x and y scores for the four years from ...... This experiment was repeated under conditions in which the poor signal/noise ratio was improved. Significance levels were set at the 1% level using the student t-test. A total of 256 samples were taken from 52 boreholes (Figure 11). Describing the process: sequence words/phrases Prior to commencing the study, ethical clearance was sought from ...... In the end , the EGO was selected as the measurement tool for the current study. After "training", the subjects were told that the characters stood for X and that their task was to ....... After collection, the samples were shipped back to X in ...... After conformational analysis of X, it was necessary to ...... Once the Xs were located and marked , a thin clear plastic ruler ...... Once the positions had been decided upon , the Xs were removed from each Y and replaced by ..... Once the exposures were completed , the X was removed from the Y and placed in ...... On completion of X, the process of model specification and parameter estimation was carried out . Following this, the samples were recovered and stored overnight at ...... These ratings were then made for the ten stimuli to which the subject had been exposed ...... The analysis was checked when initially performed and then checked again at the end of ...... The subjects were then shown a film individually and were asked to ...... The soil was then weighed again, and this weight was recorded as ...... The results were corrected for the background readings and then averaged before being converted to...... Finally , questions were asked as to the role of ...... Describing the process: adverbs of manner The soil was then placed in a furnace and gradually heated up to ..... The vials were shaken manually to allow the soil to mix well with the water. The medium was then aseptically transferred to a conical flask. The resulting solution was gently mixed at room temperature for ten minutes and ...... A sample of the concentrate was then carefully injected into ...... The tubes were accurately reweighed to six decimal places using ...... Describing the process: passive verb + using .... for instruments 15 subjects were recruited using email advertisements requesting healthy students from ...... All the work on the computer was carried out using Quattro Pro for Windows and ......l. Data were collected using two high spectral resolution spectroradiometers. The data was recorded on a digital audio recorder and transcribed using a ....... Semi-automated genotyping was carried out using X software and .... Statistical significance was analysed using analysis of variance and t-tests as appropriate. Comparisons between the two groups were made using unrelated t -tests. Using the X-ray and looking at the actual X, it was possible to identify ...... Using an Anthos Microplate Reader were able to separate single cells into different ...... Describing the process: giving detailed information Compounds 3 and 5 were dissolved in X at apparent pH 2.5 to give concentrations of 4mM ..... ...... and the solutions were degraded at 55°C or 37°C for a total time of 42 hours. At intervals of 0.5 min, 50 μ Lof the X was aliquoted into 0.5mL of cooled boric acid buffer (pH 7.5) to ...... Indicating problems or limitations In this investigation there are several sources for error. The main error is ...... Another major source of uncertainty is in the method used to calculate X.. It was not possible to investigate the significant relationships of X and Y further because the sample size was too small. Further data collection is required to determine exactly how X affects Y. Reporting Results The standard approach to this section of a dissertation is to merely present the results, without elaborate discussion or comment. This does not mean that you do not need any text to describe data presented in tables and figures. Writers usually comment on the significant data presented in the tables and figures. This often takes the form of the location or summary statement, which identifies the table or figure and indicates its content. This is normally followed by a statement or statements which point out and describe the relevant or significant data. All your tables should be numbered and given a title. More elaborate commentary on the results is normally restricted to the Discussion section. In research articles, however, authors may comment extensively on their results as they are presented, and it is not uncommon for the Results section to be combined with the Discussion section under the heading: Results and Discussion. Reference to aim/method To assess X, the Y questionnaire was used. To distinguish between these two possibilities, ...... To compare the scores three weeks after initial screening, a global ANOVA F-test was used In order to assess Z, repeated measures of ANOVA were used. Regression analysis was used to predict the ...... Changes in X and Y were compared using ...... The average scores of X and Y were compared in order to ...... Nine items on the questionnaire measured the extent to which ...... The correlation between X and Y was tested. The first set of analyses examined the impact of ...... Simple statistical analysis was used to ...... A scatter diagram and a Pearson's product moment correlation were used to determine the relationship between ...... T-tests were used to analyse the relationship between ...... Comparisons between the two groups were made using unrelated t -tests. Location and summary statements: Table 1 Figure 1 shows compares presents provides the experimental data on X. the results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X. the intercorrelations among the nine measures of X. The results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X are shown can be compared are presented in Table 1. in Fig 1. As shown in Figure 12.1, As can be seen from the table (above), It can be seen from the data in Table 12.1 that From the graph above we can see that the X group reported significantly more Y than the other two groups. The table below illustrates The pie chart above shows some of the main characteristics of the ...... the breakdown of ...... Highlighting significant data in a table/chart It is apparent from this table that very few ...... This table is quite revealing in several ways. First, unlike the other tables ...... Data from this table can be compared with the data in Table 4.6 which shows ...... From the data in Figure 9, it is apparent that the length of time left between ...... From this data we can see that Study 2 resulted in the lowest value of ...... The histogram in Fig 1. indicates that ...... What is interesting in this data is that ...... In Fig.10 there is a clear trend of decreasing ...... As Table III shows, there is a significant difference ( t = -2.15, p = 0.03) between the two groups. Statements of result (positive) Strong evidence of X was found when ...... This result is significant at the p = 0.05 level. There was a significant positive correlation between ...... There was a signifcant difference between the two conditions ...... On average, Xs were shown to have ...... The mean score for X was ...... Interestingly, for those subjects with X, ...... A positive correlation was found between X and Y. The results, as shown in Table 1, indicate that …. Further analysis showed that ...... Further statistical tests revealed ..... Statements of result (negative) There was no increase of X associated with ..... There were no significant differences between ...... No significant differences were found between ..... No increase in X was detected. No difference greater than X was observed. The Chi-square test did not show any significant differences between ...... None of these differences were statistically significant. Overall, X did not affect males and females differently in these measure. No significant reduction in X was found with Y compared with placebo. A clear benefit of X in the prevention of Y could not be identified in this analysis. Highlighting significant, interesting or surprising results The most striking result to emerge from the data is that ...... Interestingly, this correlation is related to ..... The correlation between X and Y is interesting because ...... The more surprising correlation is with the ...... The single most striking observation to emerge from the data comparison was ...... Reporting results from questionnaires and interviews The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. Of the study population, 90 subjects completed and returned the questionnaire. Of the initial cohort of 123 students, 66 were female and 57 male. Thirty-two individuals returned the questionnaires. The majority of respondents/those who responded felt that ..... Over half of those surveyed reported that ...... 70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ...... Almost two-thirds of the participants (64%) said that ...... Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ...... A small number of those interviewed suggested that ...... Only a small number of respondents indicated that ...... Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that ....... A minority of participants (17%) indicated ...... In response to Question 1, most of those surveyed indicated that ...... The overall response to this question was very positive. When the subject were asked ......, the majority commented that ..... Other responses to this question included ...... The overall response to this question was poor. Some participants expressed the belief that ….. One individual stated that …. And another commented ……. Transition statements Turning now to the experimental evidence on ...... Comparing the two results, it can be seen that ...... A comparison of the two results reveals ...... If we now turn to ...... Discussions The term discussion has a variety of meanings in English. In academic writing, however, it usually refers to two types of activity: a) considering both sides of an issue, or question, b) considering the results of research and the implications of these. Discussion sections in dissertations and research articles are probably the most complex in terms of their elements. The most common elements and some of the language that is typically associated with them are listed below: Background information (reference to literature or to research aim/question) A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature. Prior studies that have noted the importance of ...... In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y. As mentioned in the literature review, ...... Very little was found in the literature on the question of ..... This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of X in ...... The third question in this research was ...... It was hypothesized that participants with a history of ...... The present study was designed to determine the effect of ...... Statements of result (usually with reference to results section) The results of this study show/indicate that ....... This experiment did not detect any evidence for ...... On the question of X, this study found that ...... The current study found that ...... The most interesting finding was that ...... Another important finding was that ..... The results of this study did not show that ....../did not show any significant increase in ...... In the current study, comparing X with Y showed that the mean degree of ...... In this study, Xs were found to cause ..... X provided the largest set of significant clusters of ...... It is interesting to note that in all seven cases of this study...... Unexpected outcome Surprisingly, X was found to ....... Surprisingly, no differences were found in ...... One unanticipated finding was that ..... It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition ...... What is surprising is that ...... Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference between ....... However, the observed difference between X and Y in this study was not significant. However, the ANOVA (one way) showed that these results were not statistically significant. This finding was unexpected and suggests that ...... Reference to previous research (support) This study produced results which corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work in this field. The findings of the current study are consistent with those of Smith and Jones (2001) who found ...... This finding supports previous research into this brain area which links X and Y. This study confirms that X is associated with ...... This finding corroborates the ideas of Smith and Jones (2008), who suggested that ...... This finding is in agreement with Smith's (1999) findings which showed ....... It is encouraging to compare this figure with that found by Jones (1993) who found that ..... There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by X in this study and those described by (Smith, 1987, 1995) and Jones (1986) These findings further support the idea of ..... Increased activation in the PCC in this study corroborates these earlier findings. These results are consistent with those of other studies and suggest that ...... The present findings seem to be consistent with other research which found ...... This also accords with our earlier observations, which showed that ...... Reference to previous research (contradict) However, the findings of the current study do not support the previous research. This study has been unable to demonstrate that ...... However, this result has not previously been described. In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected. Although, these results differ from some published studies (Smith, 1992; Jones, 1996), they are consistent with those of ...... These results results differ from X's 2003 estimate of Y, but they are broadly consistent with earlier ..... Explanations for results: There are several possible explanations for this result. These differences can be explained in part by the proximity of X and Y. A possible explanation for this might be that ..... Another possible explanation for this is that ...... This result may be explained by the fact that ...../ by a number of different factors. It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to ...... It seems possible that these results are due to ...... The reason for this is not clear but it may have something to do with ...... It may be that these students benefitted from ...... This inconsistency/discrepancy may be due to ...... This rather contradictory result may be due to ...... These factors may explain the relatively good correlation between X and Y. There are, however, other possible explanations. The possible interference of X can not be ruled out. The observed increase in X could be attributed to ..... The observed correlation between X and Y might be explained in this way. ..... Some authors 9,30 have speculated that ...... Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to ...... A possible explanation for some of our results may be the lack of adequate ...... Advising cautious interpretation These data must be interpreted with caution because ...... These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution. However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ...... These findings cannot be extrapolated to all patients. Although exclusion of X did not reduce the effect on X, these results should be interpreted with caution. However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ...... Suggesting general hypotheses The value of X suggests that a weak link may exist between ..... It is therefore likely that such connections exist between ..... It can thus be suggested that ...... It is possible to hypothesise that these conditions are less likely to occur in ...... It is possible/likely/probable therefore that ...... Hence, it could conceivably be hypothesised that ...... These findings suggest that ...... It may be the case therefore that these variations ...... In general, therefore, it seems that ...... It is possible, therefore, that ...... Therefore, X could be a major factor, if not the only one, causing ...... It can therefore be assumed that the ...... This finding, while preliminary, suggests that…… Noting implications This finding has important implications for developing ..... An implication of this is the possibility that ...... One of the issues that emerges from these findings is ...... Some of the issues emerging from this finding relate specifically to ...... This combination of findings provides some support for the conceptual premise that ..... Commenting on findings However, these results were not very encouraging. These findings are rather disappointing. The test was successful as it was able to identify students who ...... The present results are significant in at least major two respects. The results of this study do not explain the occurrence of these adverse events. Suggestions for future work However, more research on this topic needs to be undertaken before the association between X and Y is more clearly understood. Further research should be done to investigate the ...... Research questions that could be asked include ..... Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended. A further study with more focus on X is therefore suggested. Further studies, which take these variables into account, will need to be undertaken. Further work is required to establish this. In future investigations it might be possible to use a different X in which ...... This is an important issue for future research. Writing Conclusions Conclusions are shorter sections of academic texts which usually serve two functions. The first is to summarise and bring together the main areas covered in the writing, which might be called "looking back"; and the second is to give a final comment or judgement on this. The final comment may also include making suggestions for improvement and speculating on future directions. In dissertations and research papers, conclusions tend to be more complex and will also include sections on significance of the findings and recommendations for future work. Conclusions may be optional in research articles where consolidation of the study and general implications are covered in the Discussion section. However, they are usually expected in dissertations and essays. Summarising the content This paper has given an account of and the reasons for the widespread use of X ...... This essay has argued that X is the best instrument to ...... This assignment has explained the central importance of X in Y. This dissertation has investigated ...... Restatement of aims (research) This study set out to determine ...... The present study was designed to determine the effect of ....... In this investigation, the aim was to assess ...... The purpose of the current study was to determine ...... This project was undertaken to design ...... and evaluate ..... Returning to the hypothesis/question posed at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to state that ..... Summarising the findings (research) This study has shown that ...... These findings suggest that in general ...... One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that ..... It was also shown that...... This study has found that generally ....... The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study ...... The relevance of X is clearly supported by the current findings. This study/research has shown that ...... The second major finding was that ........ The results of this investigation show that ....... The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that ...... X, Y and Z emerged as reliable predictors of ...... Multiple regression analysis revealed that the ...... Suggesting implications The evidence from this study suggests that ...... The results of this study indicate that ...... The results of this research support the idea that ....... In general, therefore, it seems that ...... Taken together, these results suggest that ...... An implication of this is the possibility that ...... The findings of this study suggest that ...... Significance of the findings (research contribution) The X that we have identified therefore assists in our understanding of the role of ...... These findings enhance our understanding of ...... This research will serve as a base for future studies and ...... The current findings add substantially to our understanding of ...... The current findings add to a growing body of literature on ...... The study has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of ...... The methods used for this X may be applied to other Xs elsewhere in the world. The present study, however, makes several noteworthy contributions to...... The empirical findings in this study provide a new understanding of …… The findings from this study make several contributions to the current literature. First,…… The present study provides additional evidence with respect to …… Taken together, these findings suggest a role for X in promoting Y. The present study confirms previous findings and contributes additional evidence that suggests .... . Whilst this study did not confirm X, it did partially substantiate ....... Limitations of the current study (research) Finally, a number of important limitations need to be considered. First, ...... A number of caveats need to be noted regarding the present study. The most important limitation lies in the fact that ...... The current investigation was limited by ...... The current study was unable to analyse these variables. The current research was not specifically designed to evaluate factors related to ...... The current study has only examined ...... The project was limited in several ways. First, the project used a convenience sample that ...... However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ...... The sample was nationally representative of X but would tend to miss people who were ...... A limitation of this study is that the numbers of patients and controls were relatively small. Thirdly, the study did not evaluate the use of ...... However, these findings are limited by the use of a cross sectional design. Our findings in this report are subject to at least three limitations. First, these data apply only to ….. An issue that was not addressed in this study was whether….. One source of weakness in this study which could hare affected the measurements of was that …… Several limitations to this pilot study need to be acknowledged. The sample size is ...... The main weakness of this study was the paucity of…… Recommendations for further work (research) This research has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation. Further work needs to be done to establish whether ...... It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the following areas: Further experimental investigations are needed to estimate ...... What is now needed is a cross-national study involving ...... More broadly, research is also needed to determine ..... It is suggested that the association of these factors is investigated in future studies. Further research might explore/investigate ...... Further research in this field/regarding the role of X would be of great help in ....... Further investigation and experimentation into X is strongly recommended. A number of possible future studies using the same experimental set up are apparent. It would be interesting to assess the effects of ...... More information on X would help us to establish a greater degree of accuracy on this matter. If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding of ...... needs to be developed. I suggest that before X is introduced, a study similar to this one should be carried out on ..... These findings provide the following insights for future research: ..... Considerably more work will need to be done to determine ...... Future trials should assess a full selective decontamination regimen including More research is needed to better understand when implementation ends and ....... It would be interesting to compare experiences of individuals within the same … group. A further study could assess …... A future study investigating …... would be very interesting. The issue of X is an intriguing one which could be usefully explored in further research. Future research should therefore concentrate on the investigation of …... Large randomised controlled trials could provide more definitive evidence. Implications/recommendations for practice or policy These findings suggest several courses of action for ...... An implication of these findings is that both X and Y should be taken into account when ...... The findings of this study have a number of important implications for future practice. There is, therefore, a definite need for ...... There are a number of important changes which need to be made. Another important practical implication is that ...... Moreover, more X should be made available to ...... Other types of X could include : a), b). ...... Unless governments adopt X, Y will not be attained. This information can be used to develop targetted interventions aimed at ...... A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to ...... Writing Definitions In academic work students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms clearly. Academic writers generally, however, define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise as a result of different interpretations of the same term. In academic writing, teachers and their students often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to study a topic. Introductory phrases: It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by ..... This shows a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by the word X. X is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about ...... Simple three-part definitions A university is an institution where knowledge is "produced" and passed on to others. Social Economics may be broadly defined as the branch of economics concerned with the measurement, causes and consequences of social problems. Research may be defined as a systematic process which consists of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation of data. General meanings / application of meanings: The term X has come to be used to refer to ...... The term X is generally understood to mean ...... The term X has been applied to situations where students ...... In broad biological terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is ....... The broad use of the term X is sometimes equated with ...... The term disease refers to a biological event characterised by ....... In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to ...... X can be defined as ...... It encompasses ...... The term X is a relatively new name for a Y, commonly referred to...…. X can be loosely described as a correlation. Indicating difficulties in defining a term: In the field of language teaching, various definitions of fluency are found. Fluency is a commonly used notion in language learning and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely . A generally accepted definition of fluency is lacking. Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term fluency: a) ..... The term poststructuralism embodies a multitude of concepts which ...... Although differences of opinion still exist, there appears to be some agreement that X refers to ...... Specifying terms that are used in an essay/thesis: In this essay the term overseas student will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all students who ...... Throughout this thesis, the term education is used to refer to informal systems as well as formal systems. While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested , this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is X In this dissertation the terms X and Y are used interchangeably to mean ...... Referring to people's definitions (author prominent): Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term ...... Chomsky writes that a grammar is a 'device of some sort for producing the .....' (1957, p.11). According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), fluency is 'the maximally ...... The term "fluency" is used by Smith (2001) to refer to ...... Smith (2001) uses the term "fluency" to refer to ...... For Smith (2001), fluency means/refers to ....... Macro-stabilisation policy is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as "......................" Aristotle defines the imagination as "the movement which results upon an actual sensation." The term "matter" is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying ....... Secondly, it is the potential which ...... Smith et al. (2002) have provided a new definition of health: "health is a state of being with physical, cultural, psychological ....." In 1987, sports psychologist John Smith popularized the term X to describe ...... Referring to people's definitions (author non-prominent): Validity is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures what it is intended to measure (Smith et al., 1986) Giving Examples Writers may give specific examples as evidence to support their general claims or arguments. Examples can also be used to help the reader or listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, and they tend to be easier to remember. For this reason, they are often used in teaching. Finally, students may be required to give examples in their work to demonstrate that they have understood a complex problem or concept. Many paragraphs in academic writing show development from general statements to specific details or examples. In most paragraphs, therefore, examples usually come after a more general statement, as in the short extract below. Many words can often acquire a more narrow meaning over time, or may come to be chiefly used in one special sense. A classic example of this practice is the word doctor. There were doctors (i.e., learned men) in theology, law, and many other fields beside medicine, but nowadays when we send for the doctor we mean a member of only one profession. Examples as the main information in a sentence: For example / instance, the word doctor used to mean a learned man. For example , Smith and Jones (2004) conducted a series of semi-structured interviews in ...... By way of illustration , Smith (2003) shows how the data for ..... A classic / well-known example of this is ....... An example of this is the study carried out by Smith (2004) in which ....... X is a good example / illustration of ....... X illustrates this point / shows this point clearly. This can be illustrated briefly by ....... Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons. They may, for example , be influenced by their peers, or they may see their parents as role models. The evidence of X can be clearly seen in the case of..… Another example of what is meant by X is ...... Diseases that can result at least in part from stress include arthritis, asthma, migrane, headaches and ulcers. Examples as additional information in a sentence Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons, such as pressure from peers and the role model of parents. Pavlov found that if some other stimulus, for example the ringing of a bell, preceded the food, the dog would start salivating. In Paris, Gassendi kept in close contact with many other prominent scholars such as Kepler, Galileo, Hobbes, and Descartes. The prices of resources, such as copper, iron ore, oil, coal and aluminium, have declined in real terms over the past 20 years. Many diseases can result at least in part from stress, including: arthritis, asthma, migrane, headaches and ulcers. Classifying and Listing When we classify things, we group and name them on the basis of something that they have in common. By doing this we can understand certain qualities and features which they shares as a class. Classifying is also a way of understanding differences between things. In writing, classifying is often used as a way of introducing a reader to a new topic. Along with writing definitions, the function of classification may be used in the early part of an essay, or longer piece of writing. We list things when we want to treat and present a series of items or different pieces of information systematically. A list is series if items. The order of a list may indicate rank importance. General Classifications X may be divided into three main classes sub-groups categories X may be classified on the basis of according to depending on in terms of Y into Xi and Xii Bone is generally classified into two types: cortical bone, also known as ....., and cancellous bone or ...... Aristotle's systematic treatises may be grouped in several divisions: logic, psychological works, physical ...... The works of Aristotle fall under three headings: (1) dialogues and ......; (2) collections of facts and ......; and (3) systematic works. There are two basic approaches currently being adopted in research into X. One is the Y approach and the other is ..... Associative learning can be categorised into classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning was first ...... Generally, spectratyping provides two types of information: band intensity pattern and band number. Specific Classifications: In the U.S. system, X is graded according to whether ..... on the basis of ...... in terms of Smith (1966) divided classified grouped Xs into two broad types: Xi's and Xii's Thomas and Nelson (1996) describe four basic types of validity: logical, content, criterion and contruct. Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are : a) ...... and b) .... For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds : (1) motion which ......; (2) motion which ......; (3) motion which ......; and (4) motion which....... Introducing Lists: The key aspects of management can be listed as follows: There are three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are: There are two types of effect which result when a patient undergoes X. These are ...... Appetitive stimuli have three separable basic functions. Firstly, they ....... Secondly, they ...... The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are : ...... This topic can best be treated under three headings: X. Y and Z. This section has been included for several reasons: it is ......; it illustrates ......; and it describes....... The "Mass for Four Voices" consists of five movements, which are : the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Santus and Agnus Dei. The "Three Voices for Mass" is divided into six sections. These are : the Kyrie, Gloria, ....... Refering to other people's lists Smith (2003) suggests three conditions for its acceptance. Firstly, X should be ..... Secondly, it needs to be.... Thirdly, ..... Smith and Jones (1991) list X, Y and Z as the major causes of infant mortality. Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are : a) ...... and b) .... For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds : (1) motion which ......; (2) motion which ......; (3) motion which ......; and (4) motion which....... Smith (2003) lists the main features of X as follows : it is X; it is Y; and has Z. Describing Causes and Effects A great deal of academic work involves understanding and suggesting solutions to problems. At postgraduate level, particularly in applied fields, students search out problems to study. In fact, one could say that problems are the food for a significant proportion of academic activity. However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a thorough understanding of the causes. Some of the language that you may find useful for explaining causes and effects is listed below: Verbs expressing causality Lack of protein may cause can lead to can result in mental retardation. Low levels of chlorine in the body can give rise to high blood presssure. Much of the instability stems from the economic effects of the war. Kwashiorkor is a disease Beri-beri is a disease Scurvy is a disease caused by resulting from stemming from insufficient protein. vitamin deficiency. lack of vitamin C. Nouns expressing causality The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of exercise. A consequence of vitamin A deficiency is blindness. Physical activity is an important factor in maintaining fitness. Many other medications have an influence on cholesterol levels. Another reason why Xs are considered to be important is that ....... Prepositional phrases expressing causality 200,000 people per year become deaf owing to because of as a result of a lack of iodine. Sentence connectors expressing causality If undernourished and retarded children do survive to become adults, they have decreased learning ability. Therefore, Consequently, Because of this, As a result (of this), when they grow up, it will probably be difficult for them to find work. Adverbial phrases expressing causality Malnutrition leads to illness and a reduced ability to work in adulthood, thus/thereby perpetuating the poverty cycle. The warm air rises above the surface of the sea, thus/thereby creating an area of low pressure. Other examples As a consequence of X , it appears that winds alone are not the causative factor of....... Due to X and Y inflowing surface water becomes more dense as it ....... X and Y are important driving factors of Z. The mixing of X and Y exerts a powerful effect upon Z through ...... Possible cause and effect relationships (expressed tentatively) This suggests a weak link may exist between X and Y. The human papilloma virus is linked to most cervical cancer. Stomach cancer in many cases may be associated with certain bacterial infections. A high consumption of seafood could be associated with infertility. There is some evidence that X may affect Y. Comparing and Contrasting By understanding similarities and differences between two things, we can increase our understanding and learn more about both. This usually involves a process of analysis, in which we compare the specific parts as well as whole. Comparison may also be a preliminary stage of evaluation. For example, by comparing specific aspects of A and B, we can decide which is more useful or valuable. Many paragraphs whose function is to compare or contrast will begin with an introductory sentence expressed in general terms. Note the introductory sentences below: Introductory Sentences: Differences X is different from Y in a number of respects . There are a number of important differences between X and Y. X differs from Y in a number of important ways . Smith (2003) found distinct differences between X and Y. Women and men differ not only in physical attributes but also in the way in which they ...... Introductory Sentences: Similarities The mode of processing used by the right brain is similar to that used by the left brain. The mode of processing used by the right brain is comparable in complexity to that used by the left brain. The effects of nitrous dioxide on human health are similar to those of ground level ozone. Both X and Y generally take place in a "safe environment". There are a number of similarities between X and Y. Numerous studies have compared the brain cells in man and animals and found that the cells are essentially identical. Comparison within one sentence In contrast to oral communities, it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. Compared with people in oral cultures, people in literate cultures organise their lives around clocks and calendars. Oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present, whereas literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. Whereas Ghazali rejected non-Islamic philosophers, Aquinas incorporated ancient Greek thought into his own philosophical writings. Women's brains process language simultaneously in the two sides of the brain, while men tend to process it in the left side only. This interpretation contrasts with that of Smith and Jones (2004) who argue that ...... Comparison within one sentence (comparative forms) Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as placing pegs in holes on a board. Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed. Further, men are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills. The corpus callosum, a part of the brain connecting the two hemispheres, may be more/less extensive in women. Women are more/less likely than men to suffer aphasia when the front part of the brain is damaged. Adolescents are less likely to be put to sleep by alcohol than adults. Women tend to have greater/less verbal fluency than men. Men learned the route in fewer trials and made fewer errors than did women. Comparison across two sentences It is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. By contrast/in contrast , many people in oral communities have little idea of the calendar year of their birth. Tests show that women generally can recall lists of words or paragraphs of text better than men. On the other hand , men usually perform better on tests that require the ability to mentally rotate an image in order to solve a problem. Young children learning their first language need simplified, comprehensible input. Similarly , low level adult L2 learners need graded input supplied in most cases by a teacher. Speech functions are less likely to be affected in women because the critical area is less often affected. A similar pattern emerges in studies of the control of hand movements. Writing about the Past Writing about the past in English is made diffcult by the rather complex tense system. However the phrases grouped below give an indication of the uses of the main tenses in academic writng. For a comprehensive explanation of the uses of the various tenses you will need to consult a good English grammar book. A good recommendation is Practical English Usage by Michael Swan, OUP. Time phrases associated with the use of the simple past tense (specific times or periods of time in the past completed) For centuries, In the second half of the 19th century, At the end of the nineteenth century, church authorities placed restrictions on academics. During the Nazi period, Between 1933 and 1945, From 1933 to 1945, In the 1930s and 1940s, restrictions were placed on German academics. Reference to single investigations or publications in the past: simple past tense used The first systematic study of the X was reported by Patel et al. in 1986. Erythromycin was originally isolated from X in a soil sample from ...... (Wang et al., 1952). In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described ..... In 1990 Patel et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to ...... Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of Candida Albicans which ....... In the 1950s Gunnar Myrdal pointed to some of the ways in which …………… (Myrdal, 1957) In 1981, Smith and co workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to ....... In 1984 Jones et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as water-soluble pro-drugs. An experimental demonstration of this effect was first carried out by ...... The first experimental realisation of ......, by Smith et al. , used a ...... Time phrases associated with the use of the present perfect tense (for situations/actions which began in the past and continue up to the present, or for which the period of time is unspecified): Over the past few decades , the world has seen the stunning transformation of X, Y and Z. Since 1965 , these four economies have doubled their share of world production and trade. Until recently , there has been little interest in X. Recently , these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields. In recent years researchers have investigated a variety of approaches to X but .... Up to now , the research has tended to focus on X rather than on Y. To date , little evidence has been found associating X with Y. So far , three factors have been identified as being potentially important: X, Y, and Z. The present perfect tense may also be used to describe recent research or scholarly activity with focus on the area of enquiry - usually more than one study There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987). The relationship between a diet high in fats and poor health has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985, Jones, 1987, Johnson, 1992). The new material has been shown to enhance cooling properties (Smith, 1985, Jones, 1987, Johnson, 1992). Invasive plants have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many North American species (1). A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. Describing Trends and Projections A trend is a description of change over time. A projection is a prediction of future change. Trends and projections are usually illustrated using line graphs in which the horizontal axis represents time. Some of the language commonly used for writing about trends and projections is given below. Describing trends The graph shows that there has been a slight gradual steady marked steep sharp increase rise decrease fall decline drop in the number of divorces in England and Wales since 1981. Describing high and low points in figures The number of live births outside marriage reached a peak during the second world war. The peak age for committing a crime is 18. Oil production peaked in 1985. Gas production reached a (new) low in 1990. Projecting trends The number of Xs The amount of Y The rate of Z is projected to is expected to is likely to will probably decline steadily drop sharply level off after 2010. Describing Quantities Describing ratios and proportions The proportion of live births outside marriage reached one in ten in 1945. The annual birth rate dropped from 44.4 to 38.6 per 1000 per annun. Describing fractions Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that ....... The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. Over half of those surveyed indicated that ...... 70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ..... Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ...... Nearly half of the respondents (48%) agreed that ...... Less than a third of those who responded (32%) indicated that ...... The number of first marriages in the United Kingdom fell by nearly two-fifths. Describing percentages 13.1% of young men and 23.1% of young women who had married said that they ...... Returned surveys from 34 radiologists yielded a 34% response rate. The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. East Anglia had the lowest proportion of lone parents at only 14 per cent. Since 1981, England has experienced an 89 % increase in crime. The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to ....... A study in Java found that of 2,558 abortions, 58% were in young women aged 15-24, of whom 62% were ..... He also noted that less than 10% of the articles included in his study cited ...... In 1960 just over 5% of live births in 1960 were outside marriage. Describing averages This figure can be seen as the average life expectancy at various ages. The proposed model suggests a steep decline in mean life expectancy ...... Roman slaves probably had a lower than average life expectancy. The average of 12 observations in the X, Y and Z is 19.2 mgs/m ..... The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine ...... The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to ....... Describing ranges The evidence shows that life expectancy from birth lies in the range of twenty to thirty years. Between 575 and 590 metres depth the sea floor is extremely flat, with an average slope of only 1 : 400 The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to $9,833 in 1990. The respondents had practiced for an average of 15 years (range 6 to 35 years) The participants were aged 19 to 25 and were from both rural and urban backgrounds. They calculated ranges of journal use from 10.7%–36.4% for the humanities, 25%–57% for the ...... Rates of decline ranged from 2.71– 0.08 cm day-1 (Table 11) with a mean of 0.97 cm day-1. It has been estimated that 300,000 people suffer form ......
语料库进入认知语言学、隐喻研究领域，这是人类研究语言发展的一种大势所趋。 近段时间在读一些有关语料库与系统功能语言学的书籍，一些文章很有趣。比如，Stubbs在其文章 “Corpus analysis: the state of the art and three types of unanswered questions” 中提出： 在由 Firth ， Halliday 和 Sinclair 为代表的传统英国语言学领域中，文本与语料库分析是中心。在这一传统中，非常重视常规短语学这一概念，在语言使用的创造性与常规性之间达成一种平衡。如， Firth （1953）谈到词与短语的习惯性、约定俗成性与典型性； Halliday(1978) 指出：大部分语篇或多或少是常规性的，我们“总是一而再再而三地表达同一种观点”； Sinclair (1991) 提出“两种解释原则”，一种是习语原则，一种是开放性选择原则，认为半固定的短语是“非常普遍的”。 Stubbs 尝试运用语料库来研究英语短语学的范围与优势，并将探讨语料库方法可以为语义的认知模型研究提供大量语料 , 有助于解决认知和社会理论中长期以来悬而未决的问题 , 即语言如何与认知和社会系统相联系。他提出 他的中心议题：语料库方法能有助于解决认知和社会理论中长期以来悬而未决的问题（大致分成三类：比较简单的，比较困难的，不可能的），即： Easier descriptive questions concern how we can make generalizations about phraseology across the lexicon. More difficult questions concern whether different models of phrasal units can be related to each other. The deepest—maybe impossible—questions concern whether linguistic, cognitive and social patterns can be related. 简单的描述性问题：主要探讨我们是如何将短语学从词汇层面加以一般化（泛化）； 稍难的问题：不同的短语单位模式能否彼此相关联； 最深层次问题（有可能是无能为力的问题）：语言学、认知与社会模式能否彼此相关联。 从第二个层面的问题来看，语料库数据能为语义关系提供经验性证据（ empirical evidence ），因此也就能够为心理词汇是如何组织的提供证据； 从第三个层面的问题来看，语料库数据能为说话者经常谈论的事物提供证据，因此也就能为社会性意义突出的词汇范围提供证据，如“金钱” (money) 和“人群” (group of people) 。 从第一个层面，即浅层次的描写型层面来看，通过那些文化关键词汇的经验性描述，给生活一种全新的阐释。 Popper(1963:125) 指出，社会理论的任务就是解释我们的目的与行为是如何引出那些无意识的后果 / 结果 。 我们试图通过抱怨门不能推移，或表达对某人延年益寿的羡慕，用语言来传达自己的意义。但是，我们并没有有意识去复制那些典型的英语短语。很明显，人们对语言的使用都是重复性的，但要解释跨社区之间的语言重复或要解释在功能系统中，什么层次的重复是最优化的，要做到这一点，可不是容易的事情。 也只有通过这些问题，语料库研究才能从描述性发展到解释性。 Stubbs通过大量例证，来说明语料库在研究人类认知活动中的功用，如： A second example of such an area is the ways in which people are classified and talked about. Two concepts which are encoded in a large number of the words and phrases we use to talk about social life are ‘groups of people’ and ‘the passing of time’ : The large number of approximate synonyms for ‘groups of people’ is not surprising, since the different ways in which people can be grouped is of inherent social interest. Here are just a few examples: - band, bunch, crew; family, flock, gang, group, jury, rabble, team - crowd, horde, mob; angry mob, lynch mob, barbarian horde - relative, friends, acquaintances, neighbours, strangers - cults, extremists, fanatics, fundamentalists, militants - anarchy, riot; concert, demonstration, applause, cheer, fame, scandal - infant, baby, child, adolescent, teenager, youth, adult - chilhood, schooldays, youthful, middle-aged, elderly, old, senile - age group, age bracket, age of consent, come of age - in my younger days, in his/her day, in his/her heyday, {cut down in} in his/her prime, thirty something; over the hill, burnt out, past it, twilight years, ripe old age 【备注】 这只是本人读书的点滴收获。还有很多话题等待挖掘。让我感兴趣的是，既然人类通过语言来表达自己的观点、感受，生活中的喜怒哀乐，政治上的价值取向，那么，同一社区的人，是否有共同的认知模式或隐喻方式？如有，这种模式是如何构成的？不同社区的人，又是什么样的情况呢？ 语料库、语言、文本、语篇、认知、隐喻、社会生活......
【备注】 这里引用的是两次The International Symposium on Using Corpora in Contrastive and Translation Studies (UCCTS语料库及语言对比与翻译国际研讨会) 在线论文，供参考： UCCTS2010： Edge Hill University, UK http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/corpus/UCCTS2010Proceedings/ UCCTS2008：Zhejiang University, China www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/corplang/UCCTS2008Proceedings
【备注】这里转载的是王克非教授刊发于《中国英语教育》2008年第2期的论文，以备研究之用。 也谢谢王教授能关注到我在第18届世界翻译大会（2008..8上海）上报告的论文： 戴光荣，基于自建平行语料库基础上的翻译明晰化研究 创建语料库，探讨新课题 王克非 （ 北京外国语大学 中国外语教育研究中心，北京 ， 100089 ） 提要： 语料库的兴起带来研究工具和研究方法的更新，进而导致语料库语言学和语料库翻译学的产生，丰富了相关研究课题。本文综述近年来国内外语料库翻译学方面的新进展和各种双语类、翻译类语料库的研制情况，并讨论如何在描写研究、应用研究和理论研究三方面展开新课题研究。作者认为，语料库资源的共享，检索工具的不断研制和更新，使语言和翻译的研究范围从语际对比扩大到语内类比，呈现出双向、多重的对比模式，其意义不仅在理论上，在对翻译现象（也包括双语对比）的描述和翻译教学的改进方面也极有应用价值。 关键词 ：语料库；翻译研究；翻译教学 中图分类号： H315.9 文献标识码： A 1. 语料库：研究手段与思路的更新 新技术往往带来新的认识工具和新的研究手段。计算机技术的发展使超大规模语料的收集、整理、标注、观察、统计成为可能，从而也使人们对语言的认识有了更宏观的视角，于是发展出现代语料库语言学。这一新型分支学科开展的二十多年来，一方面提供了新的语言考察和分析手段，一方面也推进了依据语料库大量语言事实所作的关于语言的理论思考。正如 Johansson （ 2007 ： 1 ）指出的： 通过语料库，我们可以观察先前没有意识到或仅仅隐约觉察到的语言模式 。 语料库带来的不只是语言学研究上的更新，还包括翻译学研究上的更新。语料库翻译学的发展，使研究者得以对大量真实语料（尤其是双语 / 多语平行语料，包括书面语和口语）进行对比分析，这为语言对比和翻译研究提供了新的契机。本文主要论述语料库为翻译研究提供的新思路、新课题，包括方法论或工具层面上的应用研究，和关于翻译特征的抽象性的理论研究。 2. 语料库翻译学：内容与定义 翻译研究历来重视语言、文本的比较，因此在理论上多借鉴语言学，在方法上多采用描写法、比较法。一脉传承下来，便有了现代的语料库翻译研究。在语料库的支持下， 翻译学理论研究的重心，从原文与译文的比较或 A 语言与 B 语言的比较，转向文本生成本身与翻译的比较 （ Baker 1995 ： 233 ）。 Mona Baker （ 1996 ： 175 ）进而提出 基于语料库的翻译研究 （ corpus-based translation studies ）。此后， Tymoczko （ 1998 ： 1 ）将基于语料库的翻译研究称为 语料库翻译研究 （ Corpus Translation Studies ，简称 CTS ）。 Mona Baker 的学生 Laviosa （ 1998 ： 1 ）更提出翻译研究中的语料库途径是翻译研究的一种 新范式 （ a new paradigm ）。 鉴于基于语料库的语言学研究通称为语料库语言学， 基于语料库的翻译研究 我们也不妨称为语料库翻译学。既然是基于语料库的研究，语料库翻译学要借鉴语料库语言学的基本方法，包括语料的整理、标注、检索、统计等，但也有它独特之处。其一、所据语料库不同。语料库语言学依据单语语料库即可，语料库翻译学一般要依靠双语语料库，主要是翻译语料库（ translational corpus ）、对应语料库（ parallel corpus ）和类比语料库（ comparable corpus ）。其二、标注上双语语料库更加复杂。如翻译语料库需要对翻译、译者等要素加以详细标注，对应语料库需要对两种语料作某种层级（通常为句级）的对齐处理，类比语料库需对文体、主题、作者、译者等要素加以标注。而且双语的语料数量有限，选收翻译语料还需有质量上的考虑。其三、研究对象有别。语料库翻译学探究的是两种语言及其转换的过程、特征和规律，以及它们在教学、双语词典编纂上的意义。 若尝试为语料库翻译学作一定义，我们认为，它以语言理论和翻译理论为研究上的指导，以概率和统计为手段，以大规模双语真实语料为对象，采用语内对比与语际对比相结合的方法，对翻译现象进行历时或共时的描写和解释，探索翻译的本质（参看王克非、黄立波 2007 ）。我们说语料库翻译学有语言学理论背景，是因为以 Firth 、 Halliday 和 Sinclair 为代表的英国语言学传统思想是语料库语言学的直接理论源头（参看 Stubbs 1993 ）。该学派认为语言研究应以真实数据为基础，即以真实文本为主要研究对象开展实证研究，内省式例子本身是解释行为的一部分；将文本整体作为研究的基本单位；基于文本语料的研究以对比为基本模式（参看 Stubbs 1993: 8-13 ）。这些思想一方面打破了传统语言研究建立在内省数据基础上演绎式、规定性的规则系统，另一方面打破了关注语言、忽略言语的倾向，转而对一定社会文化语境中具体的语言使用进行描写和解释，这些间接地为语料库翻译学提供了理论依据。大规模语料库可以帮助翻译研究者重新审视其研究对象，探究翻译研究对象不同于其它研究对象的原因，同时探索指导翻译行为的原则以及制约翻译运作的因素。描写翻译研究摒弃了内省法，从描写真实语料出发，达到对翻译现象的解释和预测。这些均为基于语料库的翻译研究范式提供了直接理论支持。 综上所述，无论是基于语料库还是语料库驱动的研究，都为研究者带来不少新的课题，从而吸引更多的研究人员，并有可能突破原来的研究局面，带来新的启示和进展。 3. 语料库翻译学：三大研究方面 从古今中外的翻译实践和论述看，最自然的翻译研究途径，也是传统的途径，便是以源语文本为参照，以忠实程度为取向，主要探讨译文与原文之间的关系或对应关系。这种二元对立的思路往往将译文视为原文衍生物，在此基础上的理论研究本质上是对译文质量的回溯式评估，这种模式在一定程度上有碍于翻译研究的发展。近三十年来，国内外学者不断有人尝试打破这种局面，探讨新的研究路径。如 Even-Zohar 等人提出多元系统理论，试图 不仅从语言还要从翻译外部即社会文化层面上解释翻译现象，提升了目标语文化语境对于翻译的作用；又如 Holmes 和 Toury 等人提出描写性翻译研究法，一方面重视翻译规范（ translation norms ）的研究，另一方面也试图探究翻译的普遍性特征（ universal features of translation ）。语料库的发展，特别是双语语料库的研制，使描写性翻译研究得以更充分地展开，基于语料库的翻译研究途径在逐步从方法论发展成为连贯、综合、丰富的范式，应用于翻译理论以及翻译的描写和实践等系列问题的探讨。综括近十几年国内外的研究，语料库翻译学至少可以使我们在以下三个方面开展一系列探讨： 1） 描写研究：包括大范围的翻译调查、翻译文体考察，不同译本的参数比较，以及语句的对应情况，对应词和短语的搭配及其频率等统计数据的检索与分析。 2） 应用研究：如自动翻译研究，将开展了半个世纪的机器翻译与语料库翻译结合起来，以期取得新的实质性突破；又如翻译教学，大量的对应本文和语句的呈现，有利于学习者翻译意识的养成和翻译技巧的自我提高；在双语词典编纂方面，可以丰富例证和提供搭配情况、频率、反向检索等数据。 3） 理论研究：使更广泛、有效的描写性翻译研究得以展开，包括翻译规范的研究和翻译普遍特征或曰共性的研究；还可以结合翻译研究进行双语对比分析，有助于丰富人们对语言的认识以及对语言习得的认识。 4. 基于语料库，探讨新课题 在各种语料库的基础上，可以开展的翻译学研究新课题、新视角很多，学者们思路非常活跃。国际上，英国曼彻斯特大学科技学院的 Mona Baker 教授较早开展基于语料库的翻译研究。她在 语料库语言学和翻译研究 （ 1993 ）文中对这两者的结合作了初步阐发。在大范围翻译调查方面，如翻译文体的考察，她（ 2000 ）也率先从语料库角度探讨译者的文体特征，特别是从类符 / 形符比、平均句长及词项使用特点等方面加以分析。 Malmkjr （ 2004 ）以 Dulcken 对安徒生作品的英译为例，对译者文体作了进一步探索，提出了 翻译文体学 （ translation stylistics ）这一概念。她关注在源语文本既定条件下，译者为什么会以特定的方式来塑造译文，对这些现象的解释除考虑语言因素外，亦可从语言外因素，如翻译规范、目标语文本的目的等入手。此外还有 Laviosa 调查了英语翻译文本中的四种核心词汇运用模式； Kenny 通过对原文、译文的语义韵比较，发现译文语言有净化（ sanitisation ）现象； ?veras 以英译挪和挪译英各 20 本翻译小说的前 50 句（总共 2000 句）为例，考察了英语 - 挪威语翻译中衔接层面上的显化现象；王克非根据大型对应语料库探讨了译本扩增情况； Laviosa 讨论译文与母语原创文在词汇使用上的不同；柯飞通过语料库考察，发现翻译过程中对原文的模仿可能使译文变得复杂化、冗长化（模仿原作）； Xiao McEnery 发现在 体 标记的使用上，汉语译文比汉语原文多出约一倍； Ebeling 比较了英语和挪威语在存现句使用上的特点； Maia 以双语对应语料库观察英语和葡萄牙语在人称主语使用频率上的差异，等等（参看王克非 2004 ： 182-183 ）。 还有一些研究者探讨利用双语语料库进行辅助翻译教学和翻译自主学习的探讨。双语平行语料库辅助翻译教学，是指借助大规模原文及其对应译文的电子文本，辅以计算机统计手段的翻译教学模式。这一模式旨在从翻译产品入手，通过观摩、对比、分析、借鉴的方式发挥学生的主动性，培养学生的翻译意识，在评估他人译作和自我实践的基础上提高学生的翻译技能。国际上关于利用双语平行语料库提高翻译教学的研究可参看 Zanettin, Bernardini Stewart （ 2003 ）所编《翻译教育中的语料库》（ Corpora in Translator Education ）论文集，其中不少论文具有参考价值。 Bernardini （ 1997 ）指出，翻译教学辅之以平行语料库检索，便于翻译专业学生形成一种翻译的 意识 、 反射 和 应变 ，这些技能 使专业译员有别于那些不熟练的业余爱好者 。利用平行对应语料库（配以合适的检索工具）便于查找特定表达方式的译法，使术语和短语的翻译更加准确、地道，而且常常可以提供多个翻译选择或翻译参考，比双语词典的例证更为丰富，更为真实。王克非、秦洪武、王海霞（ 2007 ）的一项基于语料库的翻译自主学习实验也表明，语料库和语料分析工具为发现式学习活动提供了有力的辅助工具，它能激发学生的兴趣，促使学生将注意力集中在意义和形式的关联上，提供轻松的课堂互动环境。从外语学习和翻译技巧觉识上看，学习者通过观察双语对应语料可能对搭配、语义偏向和语义韵等现象更加敏感；翻译技巧和策略可以通过学生之间和师生之间的互动性讨论逐步形成，这有助于学生形成稳定、持久和灵活的翻译策略，而单靠教师课堂传授翻译技巧很难做到这一点。 如上简述，对于语料库翻译学来说，设计和研制语料库是基础。建成了语料库，才有可能开展新课题研究。近年来，新的语料库不断创建，新的课题也在不断探讨。仅以北京外国语大学大型 通用汉英对应语料库 来说，在该库基础上已开展了许多研究（详见王克非等， 2004 ）；最近（根据 2008 年 8 月上海世界翻译大会最新资料）又有秦洪武凭借该库做翻译语言分析。他发现，汉语翻译语言与汉语原创语言在语言运用的宏观特征有差异：翻译语在词汇密度上低于原创语，在句长上翻译语则高于原创语。这说明翻译语较原创文本在词语使用上不如汉语原创文本用词丰富，而且句子偏长。关键词对比显示，汉语翻译文本和汉语原创文本在名词使用上的差异最为明显。在介词、连词、代词和方位词使用上，汉语翻译文本在使用的数量和频率上都远远高于汉语翻译文本，但在动词使用上二者没有明显差异。在句法组织方式方面，翻译语言与原创文本语言的差异主要表现在动词和宾语之间的线性距离上，前者明显高于后者。黄立波则利用该库探究英汉翻译中人称代词主语的显化问题。他对英汉翻译中人称代词主语在文学和非文学两种文体类型中数量、频次和转换类型三方面进行考察，发现： 1 ）文学与非文学英译汉时，人称代词主语数量和频次均呈减少趋势； 2 ）从转换类型看，人称代词主语转换以对应关系为主，语际显化和隐化均不明显； 3 ）相对非翻译汉语文本，汉语翻译文本类比显化突出。在英译汉过程中，人称代词主语语际转换表现出源语迁移现象；语内类比显化突出。他认为根本原因在于英、汉语对形式手段依赖程度的差异，以及语言相对社会地位和认知规律等因素的作用。 燕山大学新近研制的《红楼梦》中英文语料库也值得注意。这是一个一本多译的翻译语料库。该库以《红楼梦》汉语原本与三种英语译本构成句级平行语料库，可以进行中英对照、英英对照研究和互联网自动链接检索，使相关学者得以充分利用语料库储存数据大、计算机运行速度快、有多种语料库工具可以对大量数据进行分析的诸多优势，多方位多角度地对三个英译本在翻译技巧运用、文体设计、语言选择、文化内容处理等方面开展研究。该项目的主要特点是： 1 ）收集了中文 120 回原文和 120 回的霍克斯、闵福德译本、杨宪益夫妇译本及 56 回的乔利译本。这一个原本、四个译本构成四个单语语料库，可分可合，既可作为一个中文语料库对应任何一个英译本的双语平行语料库，又可作为三个译本的单语语内语料库，分别用于中英对照和英英对照研究。 2 ）该语料库做了句级平行对应，并对汉英句子的类型、语类、语域、语态及有无修辞、习语等进行了标注。在 ParaConc 等检索工具的帮助下可自由提取语料库中的汉英句对。各个单语数据库支持 WordSmith 、 AntConc 等检索工具对文本各种信息和语言特色的检索分析。 3 ）可以对该语料库做统计分析，开展各项研究，具体包括中英文各文本词频表、词目表、词目分布表，各译本句目、句长、词语搭配、句子类型等语言特色以及翻译技巧的对比分析等。 4 ）该库建立了网络搜索平台，实现互联网自动链接检索。通过该检索平台可进行基于汉英文本内容和句子属性的检索，同时还支持对译本、章回、句子属性、词频及句长等的选择性检索。 此外，更有意思的是，各地学者纷纷建立各具特色的语料库，开展自己感兴趣的研究。仍以不久前举行的世界翻译大会情况看，就有 1 ） Maeve Olohan 以自己的语料库研究翻译的普遍特征问题， 2 ）胡开宝研制莎士比亚汉译语料库，探讨汉译中的显化问题， 3 ）胡显耀基于自建汉译小说语料库进行翻译小说虚词特征研究， 4 ） Wallace Chen 基于语料库探讨建立英汉翻译显化模式， 5 ）王建新基于语料库研究英汉语中的转折连接词， 6 ）戴光荣，基于自建平行语料库基础上的翻译明晰化研究， 7 ） Vandeweghe Rura 则试图建立一个平行语料库作为译者的多功能辅助工具， 8 ）董娜以自建语料库开展林语堂作品的翻译研究， 9 ）夏云以自建小型语料库进行可比文本分析与应用文体翻译研究，等等。我们最近在计划创建一个新的语料库： 原创文学与翻译文学语料库 ，是一个类比语料库（ comparable corpus ），拟收录约 1000 万字的 20 世纪前半叶原创的小说、散文（含小品文）和翻译小说、散文及其英文原文，以便 1 ）考察现代汉语白话文的早期发展，特别是词汇和句式上的变化； 2 ）考察 20 世纪前期英语文学翻译的特征和变化； 3 ）分析比较原创文学与翻译文学在语言上的异同及翻译对创作在语言及其他表现形式上的影响。 由上述可知，语料库翻译学方兴未艾，新课题新探讨层出不穷。 4 、结语 语料库的兴起带来研究工具和研究方法的更新，进而导致语料库语言学和语料库翻译学的产生，带来研究范式上的变化和研究课题的丰富。在描写研究、应用研究和理论研究三大方面，语料库翻译学都大有可为。目前国内外学者们纷纷创建和研制各种语料库，并开展各具特色的研究，大大丰富了我们对翻译的认识，推进了学术的进步。 参考文献 Baker, M. Corpus linguistics and translation studies: Implications and applications . In M. Baker, G. Francis E. Tognini-Bonelli (eds.). Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair . Amsterdam : John Benjamins, 1993: 233-250. Baker, M. Corpus-based translation studies: The challenges that lie ahead . In H. Somers (ed.). Terminology, LSP, and translation . Amsterdam : John Benjamins, 1996: 175-186. Baker, M. Towards a m ethodology for i nvestigating the s tyle of a l iterary t ranslator? Target 200 0, 12(2): 241-266. Bernardini, S. A trainee translators perspective on corpora. Paper presented at Corpus Use and Learning to Translate at Bertinoro, November 1997 . http://www.sslmit.unibo.it/introduz.htm, 2008-01-17 . Gellerstam, M. Translationese in Swedish novels translated from English . In L. Wollin H. Lindquist (eds.). Translation Studies in Scandinavia . Lund : CWK Gleerup, 1986: 88-95. Johansson, S. Seeing Through Multilingual Corpora . Amsterdam : John Benjamins, 2007. Laviosa, S. Corpus-based Translation Studies: Theory, Findings and Applications . Amsterdam : Rodopi, 2002. Laviosa, S. The Corpus-based approach: A new paradigm in translation studies . Meta 1998, 43 ( 4) : 474-479. Malmkjr, K. Translational stylistics: Dulckens translations of Hans Christian Andersen . Language and Literature 2004, 13(1): 13-24. Olohan, M. Introducing Corpora in Translation Studies . London : Routledge, 2004. Stubbs, M. British traditions in text analysis -- From Firth to Sinclair . In M. Baker, G. Francis E. Tognini-Bonelli (eds.). Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair . Amsterdam : John Benjamins, 1993. Tymoczko, M. Computerized corpora and the future of translation studies. Meta 1998, 43(2): 652-660. Vanderauwera, R. Dutch Novels Translated Into English . Amsterdam : Rodopi, 1985. Zanettin, F., S. Bernardini D. Stewart. Corpora in Translator Education . Manchester : St. Jerome Publishing, 2003 黄立波 , 王克非 . 翻译普遍性研究反思 . 中国翻译 , 2006 （ 5 ）： 36-40. 黄立波 . 基于汉英 / 英汉平行语料库的翻译共性研究 . 上海：复旦大学出版社 , 2007. 王克非 , 黄立波 . 语料库翻译学的几个术语 . 四川外语学院学报 , 2007 （ 6 ）： 101-105. 王克非 , 秦洪武 , 王海霞 . 双语对应语料库翻译教学平台的应用 . 外语电化教学 , 2006 （ 6 ）： 43-49. 王克非等 . 双语对应语料库 : 研制与应用 . 北京 : 外语教学与研究出版社， 2004. 吴昂、黄立波 . 关于翻译共性的研究 . 外语教学与研究 , 2006 （ 5 ）： 296-302. New Approaches to Translation Studies with Bilingual Corpora WANG Kefei (National Research Centre for Foreign Language Education, Beijing Foreign Studies University , Beijing 100089, China ) Abstract : The rising of corpus brings about an innovation in research tool and methodology for language, and results in corpus linguistics and corpus-based translation studies, which enrich us with new approaches to the issues. The recent results in corpus-based translation studies and compilation of bilingual corpora (both in China and in the western countries) are described in detail in the paper, and the author proposes the research should be carried on mainly in three aspects: descriptive, applied (including translation teaching) and theoretical studies. Along with the development of corpus compilation, concordance tools, which are constantly being improved, the research in language and translation extends its scope from inter-lingual comparison to intra-lingual comparison, and bidirectional and multifold models will be available as new approaches. Key words : corpus, translation studies, translation teaching 收稿日期： 2008-01-04 ; 本刊修订稿： 2008-03-20 作者简介 ： 王克非 ：北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心研究员，博士。学术兴趣：语言学，翻译学。
标签: 语料库
