语态不外乎主动与被动。 语态对科学家来说， 非常简单。没有谁的文章是因为语态没有用对，被拒稿的。（如果有，请举手。）对英语语言大师来说，被动语态是非常有争议的话题。两派可以一直吵到下个世纪。但是，我们“外行人”不必去瞎掺乎。 也许，语态不像我说的这么简单。如果你有好的建议，请留言。我慢慢补充。 我只想举一个例子： Tool #1, tool #2, tool #3, tool $4, tool #5, tool #6, and tool #7 were used in this experiment. 这句话错了吗？没有错。但是，我的小心脏一直吊在半空中，因为我在等 “动词”（were used）! 我们可以用： In this experiment, we used the following tools: tool #1, tool #2, tool #3, tool $4, tool #5, tool #6, and tool #7. 有兴趣继续学习语态的童鞋，可以看看： https://www.aje.com/en/arc/writing-with-active-or-passive-voice/ ［科技英语写作基础（系列）：大纲（1） http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=1146690 科技英语写作基础（系列）：大纲（2） http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=1146716 ］ 1. 语态 2. 常用时态（我过去的博客） 3. 一些标点符号（参考 The Elements of Style ） 4. 常用句型（主语谓语的“一致性”，参考 The Elements of Style ） 5. 段落（参考 The Elements of Style ） 6. 修改、修改、再修改（简洁为上／逻辑性／一致性） 请大家多提意见。
我对 余子龙老师的书 《简洁的原理》（英文版） 的看法：这本书的对象不是中国科学家（包括研究生），因为是英文版。（我问了一些 “学生”，有的说：看不懂 The Elements of Style （ 4 th edition）第一部分的大纲。）我当然不敢说“伟人”写得不好，但是，大多数中国科学家还是喜欢看中文版的英语教材。我不得不现实一点。 http://www.jlakes.org/ch/web/The-elements-of-style.pdf The Elements of Style 是给（美国）大学生上写作课用的教材。如果我们能啃下来，一定对写科技论文有益。但是，如果我每天走路 30分钟就能降低血糖，我应该不想走90分钟（没有时间呀！）。所以，我的大纲是能简单就简单。对于能力非常强的学生，上一篇博客已经是“最后的一堂课”。 ［ 科技英语写作基础（系列）：大纲（ 1） http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=306792do=blogid=1146690 ］ 1. 语态 （最简单，虽然非常有争议） 2. 常用时态（已发表的博客） 3. 一些标点符号（参考 The Elements of Style ） 4. 常用句型（主语谓语的“一致性”，参考 The Elements of Style ） 5. 段落（参考 The Elements of Style ） 6. 修改、修改、再修改（简洁为上／逻辑性／一致性） 请大家提提意见。谢谢。
小波和我说过，中文写作讲究对应，而英文写作要形成链条。在英文写作中如果第一句写的是 “A如何，同时B如何“ 那么下一句还进一步写，那么应该写 “B怎么样，A怎么样” 也就是说和中文的习惯不一样，第二句中A和B的顺序正好相反。 我之前没注意过这件事。所以以后在工作中逐渐找一些例子（或者反例）吧。 例子： 1. arXiv: 1108.4529 S\'ebastien Galtier Supratik Banerjee That is in contrast with the domain of application of compressible turbulence which ranges from aeronautical engineering to astrophysics. In the latter case, it is believed that highly compressible turbulence controls star formation in interstellar clouds whereas in the former case Re is relatively smaller. 2. The Astrophysical Journal, 691:43–53 The turbulence of Burger's fluid is different from the turbulence of incompressible fluid. The latter consists of vortices on various scales, while the former is a collection of shocks. The variable δρr is very different from variable δρ(x). The latter can be larger than ρ¯, but cannot be less than− ¯ ρ, and therefore, for a nonlinear field, the distribution of δρ(x) generally is skew; however, the distribution of δρr is symmetric with respect to positive and negative δρr if the field is statistically uniform.
正如李裕德先生所言：“现代科技汉语是一种社会方言。在写作、编辑科技文章的过程中，科技汉语语法是十分需要关注的问题，这是因为在科技文章中，语法错误非常多，比其他的社会方言都多。” “主要原因往往是科技文献的写作人员认为不值得花力气去关注语法错误；而许多科技文章的协作人员掌握了不止一种外语，主要是掌握了外语的书面语，受外语的影响比较大，将外语的说法和汉语的说法混淆在一起，影响了自己语言的规范性。” 反过来，科技汉语对外语书面语也是侵袭着的。比如，在论文摘要的编写中，经常有作者把汉语的无主句直译成了英文。还有些从句比较多的汉语长句子，被生硬地翻译为英语后可读性很差。汉语中的无主句，在翻译为英语时，最好把省略的主语写出来；对于从句偏多的汉语长句，最好在编写时考虑到英译的潜在困难，尽量简化句子。能分解为两个句子的长句，尽量分解；这样，在英译时会方便些，可以避免出现头重脚轻的句子。头重脚轻的句子，未必错误，却很影响阅读感受。 用哪种语言写作，就遵照哪种语言的语法规则。母语对外语的侵袭，或者外语对母语的侵袭，都应该尽量避免。不然的话，无论用科技汉语还是科技英语写作，写出的文章都有不伦不类。不是地道的汉语，或者不是地道的英语。 我觉得，用科技汉语或者科技英语写作，只要不故弄玄虚，不故意使用复杂的句式，写出地道的汉语或者英语论文，都是可能的。 对双语或者多语进行关照，是有益的。 笔者佩服——那些写出了很地道的汉语文章和英语文章的作者；阅读他们的文章是享受。下面的句子，读上去很流畅，却隐含着一个小花招——中间偷换了主语。 “笔者前后参加了两届由中国测绘学会主持的全国优秀地图作品“裴秀奖”的评阅工作, 研读了不少优秀的地图作品, 从选题到设计都有新意, 采用数字制图技术成图, 内容表示和印刷十分精美, 很受启发 ,看到了地图学的希望 。” “从选题到设计都有新意, 采用数字制图技术成图, 内容表示和印刷十分精美”的主语是“地图作品”，不是“笔者”。“很受启发 ,看到了地图学的希望 ”的主语又滑回了“笔者”。 而朱自清的名句“那年冬天，祖母死了，父亲的差使也交卸了，正是祸不单行的日子。”使用了了同样的技法。冬天“正是祸不单行的日子 ”中，插入了两个各自有主语的句子。 笔者怀疑——朱自清先生的上述句子，是不是英式句子的合理变体呢？ 这，很有意思。这些句子，如果直译为英语，估计有读者会泛糊涂的。 “那年冬天，祖母死了，父亲的差使也交卸了，正是祸不单行的日子。”做如下直译That winter , my grandmother died , also relinquish his father's errand , and Misfortunes never come singly . 显然不太合理。可是稍加改造，就好多了： That winter , in which my grandmother died , in which my father's errand , was very misfortune .
1 句子结构——短句是准则用清楚的英语书写的文章更容易被发表，这一点需要牢记。 中文写作惯用长句，而英语，特别是科技英语，通常使用非常精炼的句子。短句是准则，使用简短而表意清楚的句子并不显得幼稚。 专业的英语作者使用短句。 2 可数名词和不可数（物质）名词 Posted 十二月 10th, 2007 by admin 单数可数名词（可以计数的事物）通常用冠词修饰；复数可数名词有时用冠词修饰。 不可数名词（难以计数的事物；也称物质名词）没有复数形式；不可数名词有时也用冠词修饰。 首先要确定该名词是可数名词还是不可数名词，然后考虑如何对这个名词计数： 3 逗号的正确使用方法 逗号是最难掌握的标点符号类型，逗号使用不当会改变句子的意思。在表示重要的和非重要的信息时，请多留意逗号的用法。 4 动词时态 Posted 十二月 10th, 2007 by admin 介绍性的语言的时态应该主要使用现在时和现在完成时。 描述材料和方法的语言的时态应该主要使用一般过去时。 用过去时；而对于其他研究的观察一般使用现在时或现在完成时。 5 冠词使用规则 定冠词 “the”指代当前情况：We began the experiment； “the”指代常识：The situation in Iraq is deteriorating； “the”指代之前提到的名词：We tested a new measuring device and a new mixer. The new mixer worked well. 不定冠词 “A/an”指代在前面没有提到的名词： We planned anew experiment. The fluid was separated with a centrifuge. 冠词的使用取决于冠词出现的上下文以及冠词之后名词的类型。什么时候使用“a/an”或者“the”（所有例句选自最近的ACS Chemical Biology）： 6 词首字母大小写问题 关于地名和地理学术语如何正确大写的问题。因为中文不牵涉大写问题，所以中文母语的作者可能会有点迷惑。其实大写问题对于英语母语的作者而言也不太容易 理顺。关于某个地名如果你不清楚正确的大写方法，你可以在Google Scholar上搜索一下。多数人的意见不见得正确，但是可以给你一些关于正确大写的线索。请记住，你写作的目的是要清楚地表述你的科研成果。注意正确的大写不仅仅是为了遵守某些专断的规则，你的论文需要正确运用大写的原因是，给读者一个关于你的采集地的更精确的概念，特别是当他们还不熟悉你的研究领域的时候。 7 常见易混单词 英语中有许多对单词很容易混淆。此贴士主要讨论拼写相近而意义不同单词，或者充当不同词性的单词。 来源：互联网
好的读者成就好的作者。 在历次培训活动中，理文编辑一直鼓励作者积极阅读以提高自己的写作水平。今后，我们会陆续与大家共享一些生动有趣的科技英语文章以共勉。欢迎大家踊跃交流意见，分享阅读心得。 科技英语文章阅读会之： Science's breakthrough of the year: HIV treatment as prevention 新闻来源： EurekAlert!
好的读者成就好的作者。 在历次培训活动中，理文编辑一直鼓励作者积极阅读以提高自己的写作水平。今后，我们会陆续与大家共享一些生动有趣的科技英语文章以共勉。欢迎大家踊跃交流意见，分享阅读心得。 科技英语文章阅读会之： Unlock local research potential with open access 新闻来源：www.scidev.net
好的读者成就好的作者。 在历次培训活动中，理文编辑一直鼓励作者积极阅读以提高自己的写作水平。今后，我们会陆续与大家共享一些生动有趣的科技英语文章以共勉。欢迎大家踊跃交流意见，分享阅读心得。 科技英语文章阅读会之： China pushes to rule the waves 新闻来源：nature.com
科技英语写作 英文科技论文写作讲座 一、 论文标题 1． 标题不是句子，不要求主、谓、宾齐全，但应注意用词前后次序和用词简练，重点明确。 2． 标题中尽量避免“study on”，“research on”，“investigation of”之类没有多少实际意义的词组，尤其是在题目较长的情况下。 3． 标题中不要用缩略语、化学式和专利商标名（在某技术领域内大家熟知的缩写除外）。 4． 标题不要太长，第一个词和实词的首字母要大写（其他如the、a、an、and和所有介词都小写）。 二、 摘要写作注意事项 1． 摘要基本内容为论文的研究目的（purpose），主要研究过程（procedure），采用的方法（methods）以及主要结论（conclusion）。 2． 摘要应突出文章的创新和独到之处（what is new and original in this paper？）。 3． 摘要要使用正规英语和标准术语，避免使用缩写词（除非是大家熟知的如CAD、CAM、IT等）。 4． 摘要尽可能使用短语，用被动语态，用第三人称。描述作者以往的科研工作可用过去时或现在完成时，但结论用一般现在时。 三、 科技论文、项目文件、协议汉译英常用时态 1． 在论文、项目文件和协议等文件中，提及以前所做的研究工作，而且有具体时间或时间状语时，用过去时或过去完成时。 2． 论文中实验叙述可用一般过去时。 3． 论文中的讨论和结论叙述可用一般现在时。 4． 论文中的讨论和结论叙述可用一般现在时。 5． 一般真理、定理、公式用一般现在时。 6． 计划要做的工作、项目活动及预期要达到的目标用一般将来时。 四、 英文论文写作应注意的事项 1． 不能在毫无把握的情况下想当然造字，专业词汇一定要准确，应以英美学者写的原文为参考标准（中国学者写的不足为据！）。 2． 走出受制于金山词霸。中英文单词的最大区别是具体的中文词（语）只存在一种写法，而译成英文时要根据其确切含义选择最恰当的英文单词（或词组）。比方“潇洒”一词，如果翻英文词典可能又多个词，究竟选哪个呢？（handsome、open-minded、smart、elegant、graceful、natural and unrestrained、noble、cool、in a relaxed state of mind、debonair（轻松愉快）、dashing、vigorous（朝气蓬勃）。 3． 尽量不连用三个以上的of（可用所属格或从句表示）。 4． 不用含糊不清的句子，比方某句中的it看不出代表前面哪个词或句子，这在同学们写的论文中屡见不鲜。 5． 单复数主语应有对应的谓语动词形式，这种类型的错误时常可见，比方data是复数，（单数形式是datum，注意！它又是加工、测量基准的意思。）谓语动词要用复数形式。而games（大型运动会）、proceeding（论文集）、news、United States、United Nations、airlines（航空公司）、headquarters（总部）。看起来是复数，实际上是单数名词。 6． 论文中不能用过分肯定夸张的句子或词汇（如perfect、best、most desirable、most ideal、create…for the first time、lay a foundation for…等）。而应采用would、should、will、surely、certainly、probably、perhaps和provide a technological support for、supply a basis for、conduct a basic research on、carry out a preliminary exploration in、make a preparation work for等婉语。 7． 要用多个同义词（synonym）代替某个词，不要老是重复用一个词，显得文章乏味。 1） 做、开展、进行、从事 do、make、carry out、perform、conduct(research、study、experiment、survey、investigation…) 2） 制造、制作 make、fabricate、build、manufacture、construct… 3） 改变、改换、修改、重建、重组 convert、transform、charge、modify、adapt、alter、reform、correct、reconstruct、rebuild、reconfigure、reorganize… 4） 建议、提出 advise、recommend、suggest、propose、introduce、put forward、present、develop… 5） 建立 establish、set up、form、construct、formulate、build… 6） 给、提供 give、offer、provide、supply、furnish 7） 改善、改进 improve、enhance、raise、better 8） 开发、利用 develop、exploit、take advantage of、make use of、employ、tap、open up… 9） 验证、证明 verify、prove、check、test、identify、justify、affirm、confirm… 10）由…组成：constitute（department A ，department B constitute the School of Mechanical Engineering；the School of Mechanical Engineering（is composed of、consists of、comprises、is comprised of department A ，department B）注意区别：整体（be composed of、consist of、comprise、be comprised of）分部，而分部（constitute）整体。 注意科技文章中一些常用词意上的差别 1）manufacture一般指工业上批量的、成熟的有一定规模的制造，而fabricate一般指具有技巧性的，手工方式制造，而且一般是小批量的甚至是单独制作。make是泛指的做和制造。 2）transform指根本的转换、变换、改造（常跟into）。convert只指物理形式的变换（比方数模转换），transfer和transmit指传递、传送、发射等（比方heat transfer传热学，data transmission数据传输，power transmission功率传递，TV transmission power电视发射塔，hydraulic transmission液压传动），特别要注意：技术改造是technological transformation，但技术转让却是technology transfer，还有transformation matrix转换矩阵等。communication指信息交流、通讯、联络，transport指交通运输。transit是转运、转口、过渡（phase transition相变，during the transition of the centuries世纪之交，trans-century talent跨世纪人才）。 3）Management：企业管理enterprise management、项目管理project management、工商管理business administration、公共管理public administration、数据管理data administration、管理操作员administrative operator 4）tool工具，cutter刀具，tooling（无复数形式）工装、模具，device小装置，equipment（无复数形式）设备，instrument仪器、仪表、乐器，（注意，instrument还有手段、方法、证书等意思）installation成套装置设备，apparatus电器、机电设备，appliance家用（电）器具，utensil器皿、厨具，facility（常用复数facilities）设施、设备、工具、机构（例如：sport facilities体育器材、设施），utility公共事业设备（水、电、煤气等），implement工具、器械（农具）。 5）element、part零件，component组件、元件、组分、分量（imaginary component虚部，pressure component分压力，structural component结构件），subassembly组合件、机组、分组成、分步装配，assembly总装、装配，machine机器，machine tool机床，machinery机械（总称）。 6）trouble麻烦，defect故障缺陷，glitch小毛病，fault人为错误，error计算、测试错误、误差，breakdown故障停机（stoppage diagnosis或fault diagnosis故障诊断），flaw瑕疵、缺陷，mistake理解不当造成的错误，blunder犯大错、失策。（平常只能说：Sorry， it’s my fault or it’s my mistake.） 7）accuracy精度（machining accuracy加工精度，positioning accuracy定位精度，positional accuracy位置精度，measuring accuracy测量精度，precision精密（precision instrument精密仪器，precision machining精密加工，precision mold精密模具）。 8）intensity指强化的程度、力度（比方加大投资力度－to increase the investment intensity，提高训练强度－to strengthen the training intensity），strength指材料受力后能承受而不被破坏的能力，指力学强度（如疲劳强度－fatigue strength，极限强度－ultimate strength等），另外一个特殊用法是strengthen，有时也可做优势、实力用。比方on the strength of…凭借…方面的实力。 9）conference正式的会议、讨论会、学术会议、协商会（CPPCC中国人民政府协商会议）；convention全国性大会、公约、协定（the Geneva Convention日内瓦公约）；congress全国代表大会、美国国会；council政务会、理事会、委员会。如国务院（中）state council，联合国安理会the U.N. Security Council；assembly集会、议会，如：联合国大会General Assembly；meeting一般会议；session某一届会议，如：全会plenary session；parliament 某些国家的国会或议会的名称，尤指英联邦一些国家的议会；seminar、workshop指规模较小的学术研究会；forum是论坛；conference是正式的大型学术会议，常规表达方式是：International Conference on… 10）verify证明、验证，validate使生效、合法、批准，justify认为…合理、划算、为…辩护，confirm确认。 11）prove证明，approve批准。 12）base基地、机座（experimental base实验基地，incubation base孵化基地），basis（抽象的基础，on the basis of…在…基础上），basic（al）基本的。 13）big、large、great、huge、enormous、giant、titanic、tremendous、vast、massive、substantial、immense、grand的用法区别：big用于形容重量、质量、体积（主要形容外形）。This child is big for his age. Large可用于形容重量、体积、数量、容量（只能描述物理尺寸、体积，不能描述抽象事物，而big有时可以描述抽象事物，有重大、严重之意，如big fire、big difficulty等）。 常见用法举例： 1． 可以说big boy（一个大个子男孩）但不能讲large boy。而small boy和little boy都对（但前者强盗个头，后者既包括个头又包括年纪小）。 2． 可以讲large deformation（大变形），large number（大数字）this city has a large population（这个城市人口众多）。但不能说big number、big deformation和big population。 3． 讲大人物可以用big potato或great man或VIP（very important person）。great用于形容重物理量大或抽象的大（伟大、巨大）。The great western development西部大开发。 4． giant指体积和力量的巨大（比方巨人）。The reactor is contained in a giant pressure vessel. giant panda大熊猫，giant brain大型计算机。 5． titanic力大无比的（从希腊神话中的巨人Tian而来）。 6． tremendous指规模、体积、程度大得惊人。They have made tremendous achievements in their work. 7． vast一般用于形容范围、区域、视野的广阔，a vast expanse of desert。有时也可形容巨额和大量，如a vast sum of money，vast difference。 8． massive用于形容大块、笨重，也可形容大量。massive structure块状结构，massive destructive weapons大规模杀伤性武器，massive dump大量（信息/存储），massive resonance大质量共振。但大量生产、大规模生产、大规模销售只能说mass production、large-scale production、mass marketing等。 9． substantial用于形容抽象的、无法具体描述的多和大量意思。The improvement of the light 10． grand指宏伟庄严The National Grand Theater国家大剧院，grand stand大看台grand champion冠军grand piano大三角钢琴。 下面是常用的与“大”有关的词组： 大量：a lot of，a large quantity of，a large amount（wealth） of；大规模：large scale，mass，massive；大幅度：a large extent，substantial；大批订货：（an） extensive order；大量资料：a wealth of data，a great mass of data；大用户：large user，bulk user；大宗买卖：bulk sale；大数：large number，great number；大小（尺寸）：size；大小（幅度）：magnitude；大雨：heavy rain；大雪：heavy snowfall；大（厚）截面：heavy section；大火：big fire；大分子：giant molecule；大系统：large system；大型铸（锻）件：heavy casting（forging）；大科学：big science；大电流：heavy current；大功率：high power；大容量（信息）：mass storage；大容量（物质）：high volume；大螺距：high pitch；大量服务：bulk service；大量交货：bulk delivery 几个常用的“最大”的表达方式： 最大诚意：utmost sincerity；最大份额：lion’s share；最大鼓舞：great encouragement；最大速度：top speed；最大牺牲：ultimate sacrifice；最大幸福：supreme happiness；最大障碍：biggest obstacle 14）1．state政府、行政意义上的国家（the state key laboratory国家重点实验室，the State Ministry of Education国家教育部） 2．country地理概念上的国家（the whole country全国） 3．nation民族（improve the bilateral relationship of the two nations改善两国的双边关系）national全国的（the National People’s Congress全国人民代表大会，National Day国庆日，National defence国防，National Laboratory of…国家实验室 15）need（人类）自然需要，急需（注，need除了做实义动词外还可做助动词，you need not to care me any more！demand（for）市场、物质需求（to meet the market demand）。requirement（s）对…提出的要求，request祈求、强烈请求、恳求（make a request for，on request如索求则…），solicit（只有动词）恳求、祈求、要求、征求，后跟for或to＋inf例：solicit assistance请求支援，solicit for subscription征求订户。 16）change改变、改动，modify修改（设计），correct改错、改正，revise修订、修改（文件、著作、合同等），adapt改编（将文学作品由一种形式改写或另一种形式）。 17）平衡（balance、equilibrium），转子动平衡rotor’s dynamic balance，某种过程达到动平衡dynamic equilibrium，化学平衡chemical equilibrium，生态平衡ecological balance，双方之间的势力均衡power balance between two sides。 遗产、传统heritage、legacy，historical legacy历史遗产，cultural heritage文化遗产，继承inherit（inheritance），继承人inheritor，遗产税inheritance tax，遗传的（生）genetic，遗传学genetics，遗传工程（密码、基因、算法）genetic engineering（code、genome、algorithmic）。 19）relation指人际、国际、贸易关系，而科学研究、实验中的各影响因素之间的关系都用relationship（between、among）。 20）related to与…有关的，relevant to与…相关的，relative to相对…而言，correlative有相关性的（数据关系），coherent相干的、凝聚的，coherent effect相干效应，coherent light相干光，coherent imaging相干成像。 21）关于不同形式的同一个词（名词、形容词、动名词等）用法区别 1．高等院校higher educational institutions，而高教出版社却是higher education press 2．实验结果experimental results，实验基地experimental base（实验一词做定语时通通用形容词形式） 3．系统工程system engineering，系统管理system management，系统误差 4．技术改造technological transformation，技术转让technology transfer 5．国家技术进步奖State Award for Scientific and Technological Progress，国家自然科学奖State 6．一些用法上很难区分的词：experiment实验，experimental一套实验、实验方法、整个实验安排和布置，document文件，documentation文档、文档生成、处理等，instrument一台仪器设备，instrumentation测试装置、测试技术、整套测试工作的安排布置，circuit电路，circuiting一套装置中全部电路总称（如同poem诗歌和poeting诗歌集的区别），technology泛指的广义的技术、技巧和工艺，technique具体技术手段、工艺，forming：与die有关的锻造成型加工，shaping ：与mold有关的铸造、注塑成型加工 22）complete、accomplish和finish的用法区别：complete用于完成某个项目、工程（project、engineering）；accomplish用于完成某项目标、指标（goal、index）；finish则用来完成作业（homework）、学业（finish with school）、论文（thesis、dissertation）等。另外，complete还是形容词，表示完整、成套的… 23）关于subject的用法： 1．Subject做名词：主语、科目（required subject 必修课）、学科、主题、研究对象。 2．Subject做形容词：从属的、受支配的、以…为条件的、be subject to以…为条件的，受…约束的 3．Subject做动词：使…受…作用或约束，Subject M… to …N迫使M受N作用（影响约束等）故subject又常用be subjected to的形式。 24）关于地域、地区几个同义词的用法区别： 1．自治区autonomous region 2．碑林区 Beilin district 3．华北区North China Area西北区Northwest China Area 4．汉中地区Hanzhong prefecture 5．经济特区SEZ（special economic zone） 6．地方经济regional economy 7．地方政府local government 8．局部战争local war 9．局域网local area network 25）关于首字母缩略词（acronym）使用注意事项： 1．缩略词的首字母如果是：A、E、F、H、I、L、M、N、O、R、S、X则前面的不定冠词用an（因为这12个字母发元音）。 2．缩略词复数在后面加s或es要根据最后一个字母确定，而且字要小一号，例如：ICs、FMSes 26）校园常用词汇： 1．必修课required（compulsory） course 2．选修课elective（optional）course 3．辅修课minor course 4．基础课basic course 5．专业课specialized course 6．成绩单school report、academic record 7．考试成绩exam scores 8．排名次序ranking position 9．学籍卡registration record card 10．硕士学位master’s degree 11．博士学位doctoral degree 12．博士后流动站post -doctoral mobile research station 13．毕业论文thesis（本科和硕士生）、dissertation（博士生） 14．毕业答辩oral defense for one’s thesis（dissertation） 15．毕业实习graduation field work 16．毕业设计graduation project 17．课程设计curricular project 18．应届毕业生this year’s graduates 19．毕业证diploma、graduation certificate 20．授予学位confer a … degree on sb 21．博导doctoral advisor 22．奖学金scholarship、助学金stipend 23．高等院校higher educational institutions、institutions of higher education 24．理工科大学university of science engineering 25．重点高校：key（major、leading、banner） university 26．大专junior college、大专文凭associate degree 27．中专secondary specialized school、polytechnic school 28．职校vocational（training） school 29．技工学校technical school 27）论文中人称问题：科技论文在人称代词的使用上有两种主张，一种是传统式的主张，认为科技论文侧重叙事和推理，读者重视的是论文的内容和观点，感兴趣 28）正式论文不能用省略形式的词，如let’s、haven’t等。 29）书面文章不要用生僻的怪字或俚语。 30）为使文章更流畅、通顺，应注意结构词的使用。在一篇科技论文中，普通词和结构词可占90%以上，而专业词汇不过只占5%左右。现将常用的结构词列举如下： 1．增加、继续扩展：additionally、in addition、as well as、besides、furthermore、moreover、equally important、on the second thought、subs equently 比较：after all、alternately、a similar analysis shows、however、in comparison with、in contrast、 nevertheless、on the contrary、on the other hand、otherwise、whereas、yet… 3．详述：as an example、for instance、such as、in general、objectively speaking、generally speaking、namely、that is to say… 4．概括：in essence、in other words、in short、in summary、to sum up、let us review the steps in the preceding chapter（above-mentioned procedure）、several remarks need to be made at this point、as mentioned above 、all in all… 5．目的：for this purpose、for this reason、in order to、with this goal… 6．结果：as a result、accordingly、consequently、hence、in view of these considerations、so far、the forging discussion illustrates、therefore、in spite of… 7．赞同：certainly、obviously、fortunately、hopefully、in fact、of course、undeniably、without any question… 8．时间：a little later、as will be seen、at present、at this point、finally、immediately、meanwhile、at the same time、presently、recently、ultimately。 第二讲 科技论文中动词的时态和语态特点 英语科技文章中动词常用的时态种类较少，经常使用被动语态，现分别介绍如下： 一、时态 英语动词共16种时态，其中最常用的只有5种，即一般现在时、一般过去时、现在完成时、一般将来时、现在进行时。科技文章中一般现在时、一般将来时和现在完成时比另外两种更常用些： 1． 一般现在时 一般现在时是科技文章中最常见的时态，主要有三种用法。 A． 叙述一般过程 A scientist observes carefully applies logical thought to his observations and tries to find relationships in data. B．叙述客观事实或科学定理 Sound travels through the air in waves. Work is equal to the product of force and the distance through which the force moves. C.通常或习惯发生的行为 Alternating current is usually supplied to people’s house at 50 cycles per second. 2． 一般将来时 表示将来发生的行为或情况。 Electronic products will become more and more miniaturized because of the increase of inter 1． During the part few years，several countries have pooled（开发利用） their resources in order to carry out certain scientific investigation more efficiently. 2． The September 11 terrorist attacks have caused great compact on the global economy. 二、被动语态 在科技文章中被动语态用得十分频繁，这主要有两个原因：第一是谁来执行这些行为和过程并不重要；第二是行为或过程的主体或者没有必要指出，或者根本指不出来。由于摘要语言简明直接，故摘要中大量使用被动语态。 三种句型： 1：主语＋修饰语＋被修饰语 2：主语＋被动语态＋修饰语 3：主语（＋修饰语）＋被动语态＋补足成分 例1：A triangulation technique consisting of participant observation 、interviews and questions was used to collect data from 100 engineers and twenty project managers over a two year period. 例2：The technical and economic aspects of the problem involved are examined in detail，emphasizing the comparison among different possible alternative solutions. （各种可供选择的解决方案） 在科技文章中有带by的短语或句子，但数量不是很多，而且这种带by的短语或句子常常不是指行为的主体，而是行为或过程的方式或工具。 1． The insulating substance was severely damaged by the sea water. 2． The phenomenon was recognized many years ago and put into use in various applications although it was then poorly understood. 3． The spectrum of the antibiotic substance could be determined by testing its effectiveness against various types of bacteria. 4． Most of the drags in current use were discovered by accident or trial and error. 使用被动语态的另一个原因是用于向后扩展句子，不至于显得头重脚轻。 例：In the digital computer the number to be manipulated are represented by sequences of digits which are first recorded in suitable code ，then converted into positive and negative electrical impulses. 第三讲 名词化和动词非限定形式 light scans――the scanning of the light to apply force――the application of force to translate Chinese into English――the translation of Chinese into English 例如，名词化既是句子的简化手段，又是句子复杂化的手段。 1． Conversion of the energy of a mountain stream into the powerful torque of an electric motor a hundred miles away. 2． The General Secretary has prepared a five year survey program which is designed contribution to the development of natural resources by indicating economic and technologically advanced approaches to the exploration and assessment of these resources. 动词非限定形式： 1． 动词不定式 动词不定式在句子中可作主语、表语、宾语、定语和状语。 1． Although it（形式主语） isdifficult （for scientists to know）（to deal with such a large subject 实际主语），the first step is perhaps to consider the main economic difficulties（表语）an underdeveloped on emerging region has to face. 2． The refusal to be disturbed or disorganized（干扰和搅乱）by unexpected or apparently adverse occurrences（意外事件），put on the contrary，to be stimulated （激励）by them（定语），has in fact been a marked characteristic of successful investigators. 3． Industry everywhere forced rising labor costs and more complex processes， both arising from the determination of human being to achieve a better stand and of living. 2． 分词 作定语、状语、补足语。分词短语起定语从句或状语从句作用，并且和它们交替使用。句子不至于显得单调。 1． Thus we may be faced with a society having two basic groups in industrial organization ：one consisting of those who carry out the decision of this organizing group. 2． It is not easy ，for example ，to explain the processes involved in a computerized control system if the basic algebraic symbols are without meaning. 3． Confronted with the many problems presented by，let us say，an active volcano， we many ask：How does volcano work and how is the heart generated？When did volcano first begin to erupt and when is if likely to erupt again？ 英语科技文章中有时还用独立分词结构，它有两种结构形式： Optimal design 优化设计 Digital manufacturing 数字制造 （a） 分词有自己的逻辑主语，它和句子的主语不一样 The engineering solution is the optimum solution，the most desirable end result taking into account many factors. （b） 介词＋宾语＋宾补 The volunteers would come into a room where there was a row of five calicles with their doors shut. 动名词： 可作主语、定语、表语、宾语，也可以有自己的宾语和。在科技英语中动名词和动名词短语还可作介词和的宾语。 2．The technique of making the computer carry out a particular task is known as programming ，which involves first breaking the calculation down into a sequence of arithmetic operations and then preparing a series of instructions which cause the discreet computers to carry out the required operations on the stored information in the current order. Operation on＋对象/with＋手段 多重复合句： This instrument works on the principle that each individual substance emits a characteristic spectrum of light when its molecules are caused to vibrate by the application of the heat ，electricity ，etc. and after studying the spectrum he had obtained on this occasion，Hilebrendreported the gas to be nitrogen. When we look into the matter carefully，we will find that the world we live in presents an endless variety of fascinating problems which excite our wonder and curiosity. 语法分析：找谓语－后找主语；找连接词。 The point I am anxious to make is that the research for models of this kind，the study of their behavior and the relationship of this behavior with the real situations which they seek to represent and the consequential modification of them so as to lead to reliable prediction and then to decision－making would not be possible if there were no assistance afforded to the investigator by the digital computer and by the work of the technologists who it（works） is founded into stable ，reliable and economical pieces of electrical equipment. 该句的主语就是：我很想说明的一点就是…… 部门：sector It also means that governments are increasing compelled to interfere in these sections in order to set up production and ensure that it utilized to the best advantage：for example，They may alter the structure of education ，or interface in order to reduce the consumption of natural resources or tap resources hither to unexploited；or they may cooperate directly in the growing number of international the international Atomic Energy Agency，the European Including…后不加and so on Such as 后加and so on Industry产业，狭义：工业 Interactive交互式（上课） 四、关于科技论文摘要的语言特点 以下几种行文格式可参考： （1）The author（or writer）of this article（paper、dissertation、thesis）reviews（discusses、tries to describe、explores、deal with、summarizes、gives an account of、etc.）something… （2）The aim（purpose、objective）of this article is to determine（explore、review）sth… （3）… problem of…is discussed（researched、investigated、analyzed、evaluated、assessed、reported） （4）The method（theoretical foundation、experimental scheme、modification to、algorithm…）is discussed （suggested、proposed、presented、developed…） 例1：The author presents some new observations both theoretical and experimental concerning the effect of the mutualinteraction between micro－sized particles in a standing waves. 例2：The author describes a configuration 固定搭配： 1．与system连用的词组 build up、develop、improve、set up、work out（通过努力达到、制定出、设计、研究、估计出）、establish、devise、examine、found、formulate（系统阐述、说明、表达）、check 2．与influence have（has、exert、produce、impose、bring about）a great（favorable、beneficial、deep、predominant、considerable、lasting、wide-spread、decisive、permanent、harmful、destructive…）influence on …，under the influence of… 另外说明：effect一般指直接的影响（科学研究、实践中），influence指深远重大影响，impact指重大的冲击般的影响。 3．与develop achieve（affect、attain、hinder、reach、prevent）a（the）great（remarkable、rapid、comprehensive）development of… 关于结论的建议有如下格式： 1． The author suggests（recommends、concludes）that 2． This article shows that 3． The author’s suggestion（conclusion）is that 4． The author finds（considers、seems）if necessary to 例1：The author proposes an approach to the creation of a synthetic（integrated、comprehensive）method of investigating and designing objects. 结论结果比较： 1． These results are（quite） consistent with the original hypothesis. 2． These results provide substantial evidence for 3． These experimental results support the original hypothesis that… 4． Our research results are in substantial agreement with… 5． The experimental and theoretical values agree quite well. 6． These experimental values(data) are higher(lower)than those with traditional(common) methods， 7． The result observed in our study are better than those reported by howell（1996）。
http://starlism.blogbus.com/logs/30216609.html http://www.zlunwen.com/english/anglicist/53045_1.htm Beginning 1. In this paper, we focus on the need for 2. This paper proceeds as follow. 3. The structure of the paper is as follows. 4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts 5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introduction 1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined. 2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections. 3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered. Review 1. This review is followed by an introduction. 2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2. 3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given. 4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ... 5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx. 6. Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods. Body 1. Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance. 2. Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision making logic. 3. Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxx 4. Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding. 5. Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time window 6. Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ... 7. Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the .. and also discusses how to evaluate system performance. 8. Section 3 describes a new measure of xx. 9. Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx. 10. Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision. 11. Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rules 12. The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies. 13. Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model. 14. Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set based approach to cost variance investigation. 15. Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx. 16. Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process. 17. Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3. 18. Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data. 19. Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model .. 20. Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work. 21. Section 6 illustrates the model with an example. 22. Various ways of justification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2. 23. In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM system 24. In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy. 25. In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order dense. 26. In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions. 27. In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...This Section 1. In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described. 2. We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Section 2. The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements. 3. However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section. 4. The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use. 5. We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections. 6. The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xx Summary 1. This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5. 2. Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation. 3. Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research. 4. Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper. 5. Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized 6. The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn. 7. Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper. Chapter 0. Abstract 1. A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables. 2. This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures. 3. This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx. 4. The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations. 5. The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision. 6. The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithm. 7. The usefulness of xx is also considered. 8. A brief methodology used in xx is discussed. 9. The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem. 10. A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices. 11. Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified. 12. The use of the method is discussed and an example is given. 13. Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique. 14. This paper analyses problems in 15. This paper outlines the functions carried out by ... 16. This paper includes an illustration of the ... 17. This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching 18. Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated. 19. The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xx 20. Our proposed model is verified through experimental study. 21. The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of: xx, xx 22. The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables. 23. A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure Chapter 1. Introduction Time 1. Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive 2. Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world 3. The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the 4. The development of ... is explored 5. During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions 6.The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent years 7. There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ... 8. A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve... 9. A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena. 10. At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xx 11. Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed. 12. The pioneer work can be traced to xx . 13. To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems. Objective / Goal / Purpose 1. The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows: 2. The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer aided instruction for xxx. 3. The paper concerns the development of a xx 4. The scope of this research lies in 5. The main theme of the paper is the application of rule based decision making. 6. These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ... 7. The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows: 8. The primary purpose/consideration/objective of 9. The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide 10. The main objective of such a ... system is to 11. The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution. 12. In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements: 13. In order to take advantage of their similarity 14. more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completed 15. In this trial, the objective is to generate... 16. for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues 17. A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx. 18. For an illustrative purpose, four well known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx. 19. A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methods 20. This illustration points out the need to specify 21. The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive. 22. Chapter 2. Literature Review 23. A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xx 24. A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decade 25. A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx. 26. There is considerable amount of literature on planning 27. However, these studies do not provide much attention to uncertainty in xx. 28. Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications. 29. Many research studies have been carried out on this topic. 30. Problem of xx draws recently more and more attention of system analysis. 31. Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of 32. Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated. 33. Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature. 34. The central issue in all these studies is to 35. The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches. 36. Applied ... techniques to 37. Characterized the ... system as 38. Developed an algorithm to 39. Developed a system called ... which 40. Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce 41. Emphasized the need to 42. Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology 43. A comprehensive study of the... has been undertaken 44. Much work has been reported recently in these filed 45. Proposed/Presented/State that/Described/Illustrated/ Indicated/Has shown / showed/Address/Highlights 46. Point out that the problem of 47. A study on ...was done / developed by and is 50. The system developed by 52. ' model draws attention to evolution in human development 54. . 60. Studies have been completed to established 61. The ...studies indicated that 62. Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking. Problem / Issue / Question 63. Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model. They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects. 64. Remedy / solve / alleviate these problems 67. ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolved 68. Two major problems have yet to be addressed 69. An unanswered question 70. This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution. 71. An additional research issue to be tackled is .... 72. Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussed 73. The three prime issues can be summarized: 74. The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ... 75. There have been many attempts to 76. It is expected to be serious barrier to 77. It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex http://www.qiqi8.cn/article/149/150/2006/2006102338180. html 1.Titles of Papers 1.1 Functioning requirements The expression of a title is very important since people usually judge an article by its title. Thus any titles of a manuscripts should show the main topic, new and original, convenience of reference, with great deal of message. 1.2 Linguistic characters Titles of papers usually are characterized in short and brief, without being hard to understand or unintelligible, no empty, general words and other redundant formula. 1.3 Examples of title composition A preliminary study on the dynamic changes of endogenous hormones of early maturing wheats and their parents Dynamics of endogenous hormones in the early maturing wheats and their parental plants Dynamics of endogenous hormones in roots of the early maturing wheats and their parents A method of isolation of A new method to isolate 1.4 Summary: A good title may have a role of adding the finishing touch to the whole paper. Titles are the first part of the whole paper which is read by readers. So to every author it is necessary to spend his efforts to work out an excellent title. In addition, the proper expression of authors affiliation is also very important. 2. The Introduction of papers 2.1 Functioning Requirements Introduction is the beginning of the main body of papers. A good introduction could attract the readers, let them continue to read the contents followed or the paper wont be read further. The history, recent advances, significance, the present research contents and purpose or aim of the research should be briefly introduced. 2.2 Linguistic Characters More complex and simple sentences; present, past and the present perfect tenses; passive voice. For instance, The role of summer pruning on growth and development of apple trees is now well established. 2.3 Sentences usually used in INTRODUCTION 2.3.1 Starting part In 1970 and independently identified One of the most important aspects of The role of is now well established. As we know It has been proved that It was proved (reported) t hat There are few communications on the effect of on Smith et al. (2000) reported that Most of the experiments were carried out It has been long know that It is well documented that According to the theory, 2.3.2 Middle part (review) It has been shown that As we know, As has been stated (proved) that It was proved (reported) that Hayman (1982) pointed out that Two methods have been employed to estimate the Smith et al. (2000) reported that Several experiments on Based on the results of were (was) discussed and reviewed. In preliminary studies using The experiment on ...was carried by In spite of the potential importance of We hypothesize that under conditions of The following questions need to be answered: We have examined the effects ofon Although increasingly more is known about As can be, several author have investigated the role of A developmental study was undertaken to describe the Many studies have brought out that Many previous studies have shown that Some information is also available as to In the present studywas researched under conditions of We are also interested in In addition to our interest in understandingIn addition to its role as a In contrast, the present author found previously that The results made byhave shown Recent evidence suggested that Recent experiments byhave suggested To meet this challenge, a great deal of effort focusing on is (are) needed better understandAt the present time However, it is becoming increasingly clear that 2.3.3 Ending part To test specifically the ability of The primary objective of our study was to examine The goal of this study was to selectand to see whether the The objective of the current study was therefore to examine the effects of on This paper reports the growth response ofto under field condition in soil. This paper describes an experiment done to test the effects of on Our objectives were (I), (ii) , 3.Materials and Methods This part is relatively easy to write comparing to INTRODUCTION and DISCUSSION. However, authors should pay great attention to the Correctness of the English and scientific description. 英文论文摘要常用语句 In this paper we describe...... This paper presents...... This paper reports/experiments aimed at...... The author reports...... This study reports...... Investigations on ... were carried out. The authors made observations on ... Our project aims to study/survey/evaluate/determine
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