圣彼得堡俄罗斯博物馆 ( Russian Museum ) 主要收藏俄罗斯艺术家的作品，这不同于收藏更国际化的埃尔米塔日博物馆 ( TheState Hermitage Museum ) 。对俄罗斯艺术史不了解，因此多数艺术家都没有听说过。能想到的作品只有一件，列宾的《伏尔加河纤夫》，但那幅画没有找到。问工作人员，说是拿到莫斯科展览了。 这次贴出希腊神话题材的雕塑。见到这些诸神雕塑如见故人，很感亲切。因此看到的都拍照了。按照创作时间排列。 拿竖琴的太阳神阿波罗 (Apollo with a Lyre 1752) by Vasily Maximov (mid-18th century) 神后朱诺 (Juno 1756) by Vasily Chvanov (mid-18th century) 普罗米修斯 (Prometheus 1769, 19 世纪复本 ) by Fyodor Gordeyev (1744-1810) 半羊人玛耳绪阿斯 (Marsyas 1776) by Fyodor Schedrin (1751-1825) 梦神摩耳甫斯 (Morpheus 1782) by Ivan Prokofiev (1758-1828) 维纳斯 (Venus 1792) by Feodosy Shchedrin (1751-1825) 第二代众神之王克洛诺斯 (Cronos 1792, 1912 年复本 ) by Ivan Martos 丘比特 (Cupid 1797) by Mikhail Kozlovsky (1753-1802) 月神狄安娜 (Diana 1798) by Feodosy Shchedrin (1751-1825) 牧神和巴切坎特 (Faun and Baechante 1837) by Boris Orlovsky (1797-1837) 帕里斯 (Paris 1838) by Boris Orlovsky (1797-1837) 牧神和小羊 (Faun with a Kid 1839) by Nikolai Ramazanov (1818-1867) 水仙女 (Nymph 1845) by Pyotr Stavasser (1816-1850) 脱去水仙女鞋的牧神 (Faun Removing a Nymph’s Shoes 1849) by Pyotr Stavasser (1816-1850) 维纳斯 (Venus 1852) by Ivan Vitali (1794-1855) 吹排箫的牧神 (Faun playing Syrinx 1858) by Boris Orlovsky (1797-1837)
（ 博主按：读研时写的一篇作业，留存 ） People travel to new places for many different reasons. One of the most common reasons is to see a new place, culture, or way of life. For a total outsider with only a short amount of time, museums offer a glimpse into these ways of life through specially designed education, cultural insights, and entertainment. People come to museums to learn about the world. The educational experience in a museum is quite different than that of reading or studying. In a museum, learning experiences are direct and thrilling. Reading books about primitive history might seem boring, but seeing the huge skeleton of a terrifying dinosaur in person is a thrilling experience. Reading history books about the Nanjing Massacre are horrifying, sad, and yet abstract, but a trip to the Memorial Museum in Nanjing is an experience that has moved many students to tears. Museums can make otherwise distant and mundane educational experiences come to life. The museums of a place tell an outsider much about what the people of that place value culturally. A trip to the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art would tell the visitor that Americans are interested in art from all over the world, but by comparing the size of the European Art collection with that of the Asian Art collection, one might conclude that Americans feel a strong cultural affinity with European Art. Similarly, a tourist to a place like San Francisco, where there is a large museum devoted solely to Asian Art, might conclude that people from San Francisco have a stronger affinity to Asian culture. Meanwhile, many people who travel simply want to relax and be entertained, and museums also provide an excellent venue for leisure. Even most nominally educational museums provide exciting attractions like movie theaters and special cultural performances such as dances, gourmet dinners, lectures, and musical performances from jazz to rock and roll. Many museums in the United States hold special nights once a week where young people can drink and socialize. Museums are not only spaces for education and culture, but have also become important entertainment and social venues.
Dr. Bob came to talk about AXIOS Robert Murphy（Bob）博士、教授，是加拿大皇家安大略省博物馆馆员，多伦多大学教授，世界著名的两爬系统学家。2003年2月，我有幸得到国家留学基金委的资助，到他的实验室访学。从此开启了昆虫分子系统学研究的窗口。十多年来，Bob几乎每次在北京转机，都来动物研究所和包括我在内的老朋友交流科研进展和心得，并开展合作研究工作。 此次来京，Bob和我们分享了他长期投稿过程中经历的一些问题和对AXIOS系统的想法。AXIOS系统是Molecular Ecology和其它一些生态和进化生物学领域的编辑们，为提高作者投稿效率，提出的一套新思路：在作者投稿到专业期刊之前，评估最合适的候选刊物。这个思路，可以避免作者被拒稿后，不断修改论文格式，并占据编辑和审稿人宝贵的科研时间。在投稿量较低的情况下，这样的情况不算太严重；但在很大的投稿量情况下，每年投稿人、编辑、审稿人在质量不高、反复拒稿或修改稿件格式的过程中浪费了海量而宝贵的科研时间。 What’s is AXIOS? Axios Review is an independent peer review service for evolutionary biology and ecology. We aim to eliminate rejections on the basis of novelty or scope. http://axiosreview.org/about-axios/ 下面引用了2001年，Bob在科学杂志上的一段评述（www.sciencemag.org/careers/2001/06/curator-new-millenium）。在这段评述中，Bob和大家分享了他的职业生涯中一些重要的阶段、经验和对传统博物馆分类学馆员的见解。 A Curator in the New Millenium F or as long as I can recall, I have wanted to be a museum curator. Blessed or cursed, I have the “collecting gene.” After I completed my B.A., I interviewed with a potential graduate adviser, Alan Leviton, a renowned herpetology curator at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco. He asked when I expected to graduate with a planned Ph.D. “About 1980, sir,” I replied. Next, he asked me to name every major North American natural history museum. This was easy. He seemed to be impressed. Then he asked the names and approximate ages of all herpetology curators. The names were easy, but the ages presented some problems. He then noted, “So you see, young man, you don’t stand a snowball’s chance in hell of getting a job in a museum, because no one will retire when you graduate!” To this I responded, “But wasn’t the same true for you?” I became his student and 10 years later a curator at the Royal Ontario Museum. Museum curatorial positions are very rare. In North America, there are only about 20 herpetological curator positions in what can be termed major museums, and yet there are far more than 600 herpetologists in academic positions. When a new position is offered, it’s news that everyone watches. Competition tends to be fierce. After all, what other academic position requires fieldwork and usually provides some or all of the funding to accomplish the task? Major museums with herpetological curatorial positions linked to faculty slots at leading universities are even more rare: the University of California, Berkeley; Harvard University; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; University of Kansas, Lawrence; McGill University in Montreal, Canada; and the Royal Ontario Museum with the University of Toronto, Canada. In contrast, the other major natural history museums do not have direct faculty ties: the Field Museum in Chicago, California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., American Museum of Natural History in New York City, Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, and Los Angeles County Museum, although many curators have adjunct faculty appointments. For a curator, both direct academic ties and graduate student supervision are critical. As Al Leviton once aptly commented, “You won’t stay current if you don’t have students to teach you new tricks.”Getting a curatorial job is tough. It takes a combination of self-marketing, academic training, interview skills, politics, and a whole lot of pure luck. Applicants must market themselves by publishing in the appropriate, leading journals and in traditional museum publications. Publications need to have a systematics and evolution orientation and be novel or environmentally relevant or both. Visibility is almost as important as academic pedigree; the chosen topic must have intrinsic appeal and should have demonstrable innovation. Students with a background in museum-based research and collection management have a distinct advantage over those who do not, but essential experience also can be gained through part-time employment or volunteering. Interview skills are no less important. Regarding pure luck, usually someone must retire just as you graduate, and your research organisms may need to be from a particular geographic region. Collections tend to have geographic orientations, and many positions are tied to the strengths in the museum’s holdings, whether in Canada, Latin America, Asia, Africa, or the Caribbean.Perhaps politics is most important of all, and from this no one ever escapes-ever. It can range from committee meetings, confidential telephone calls, and e-mails to pure, unadulterated, uncensored gossip and spiteful power struggles. The curators of the major museums know each other well, and they rely on each other for research, exchanges, loans, assistance, and information, even about one another. Politics can make you, break you, promote or fail you, fund you, or leave you selling used cars, regardless of your qualifications or the tenure of the incumbent. It’s just like poker if you’ve got the ante to play: You are rarely dealt a royal flush, but you don’t need one to win. Winning, and the amount you win, depends as much on the cards you hold as on how well you play them.Academically successful curators spend the most time on research-related endeavors, including acquiring research funding. The mere description of new species is no longer viewed as indicating original research. Today’s life science curators are expected to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships of organisms and interpret the evolution of particular features based on their history, apply their phylogenies to conservation issues, and be involved in bioinformatics. The description of new species is secondary. Research is quickly shifting toward applied conservation issues–not only the documentation of species diversity, but also fine-grained DNA analyses of geographic variation for species management and status assessment. Research has become very molecular and, unfortunately, traditional anatomical studies have become rather passé. The most productive research programs invariably involve graduate student training, and for me, work with visiting colleagues from developing countries, such as Mexico and China. The traditional requirements of fieldwork and collection acquisition continue today, consuming 2 or more months per year. To this add a proverbial mountain of manuscripts and grant proposals to review. There is considerable variation among individual curators in terms of research, exhibits, and administration, and no two are alike. Some curators do not have academic appointments, and thus have neither a cohort of graduate students, external research funding, nor active research programs. The future of museums is uncertain, certainly far more so than equivalent university professorial positions. For example, the Smithsonian Institution just announced plans to reduce its research staff by 350 positions. We are in a biodiversity crisis, and highly qualified systematists and museums are desperately needed to study and evaluate environmental trends and to help document priorities for conservation. Yet, there has been no significant expansion of museum positions. Many museums are suffering from frozen or reduced budgets and vacant or terminated curatorial and support positions. The number of curatorial positions has dwindled recently in many countries, including in Canada and the United Kingdom, and yet globally the human population, potential resources, and environmental needs have all grown at an alarming rate. There is a paradox between granting agencies putting large amounts of additional financial resources into biodiversity and conservation research, and the trend for stagnation or cutbacks at museums. For the optimist, this presents a great challenge to excel in research relevant to all of society. Although I sometimes wonder about the future of museums, the positive aspects of being a museum curator far outweigh such concerns. Dr. Robert Murphy is a senior curator of herpetology at the Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Royal Ontario Museum, and a professor of zoology at the University of Toronto.
基因组学不仅让分子生物实验室的研究者们感兴趣，连自然博物馆类的学术部门也对基因组学产生浓厚的兴趣。2014年12月12日，美国史密森学会宣布成立生物多样性基因组学研究所（Institute for Biodiversity Genomics），以加速获取地球上所有动植物的DNA数据。 尽管这一刻有些姗姗来迟，但史密森学会毕竟已迈出了这具有风向标的一步，对未来的自然史以及动植物研究来说，具有深刻的意义。事实上，对傲娇的史密森学会来说，如果没有其他科研工作单位给予他们的一记重拳，他们很难会回过头来看，到底发生了什么，因为他们在这个领域做得太棒了，拥有上亿的动植物标本以及众多一流的动植物专家。 2014年12月，由华大基因领衔的20多家国际研究机构在Science等杂志上，以专刊的形式发表了48种鸟类基因组数据，这些数据对揭示鸟类进化有着重要的意义。该项目的大多数参与者并不是鸟类专家，但是他们却做到了比鸟类学专家更为漂亮的研究工作。另外，昆虫的基因组数据，也被挖掘出来，发表了一系列文章。这一切让动植物学家以及生态学家们有些坐立不安，同样感到不安的还有史密森学会，尽管拥有1.4亿以上的标本数，但是大多数标本只是静静地躺在博物馆中。在物种分类、标本储藏等方面史密森学会拥有无法匹敌的地位，但是在物种的分子进化方面却相对落后一大截，大量的标本并没有发挥到应有的科学价值。 未来，史密森学会将每年投入1000万美元在生物多样性基因组学研究所的项目上，生物多样性基因组学研究所也将专注如下四个方面的工作： ·DiversityGenomics: What are the origins of life and how are species related across the globe? ·EvolutionaryGenomics: How does the blueprint of life vary among individuals and species and whatdoes this mean for their ability to adapt? ·EcologicalGenomics: How do ecosystems work and what makes them resilient to change? ·ConservationGenomics: How do we sustain biodiversity and protect species and ecosystems? 事实上，史密森学会并不是此刻才觉醒起来，早在数年前，它就同美国NIH进行合作，共同筹划了一个有关人类基因的展览项目，以向公众普及有关基因、基因与健康方面的科普知识。另外一个值得称赞的科研工作——小尖吻浣熊的发现。2013年8月15日，哺乳动物学家克里斯托弗•海尔根（Kristofer Helgen）得益于对小尖吻浣熊（Bassaricyon neblina）的基因组比对，最终确认了Olinguito（小尖吻浣熊）这一新物种，让史密森学会在全世界面前赚足了眼光。但此后史密森学会并没有大举进入物种基因组学研究领域，直至去年12月份。 就在史密森宣布向动植物基因组迈进时，有很多人并不是很看好史密森学会的这一举动，因为它们相比其他的科研机构，显然在这一前沿领域有些迟缓。然而反观国内，这种跨领域的屏障正被知识结构所桎梏，好在国内目前陆陆续续崛起的测序公司唤醒动植物研究者们对这方面的关注。只不过，这仍需要一段时间，至于国内博物馆里的标本则要沉睡更长的一段时间。 更多阅读 Global Genome Initiative http://www.mnh.si.edu/ggi/ Smithsonian Launches Major New Initiative to Better Understand Life on Earth http://newsdesk.si.edu/releases/smithsonian-launches-major-new-initiative-better-understand-life-earth 美史密森学会成立生物多样性基因组学研究所 http://scitech.people.com.cn/n/2014/1216/c1007-26215136.html 另见：http://www.btreview.net/archives/5
导演 : Daniel M. Smith 主演 : David Attenborough 类型: 纪录片 官方网站: http://www.sky.com/tv/show/attenborough-museum-3d 制片国家/地区: 英国 语言: 英语 上映日期: 2014-01-06 片长: 64min IMDb链接: tt3438608 Britain's best-loved broadcaster brings his favourite extinct creatures back to life in David Attenborough's Natural History Museum Alive. In this ground-breaking film, Sir David takes us on a journey through the world-famous Natural History Museum in London in a captivating tale of discovery, adventure, and magic, where state-of-the-art CGI, science, and research combine to bring the museum's now long-extinct inhabitants to life to discover how these animals once roamed the planet. As the doors are locked and night falls, Attenborough stays behind and meets some of the most fascinating extinct creatures which come alive in front of his eyes; dinosaurs, ice age beasts, and giant reptiles. The film fulfils a lifelong dream of the nation's favourite naturalist, who said: I have been coming to the Natural History Museum since I was a boy. It's one of the great places to come to learn about natural history. In this film we have the technology to bring back to life some of the most romantic and extraordinary extinct creatures that can be conceived; some are relatively recent animals like the dodo, others older like the dinosaurs, and some we only know through fossil evidence. Using our current scientific knowledge, this film brings these creatures alive, allowing me to look at some of the biggest questions surrounding them. 下载地址： http://www.400gb.com/file/63358644
当代科学中心与科学博物馆向青少年、成人以及家庭参观者提供了一种传播科学复杂世界的让人感触深刻且通常是感到“眩晕”的系列经历。它们把参观者“输送”到一个精力旺盛的学习空间中，那里是一个多种多样科学现象的游乐场，有生命展示，互动展品，基于电脑的多媒体活动，基于收藏的活动，还可以利用实验场所中的科学设备开展科学探索和科学发现活动。另外，博物馆的参观者还可以感受大型IMAX影院中的电影、天文馆中天体的展示、现场戏剧表演、展厅参观和演讲、或者同创造性的动力学展品进行互动交流。 感受这种“全盘包围式”的教育环境是比较容易的。理解通常发生在这些场所的科学传播的维度和多种类型则是较为困难的。为了帮助人们理解这种充满活力的科学传播环境，本文简要地评估了科学中心和科学博物馆拥有的传播资源（或资产），同时也探究了这些场所内对展览以及基于项目的科学传播进行描绘且驱动的六个关键的科学传播维度。 当把科学博物馆行业作为整体来考量的时候，我们清楚的事情是科学博物馆内的科学传播是复杂且迷人的，这种科学传播惠及到全世界众多的人。根据一些博物馆行业的估计，每年超过2亿人走进世界各地的科学中心和科学博物馆参观。每个参观者都能直接地被这些场所创造的科学传播的经历和环境所影响。在考虑到经历的深度和广度的时候，几乎没有其他类型的科学传播渠道有类似的观众达到率或者说影响。从35到40年前仅有的几个科学中心和科学博物馆，这个领域经历了流行病式的增长，如今北美洲就有超过400家科学博物馆和科学中心，全球则接近1500家。虽然当前有为数众多的科学中心，但是他们中的大多数都是起源于60年代“典型属”机构所引领的创新模式。旧金山探索馆和加拿大多伦多的安大略科学中心是被全球其他地方广泛模仿的两种早期模式。 科学中心和科学博物馆迅速发展的共同体在全球科学传播中占据了一个独特的“生态位”。科学博物馆中非正规的、自我指导的、激发科学探索的环境为科学传播的发生创造了一个独特情境。科学博物馆把基础科学及其新兴科学的复杂性同提高公众素养以及促进公众参与科学联系起来。由于博物馆创造的互动的，物理的以及基于物体的体验，它们便可以能够将科学，科学现象和科学议题放到合适的情境中，从而让科学对于公众更具有可获得性。科学博物馆在弥合不同的科学观点方面是专业能手，同时在创造融合了物理的、动手互动的（做实验）、个人反映（感觉）以及抽象的或者认知性参与（思考）的学习体验方面也是专业能手。 鉴于这些场所的普及程度较广以及他们在对公众进行正规和非正规科学教育方面承担的重要性不断增加，为了更好地理解和设计博物馆内的学习体验，一些重要的教育研究和参观者研究正在进行当中。当前还没有进行系统性评估的是对博物馆内常规的科学传播类型的识别和理解以及如何设计一套科学传播策略来更好地对博物馆的使命予以支持，以及如今博物馆所拥有的复杂学习以及参观者参与的目标予以支持。 在任何科学博物馆中，科学传播都是一种显性传播和隐性传播的结合。博物馆展品和环境是用来传播特定观念和内容的，然而它们也不可避免地会为自发的、未预料的以及参观者发起的传播创造一种机会。惊奇，高兴以及自发性通常是隐性传播的结果，而非显性传播的结果。正是有目的的传播和自发传播的结合才使得科学博物馆的体验在个人层面上变得如此丰富和有意义。最成功的博物馆展品和项目就是那些在显性传播和隐性传播之间达到平衡的。 在探索馆，奥本海默通常强调展品作为推动参观者参与个体探索途径的重要性。为了实现这个目标，展品通常并不会设计的极其简单或者只用来展示一种效应。相反，好的展品会表达一种科学现象（比如，光的折射），并且可以让参观者以设计者都没有想到的方式来探索这种现象。 科学博物馆中通常发生的科学传播类型有哪些以及人们如何更好地理解这些类型从而使之契合特定的博物馆呢？在评估科学中心和科学博物馆中丰富的传播环境的时候，下列的传播维度能够代表且帮助描述博物馆科学传播的轮廓，同时也反应了总体使命和一系列组织价值。因为任何一个组织可以不同程度地采用这些传播维度，这些维度以下面的方式来描述： l 说教式到非说教式 l 叙述式到非叙述式 l 提倡到中立 l 确定性科学到新兴科学 l 博物馆权威到参观者权威 l 科学的过程到科学的产品 在特定的博物馆中识别这些传播维度，重要的是要注意并没有一个正确的或者偏好的传播维度。实际上，对于任何特定的博物馆或者科学中心来说，很有可能在不同的展区会有不同的传播类型。博物馆的转变或者不断变大、以及博物馆正在经历的展览策略变化，通常是其传播维度变化的一种反应。一个案例就是经典的自然博物馆从传统的基于收藏的透视性展览转变为更具有互动性、主题性并基于当前科学议题的展览。对这一系列传播维度的利用为分析这些场所科学传播的偏好提供了一个简单的工具，并为开始评估科学传播内容在多大程度上符合参观者经历这样的目标和结果提供了一种手段。 （译自Encyclopedia of Science and Technology Communication）
从博物馆看美国 -- 美国自然历史博物馆 资料 来源： http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4c28b9ce0100gq8a.html http://blog.sina.com.cn/lexi520 博物馆是一个国家文化和教育水平的体现，也是经济、科技、社会和综合国力的标志。美国的历史不长， 其文化和历史甚至遭人嘲笑。正因为如此，他格外重视其历史文物的保护和运用。美国对待文化历史知识 的态度、管理博物馆、重视教育的举措令人敬佩，把一般认为寂静、黑暗、冷落的博物馆，变为博大精深 的学习和教育生动场所。美国博物馆数量之多、门类之全、规模之大、内容之广、手段之先进、教育和研 究功能发挥之好，令人惊叹。 每到一个国家或者城市，我首先参观的是其博物馆。在纽约，我参观了大都会艺术博物馆、现代艺术博物馆、自然历史博物馆，性博物馆；到首都华盛顿，参观了国家航空航天博物馆；到芝加哥，参观了 Shedd Aqua rium 水族馆， Adler Planetarium 天文馆， Field Museum of Natural History 自然历史博物馆， The Art Institute of Chicago 艺术博物馆， Museum of Science and Industry 科学与工业博物馆；到旧金山，参观了州政府对面的现代艺术博物馆，德洋艺术博物馆（ DeYang Museum ） .....
树倒猢狲散与古植物学灾难 ---- 博物馆（标本馆）之研究平台对古植物学的重要性 孙启高 2012 年7月12日 “ 树倒猢狲散 ” 是一个非常有趣的中文成语，字面意思是：“ 树倒了，树上的猴子会散去”。 英文里似乎也有类似的习语 ---- “ rats abandoning a sinking ship ”（船要沉了，老鼠会夺命而逃）。树倒猢狲散是常见的生活现象，也是有趣的生活哲学。本期《古植物学的故事》将简述古植物学研究的必要条件，树倒猢狲散给古植物学带来的学术灾难，进而阐述博物馆（标本馆）之研究平台对古植物学的重要性。 一、古植物学研究的必要条件 古植物学好像是自然历史研究中的“冷美人”，似乎有些神秘色彩。其实，古植物学并不神秘，而是 实实在在的学问，且是“看得见、摸得着”的学问，因为古植物学的研究者、研究对象、 地层剖面、研究文献以及实验平台（如博物馆或标本馆）等等都是 “看得见、摸得着”的。 ∮ 1 需要合适的人：要有发自内心喜欢古植物学的研究者和技术支撑人员； ∮ 2 需要研究材料：开展野外工作，在埋藏植物化石的地层剖面上采集植物大化标本和孢粉学样品； ∮ 3 需要 研究文献：围绕科学问题及研究主题收集文献资料； ∮ 4 需要研究平台：要有 博物馆（标本馆）存放标本及有关资料，要有 相关实验室； ∮ 5 需要经费支持：维系研究平台的正常运行，维系研究者及技术人员的正常工作，促进古植物学的稳定而持续发展。 二、树倒猢狲散与古植物学灾难 对于古植物学而言，树倒猢狲散的层面与形式是多样的，原因也是多方面的，但是直接后果主要表现在两大方面：一是研究队伍的败落，而是研究标本及相关资料的混乱和散失。在当前中国学术生态环境里，古植物学领域的树倒猢狲散似乎呈现常态化与普遍化之特征。中国的古植物学不仅面临基础薄弱之问题，而且面临体制脆弱之顽疾。 ∮ 1 有些古植物学研究生还没有毕业，其研究标本管理就已经不清楚。 ∮ 2 有些古植物学研究人员视研究标本为自己的私有物，随意存放标本，让同行很难查看。 ∮ 3 有些古植物学研究人员因学习、工作变更（如改行）造成标本丢失等混乱。 ∮ 4 有些古植物学研究人员还没有退休，其研究标本管理就已经很混乱。 ∮ 5 某所大学曾有一个很强大的古植物学团队，有多名专职研究古植物学的老师，有很多研究生，有很多标本。其中，有位老师一度担任学术领导职务，该教师从领导岗位上退下来后，其古植物学团队很快败落，标本也很快散落丢失。 ∮ 6 某研究所曾有几位古植物学研究人员，他们一生采集很多标本。研究人员陆续退休后，无人接班，植物化石及相关学术资料因长期无人管理而蒙受损失。 ∮ 7 某单位开展孢粉学研究（现代和化石），可是大量的孢粉载玻片（ slides ）无人专门管理，许多 slides 被无情地扔掉。 在 20 世纪 20 年代之前，中国的植物化石基本上由外国人研究，产自中国的大量植物化石被运到国外，如瑞典。后来，中国人陆续研究中国的植物化石。 20 世纪上半叶的中国总体形势是政局动荡、战事频繁、经济落后。所以，中国古植物学发展很缓慢是有客观原因的。 新中国成立后，经济恢复与建设要求地质先行。中国地质勘探事业的蓬勃发展 大大促进了中国古植物学（包括古孢粉学）的发展。自 20 世纪 50 年代初至 70 年代末，中国科学院、高等院校、地质部门和博物馆系统都相继开展古植物学研究（包括古孢粉学）。 1978 年中国实行改革开放，中国古植物学迎来一个较快的发展时期。虽然中国古植物学在本土化和国际化的历史进程中取得了一些进步，但是，总的说来，中国在古植物学领域的科学积累是很有限的、是很不容易的，中国的古植物学事业 一直在混沌中挣扎，一直在昏暗中摸索。低水平的、粗放的、很不严肃的、很不严谨的学术管理甚为普遍，为中国古植物学事业带来极大浪费和损失，直接危害科学积累和学术声誉。 令人欣慰的是：在中国古植物学界，富有职业操守的古植物学前辈还是有的。他们退休后，供职单位没有空间存在 植物化石标本。老先生将标本运送到千里之外有收藏条件的学术机构。不过 ，完全依赖个人的道德力量或人格力量保护植物化石标本的安全、维护学术的尊严进而维系古植物学的生存与发展是很难持久的。 三、博物馆（标本馆）之研究平台的重要性 针对古植物学的跨学科特点，欧美诸国在漫长的古植物学发展过程中逐步建立了符合古植物学自身发展规律的研究体制和维系模式。 欧美古植物学拥有相对稳固的研究平台和相对稳定的学术体制，为维系古植物学之学科生存与发展提供了现实性的可能。 博物馆（或标本馆）是古植物学研究的重要平台，如：英国自然历史博物馆（伦敦）、德国柏林和法兰克福自然历史博物馆以及瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆等。美国古植物学的研究力量主要分布在高水平的、研究型博物馆，如：位于美国 首都 华盛顿的史密松国立自然历史博物馆。美国一些大学的古植物学研究也“博物馆化”，即在大学所属博物馆进行，如：耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆等，从而构成了美国古植物学研究的国家体系或研究平台。 ∮ 1 举一个典型例子 --- 推动古植物学稳定而持续发展的博物馆 。 瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆 是代表欧美古植物学研究的一个基本模式。 该馆在 1884--1885 年间成立 苔藓蕨类与化石植物部（ Department of Archegoniates and Fossil Plants ），后来改称 古植物部（ Department of Palaeobotany ） 。这个古植物部从成立到现在已有 128 年的连续发展之历史了。 该 古植物部收藏有一大批 1920 年前后采自中国的石炭纪和二叠纪植物化石，总计 22,399 块标本已统计入数据库。这可能是在中国境外有关中国植物化石标本的最大收藏 ! 1987 年丹麦籍古植物学家 Else Marie Friis(1947--) 担任 斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆 古植物部主任，至今有 25 年。 ∮ 2 树倒猢狲散之现象在欧美古植物学界并不少见，但如何减少损失呢？ 美国 普林斯顿大学的古植物学研究非常悠久，开始于 19 世纪 70 年代。许多植物化石标本 具有很重要的历史意义。 普林斯顿大学 地质学家和古植物学家 Erling Dorf （ 1905--1984 ） 1974 年退休，该大学古植物学研究很快停顿，其植物化石标本“孤儿化”。普林斯顿大学没有扔掉其丰富的植物化石标本及文献资料。 1985 年，普林斯顿大学的植物化石标本及文献资料被送至耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆古植物部收藏。 ∮ 3 古植物学研究者所在学术机构没有博物馆怎么办？ 在欧美，有些大学或研究所没有长期保持植物化石标本及相关学术资料的条件。有些年轻人完成古植物学博士学位论文后，将他们的标本（包括孢粉载玻片）及相关资料送到有收藏条件的自然历史博物馆，以便各国同行查阅。这种做法已形成基本的职业操守。 为了准确鉴定被子植物叶化石，美国古植物学家 Jack A. Wolfe (1936--2005) 从 1958 年到 1969 年利用透明叶（ cleared leaves ）对现生双子叶植物的叶结构进行了系统的调查研究。他一共调查了 15,000 种植物，这些工作主要是在他供职的美国联邦地质调查局 (USGS) 进行的。后来，如此大量的 透明叶永久保存在 史密松国立自然历史博物馆，构成全美国 透明叶库 (National Cleared Leaf Collection ，载玻片编码为 NCLC-W) 。 本期编目 古植物学的故事 168 期 树倒猢狲散与古植物学灾难 ---- 博物馆（标本馆）之研究平台对古植物学的重要性 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.168): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XVI) Palaeobotanical catastrophes like rats abandoning a sinking ship -----Museum or herbarium as important facility for palaeobotanical studies. ===================== 相关资料： 古植物学的故事 166 期 The Story of Palaeobotany Series (No. 166) 【如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之十五）】 How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XV) 古植物学的未来在中国 ------ 发展中国古植物学的欧美标准 China is embracing the future of palaeobotany -----About some European –American standards for the development of Chinese palaeobotany http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=585485 2012-6-24 22:23 古植物学的故事 159 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.159): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XIV) The Statutes of the People’s Republic of China on Fossil Conservation and the future of Chinese palaeobotany 《 古生物化石保护条例 》与古植物学 http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=570962 2012-5-14 22:00 古植物学的故事 158 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.158): Birbal Sahni 古植物学研究所及其博物馆 ( 标本馆 ) ------ 古植物学研究的“印度模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XIII) An Indian model: An autonomous institute of palaeobotany (Lucknow, India) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=568666 2012-5-8 22:09 古植物学的故事 157 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.157): 耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“美国模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XII) An American model: Palaeobotanical studies of the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567922 2012-5-6 22:57 古植物学的故事 156 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.156): 瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“瑞典模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XI) A Swedish model: Palaeobotanical studies of the Swedish Museum of Natural History (Stockholm) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567568 2012-5-5 22:30 古植物学的故事 155 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.155): 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之十） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆有什么用？ How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part X) The roles of the National Museum of Natural History of China http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567169 2012-5-4 23:25 古植物学的故事 152 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之九） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ Story of Palaeobotany Series (152): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part IX) Where is the National Museum of Natural History of China? http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=563627 2012-4-25 22:05 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 3 】 古植物学的故事 147 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之五） 中国国家自然历史博物馆势在必建 ---- 科研是办好博物馆的生命线 Story of Palaeobotany Series (147): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part V) The National Museum of Natural History of China should be established---The world-class original research is a life line for the development of the museum. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=500218 2011-10-23 22:30 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 2 】 古植物学的故事 (133 期 ) 美国古植物学是如何崛起的？ ( 之十六 ) 美国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学崛起 Story of Palaeobotany Series (133): How did American palaeobotany rise? (Part XVI) American museums of natural history and the rapid rise of American palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=485370 2011-9-11 23:17 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 1 】 古植物学的故事（ 132 期） 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之一） 中国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学未来 Story of Palaeobotany Series (132): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part I) China’s museums of natural history and the future of Chinese palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=481614 2011-8-31 21:41
今天是世界博物馆日，可没机会去博物馆看看。前些天遇到两个外地人，在博物馆旧址问博物馆在哪儿，我说在杜甫草堂外，浣花溪畔。“哎呀，我们昨天刚去了草堂！”然后，他们问从这儿怎么去，我说，路口那头 19 路，到送仙桥。说来惭愧，新博物馆我还没进去看过，不知道里面有什么宝贝——除了汉代的画像砖。 不能进博物馆，就在纸上看两幅画吧——老勃鲁盖尔（ Pieter Bruegel the Elder， 他儿子也是大画家 ）的《 落水 Ikarus 的风景画 》（ Landscape with the Fall of Ikarus ）和安格尔（ Ingres ）的《 罗杰救美 》（ Roger Freeing Angelica ），前一幅在布鲁塞尔皇家美术馆，后一幅在罗浮宫。 选这两幅画纯属偶然，因为偶然看到了《科学和艺术中的结构》（ Structure in science and art : proceedings of the Third C. H. Boehringer Sohn Symposium held at Kronberg , Taunus, 2nd-5th May 1979 ）—— 武老师在纪念惠勒的一篇博文里曾提到过这本书（ http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-1557-29498.html ）——我那一本是从旧书摊儿捡来的中文编译本（那会儿好像不讲版权），印刷不好，看那两幅图仿佛隔着 518 英寸 的伦敦雾。那本书真好，可惜没有更好的版本。 就在 Kronberg 的 那个会上， 英国文艺理论家 John Bailey 提出，艺术的结构与统一是一对矛盾。结构是通过画中的景象来呈现，几乎看不到作者的情感；统一则是作品与作者的统一。在诗歌里，叙事诗与抒情诗大概分别代表那两种形式，在绘画中呢，这会儿说的两幅画就是代表。 安格尔那幅画，是 Ludovico Ariosto 的史诗 Orlando Furioso 中的情节——其实，即使不知道那典故，也猜得出画的是英雄救美的故事。 Bailey 说，画中能看到作者的影子——那么是不是可以说，安格尔恨不得自己 披 大叶连环甲蹬虎头战靴跨万里烟云兽持 丈八蛇矛 去救被困在岩石上的 Angelica 呢？理解画等于理解作者——这就是 Bailey 所说的艺术的统一性。这样的作品，我们好像不觉得新鲜。 勃鲁盖尔那幅画，感觉就不一样——尽管也借了神话的名字。 Bailey 说他就弄不清画的内在含义——这儿没有作者的影子了，那我们就当他没有用意，或者说不管他有什么用意，而只看他的“经营位置”。画的题目是“ Icarus 落水的风景画”， Icarus 是造 Minos 迷宫的 Daedalus 的儿子，父子俩被 Minos 王关在迷宫里。老爹为他用蜡做了翅膀，一起飞出了迷宫。可 Icarus 飞近了太阳，蜡被烤化，掉进海里淹死了。 Fall of Icarus 就是这个故事。然而我们在画里几乎看不到他在哪儿——只有两条腿露在水面，不知道的还以为有人玩儿花样游泳呢。（丢勒的木刻表现了落水的情节。） 画面的真正主角是耕田的农夫，田埂上站着的人好像在和他聊天，谈昨天晚上喝酒的事儿。右下角的水边，一个人正在汲水（洗手？），水面平静地停着帆船……多么平静的田园风景啊！就在这会儿， Icarus 落水了——可那并没有惊动几个老百姓。作者拿神仙的故事来做标题，却几乎不给他一点儿活动空间，似乎想说，俺是农民，只知道耕田，神仙的事儿俺不管。（老勃还真是个农民画家呢。）【这幅画可能不是老勃的原创，而是他临摹的一幅无名画家的作品。】 美国诗人 William Carlos Williams 写过一首同题的小诗，重复了画面的情景（抱歉，原诗分行没标点，贴出来就成下面的样子了）： According to Brueghel when Icarus fell it was spring a farmer was ploughing his field the whole pageantry of the year was awake tingling near the edge of the sea concerned with itself sweating in the sun that melted the wings' wax unsignificantly off the coast there was a splash quite unnoticed this was Icarus drowning.
博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 专题 (3 rd ed.) 古植物学的故事 158 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.158): Birbal Sahni 古植物学研究所及其博物馆 ( 标本馆 ) ------ 古植物学研究的“印度模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XIII) An Indian model: An autonomous institute of palaeobotany (Lucknow, India) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=568666 2012-5-8 22:09 古植物学的故事 157 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.157): 耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“美国模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XII) An American model: Palaeobotanical studies of the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567922 2012-5-6 22:57 古植物学的故事 156 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.156): 瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆与古植物学 ------ 古植物学研究的“瑞典模式” How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part XI) A Swedish model: Palaeobotanical studies of the Swedish Museum of Natural History (Stockholm) http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567568 2012-5-5 22:30 古植物学的故事 155 期 Story of Palaeobotany Series (No.155): 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之十） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆有什么用？ How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part X) The roles of the National Museum of Natural History of China http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=567169 2012-5-4 23:25 古植物学的故事 152 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之九） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ Story of Palaeobotany Series (152): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part IX) Where is the National Museum of Natural History of China? http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=563627 2012-4-25 22:05 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 3 】 古植物学的故事 147 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之五） 中国国家自然历史博物馆势在必建 ---- 科研是办好博物馆的生命线 Story of Palaeobotany Series (147): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part V) The National Museum of Natural History of China should be established---The world-class original research is a life line for the development of the museum. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=500218 2011-10-23 22:30 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 2 】 古植物学的故事 (133 期 ) 美国古植物学是如何崛起的？ ( 之十六 ) 美国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学崛起 Story of Palaeobotany Series (133): How did American palaeobotany rise? (Part XVI) American museums of natural history and the rapid rise of American palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=485370 2011-9-11 23:17 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 1 】 古植物学的故事（ 132 期） 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之一） 中国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学未来 Story of Palaeobotany Series (132): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part I) China’s museums of natural history and the future of Chinese palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=481614 2011-8-31 21:41 ============================== “ 博物馆与古植物学 ” 的 理念 针对古植物学的跨学科特点，欧美诸国在漫长的古植物学发展过程中，逐步建立了符合古植物学自身发展规律的研究体制和维系模式。英国自然历史博物馆（伦敦）、德国柏林和法兰克福自然历史博物馆以及瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆等都是世界一流的研究型博物馆，同时肩负着重要的社会服务责任。这些博物馆收藏有丰富的植物化石标本，同时也是古植物学研究的重要基地。 美国古植物学的研究力量主要分布在高水平的研究型博物馆，如：位于美国 首都 华盛顿的史密松国立自然历史博物馆。美国一些大学的古植物学研究也“博物馆化”，即在大学所属博物馆进行，如：耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆、佛罗里达大学自然历史博物馆等，从而构成了美国古植物学研究的国家体系或研究平台。 尽管古植物学是一个冷门传统学科，普遍不景气，但是欧美古植物学拥有相对稳固的研究平台和相对稳定的学术体制，为维系古植物学之学科生存与发展提供了现实性的可能。 欧美古植物学的历史经验和维系模式值得中国有关学术机构和广大同仁认真考虑和学习。（参见：《古植物学简史与我们的使命》， p.139 ） =============
博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 专题 (2 nd ed.) 理念 针对古植物学的跨学科特点，欧美诸国在漫长的古植物学发展过程中，逐步建立了符合古植物学自身发展规律的研究体制和维系模式。英国自然历史博物馆（伦敦）、德国柏林和法兰克福自然历史博物馆以及瑞典斯德哥尔摩自然历史博物馆等都是世界一流的研究型博物馆，同时肩负着重要的社会服务责任。这些博物馆收藏有丰富的植物化石标本，同时也是古植物学研究的重要基地。 美国古植物学的研究力量主要分布在高水平的研究型博物馆，如：位于美国 首都 华盛顿的史密松国立自然历史博物馆。美国一些大学的古植物学研究也“博物馆化”，即在大学所属博物馆进行，如：耶鲁大学 Peabody 自然历史博物馆、佛罗里达大学自然历史博物馆等，从而构成了美国古植物学研究的国家体系或研究平台。 尽管古植物学是一个冷门传统学科，普遍不景气，但是欧美古植物学拥有相对稳固的研究平台和相对稳定的学术体制，为维系古植物学之学科生存与发展提供了现实性的可能。 欧美古植物学的历史经验和维系模式值得中国有关学术机构和广大同仁认真考虑和学习。（参见：《古植物学简史与我们的使命》， p.139 ） ======================= 使命、困境与挑战 裴文中，徐仁，郑作新，周明镇， 1980 ， 国家自然历史博物馆势在必建，大自然，第 2 期， 3 — 4 《关于建立国家自然科学博物馆的必要性与可行性研究》课题总结报告 ( 节录 ) 《中国博物馆》 1994 年 02 期， 1—22 《建立国家自然科学博物馆的必要性与可行性研究》课题组 呼唤国家自然博物馆 《中国青年报》 2001-2-5 第 5 版 --- 难产的国家自然博物馆 原载 2001 年 3 月 29 日人民法院报 http://www.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=6731k_author = 作者： 刘海涛 发布时间： 2002-07-15 15:14:30 冷静面对“中国博物馆现象” http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2007947432529188546.html 作者：李先军 来源： 科学时报 www.sciencenet.cn 发布时间： 2007-9-4 0:8:55 83 家国家一级博物馆名单公布 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2008/5/206998.html 作者：游雪晴 来源：科技日报 发布时间： 2008-5-22 13:34:3 高校博物馆：大学的辉煌还是大学的鸡肋 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2009/3/217619.html 作者：张文凌 黄海萌 来源：中国青年报 发布时间： 2009-3-25 10:18:50 我国科技类博物馆现状调查：繁荣背后呈现四大症结 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2009/9/223462.shtm 张巧玲 来源： 科学时报 发布时间： 2009-9-17 23:52:39 它们一直很寂寞 北京高校博物馆走访记 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2010/7/234995.shtm 作者：吴晚林 来源：人民日报 发布时间： 2010-7-23 15:46:14 我国高校博物馆超 200 座 知名度有限影响力不足 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2010/10/238496.shtm 作者：丁肇文 来源：北京晚报 发布时间： 2010-10-9 10:27:11 最多一年关门 10 个月 高校博物馆如何走出“围墙” http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2011/7/249662-1.shtm 作者：刘冕 任敏 来源：北京日报 发布时间： 2011-7-18 15:31:50 北京高校博物馆联盟成立 将加速向社会免费开放 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2012/4/262561.shtm 作者：李江涛 来源：新华网 发布时间： 2012-4-11 10:40:5 --- 古植物学的故事 152 期 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之九） 主题：中国国家自然历史博物馆在哪里？ Where is the National Museum of Natural History of China? http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=563627 2012-4-25 22:05 古植物学的故事 147 期 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 3 】 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之五） 中国国家自然历史博物馆势在必建 ---- 科研是办好博物馆的生命线 Story of Palaeobotany Series (147): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part V) The National Museum of Natural History of China should be established---The world-class original research is a life line for the development of the museum. http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=500218 2011-10-23 22:30 古植物学的故事 (133 期 ) 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 2 】 美国古植物学是如何崛起的？ ( 之十六 ) 美国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学崛起 Story of Palaeobotany Series (133): How did American palaeobotany rise? (Part XVI) American museums of natural history and the rapid rise of American palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=485370 2011-9-11 23:17 古植物学的故事（ 132 期） 【博物馆与古植物学 (Museum and Palaeobotany) 1 】 如何推动中国古植物学全面崛起？（之一） 中国的自然历史博物馆与古植物学未来 Story of Palaeobotany Series (132): How to promote the rapid rise of Chinese palaeobotany in the round? (Part I) China’s museums of natural history and the future of Chinese palaeobotany http://blog.sciencenet.cn/home.php?mod=spaceuid=225931do=blogquickforward=1id=481614 2011-8-31 21:41 ================
想起了前年陪同法裔 Pierre 夫妇去逛位于西安的半坡博物馆。其实原先我给他们的行程安排中是没有半坡遗址的，是他们提出要参观的。 Pierre 夫人问我了不了解半坡博物馆，我说不了解。半坡博物馆很小，如果一个人只看里面不同点的介绍牌和遗址，不出 15 分钟就能看完。可是， Pierre 夫妇逛了一个半小时。她们到一个景点，一定要租一个法语或者英文自动讲解器，若没有就会顾一个导游，然后跟着讲解，仔细反复的对照着看。遇到有 DVD 播放的介绍影片，一定不会错过。从表情上能看出来，他们看的津津有味。 Pierre 问我对中国的丝绸之路那段历史了解吗，我真是不了解。老外问我的问题，我都问过几个博士生同学，他们也和我一样，也基本回答不了。这是怎么了？中国人不了解自己国家的历史，不了解中国五千年的文明，甚至还不如老外了解的多。我想到了两个方面： 1. 中国教育体制对历史的不重视。从小，没有人告诉我们历史知识是重要的，没有人去积极引导我们去了解历史。直到现在，我才发现，历史是如此的精彩，历史故事是多么有趣。历史不是一本本册子，摆在那里的小册子，是历史书。只有去阅读历史书，历史才会活起来。当我后来阅读康熙那段历史的四本书时，清朝的大人物们逐渐生动起来，不再是一个个抽象的人名，而是一段段的故事。《明朝那些事儿》很有趣，让我们了解了明朝的历史；《蒋介石》《蒋经国传》以及《孔祥熙与宋霭龄》让我们地了解了从清末到解放这段历史。 2 。 中国教育中应试教育，没有让学生养成阅读的习惯。我们的教科书中，往往把短短的一段小故事摘出来，没有连续性，很乏味。我们的老师，没有鼓励学生去大量阅读相关课外专著，特别是那些写的生动有趣的书，没有鼓励大家养成阅读的好习惯。我们经常会碰到：欧美游客旅行时，会随身带书阅读；她们在机场接人等待时，一手举姓名牌，一手拿着书在阅读；健身房，老外一边在骑自行车，一边在阅读小说。而我们的国民很少有这种阅读习惯。 中国的五千年文明历史，对现在的中国人，有好的一面和坏的一面：一方面是“惯性”，某种程度上对“创新”非常不利，相反没有历史惯性的美国等年轻国家就容易有开拓精神；另一方面是“沉淀”，如果大家都能多了解些中华文明，多了解些中国的历史，能够借鉴前人宝贵的经验，汲取教训，可以让我们少走很多弯路。而现在的情形，大家更多的是不了解中华文明，而让那种历史惯性束缚着我们，可悲！
在 威廉 · 肖克利的PN结理论被验证 之后（1948年），制造 一个可以工作的结型晶体管仍然面临严峻的挑战。主要问题是缺乏足够纯净，均匀的半导体材料。贝尔实验室的化学家戈登 · 蒂尔认为，将需要大的单晶，锗和硅， 但听从的人很少，包括 肖克利 。 在管理层很少的支持下， 蒂尔建立自己所需的晶体生长设备， 在 机械工程师约翰小和欧内斯特 · 比埃勒技术员的帮助下。 他在 1917 年由波兰化学家 Jan Czochralski 开发的技术的基础上， 用 一个小的 “ 种子 ” 锗晶体在坩埚熔锗 中 慢慢地缩回来，形成一个狭长的单晶。 肖克利这一成就后来被称为 “ 在初期半导体领域最重要的科学 成果 。 采用这种技术，贝尔实验室的化学家 MorganSparks 通过在 熔融锗晶体生长过程中 加入 微小颗粒杂质，制作 pn 结。 在 1950 年 4 月，他和蒂尔开始向熔体中加入两个连续的小球，第一个是 p 型杂质和第二个是 n 型杂质，形成了内层很薄的 NPN 结构。 一年后，这种 “ 生长出的结型晶体管 ” 超越性能最好的点接触晶体管。 在 1951 年 7 月 4 日， 贝尔实验室在一次 会议 上宣布了这一发现，并强调了肖克利的贡献。 Gordon K. Teal（左）和Morgan Sparks在贝尔实验室，1951年 Morgan Sparks在1949年的第一个结晶体管 2006-2007 Alcatel-Lucent. All rights reserved 1951年，首批微瓦级面结型晶体管中的一只 2006-2007 Alcatel-Lucent. All rights reserve 贝尔M1752型商用结晶体管，约在1951年 Courtesy of: Jack Ward - Transistor Museum 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840111-计孝智 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840114-刘继伟 版权 copyright by www.nobeprize.org 原文： http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1951-First.html After William Shockley’s theories about p-n junctions had been validated by tests ( 1948 Milestone ), fabricating a working junction transistor still presented formidable challenges. The main problem was lack of sufficiently pure, uniform semiconductor materials. Bell Labs chemist Gordon Teal argued that large, single crystals of germanium and silicon would be required, but few - including Shockley - were listening. With little support from management, Teal built the needed crystal-growing equipment himself, with help from mechanical engineer John Little and technician Ernest Buehler. Based on techniques developed in 1917 by the Polish chemist Jan Czochralski, he suspended a small "seed" crystal of germanium in a crucible of molten germanium and slowly withdrew it, forming a long, narrow, single crystal. Shockley later called this achievement "the most important scientific development in the semiconductor field in the early days." Employing this technique, Bell Labs chemist Morgan Sparks fabricated p-n junctions by dropping tiny pellets of impurities into the molten germanium during the crystal-growing process. In April 1950, he and Teal began adding two successive pellets into the melt, the first with a p- type impurity and the second n- type, forming n-p-n structures with a thin inner, or base, layer. A year later, such “grown-junction transistors” surpassed the best point-contact transistors in performance. Bell Labs announced this advance on July 4, 1951 in a press conference featuring Shockley.
1971 – 将微处理器的功能集成到一个 CPU 芯片上 硅栅 加工与成型技术的产生使得计算机中央处理器 (CPU) 压缩到一块单独的芯片上 在二十世纪六十年代末，设计人员致力于把计算机中央处理器的功能集合到微小的 MOS 大规模集成电路芯片上，这种技术被称为微处理器单元 ( 单片机 ) 芯片集合。 1969 年 Lee Boysel 创造了 Four-Phase 系统有限公司，他在一块半导体上设计植入了早期的八位逻辑算术单元（设计 3800/3804 型）。一个 8 位的 AL-1CPU 片被扩展到了 32 位。在 1970 年 , Garrett AiResearch 的 Steve Geller 和 Ray Holt 设计的 MP944 芯片被用于 F-14A 中央大气数据计算机的芯片，它是被 AMI 公司由六个金属栅晶片组成的。 英特尔的第一个微处理器—— 4004 ，来源于 Ted Hoff 和 Stanley Mazor 的构想。得益于 Masatoshi Shima ，在 1971 年， Federico Faggin 根据 Shima 在硅栅 MOS 芯片技术（ 1968 年里程碑式的发展）的经验，将一个由 2300 个晶体管组成的四位微处理器放入到 16-pin 封装起来。 Faggin 指导 Hal Feeney 设计的 8 位 8008 设备于 1972 年公布。为 CTC 公司（即后来的 Datapoint 公司）设计的 8008 设备的原型也曾被德州仪器用于 TMX1795 系统，但是却从没有被用于商业用途。第二代 8 位的设计来源于 Intel ( 设计 8080 型 ) 和 Tom Bennett 在 Motorola 领导的一个团队（设计 6800 型）， Tom Bennett 在 1974 年建立被广泛接受的微处理器理念。从 MOS 集成电路技术 -6502 体系衍生出的廉价变种 6800 使得个人电脑和来自于 Apple, Atari, Commodore 或其他公司的游戏可以任意连接。在二十世纪七十年代中期，许多供应商提供增强的 8 位结构，其中 Zilog 公司的最为强大。两个 1975 微处理器预示着后来重要发展趋势，包括在 IBM 工作过的 RCA 的 CMOS COSMAC(1802 里程碑 ) 与 John Cocke 801 精简指令集。 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840221-马东超 校对： http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1971-MPU.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org 1971 - Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip Silicon-gate process technology and design advances squeeze computer central processing units (CPU) onto single chips. By the late -1960s, designers were striving to integrate the central processing unit (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chip sets. Building on 8-bit arithmetic logic units (3800/3804) he designed earlier at Fairchild , in 1969 Lee Boysel created the Four-Phase Systems Inc. AL-1 an 8-bit CPU slice that was expandable to 32-bits. In 1970 Steve Geller and Ray Holt of Garrett AiResearch designed the MP944 chip set to implement the F-14A Central Air Data Computer on six metal-gate chips fabricated by AMI. Intel's first microprocessor, the 4004, was conceived by Ted Hoff and Stanley Mazor. Assisted by Masatoshi Shima , Federico Faggin used his experience in silicon-gate MOS technology ( 1968 Milestone ) to squeeze the 2300 transistors of the 4-bit MPU into a 16-pin package in 1971. Faggin also supervised Hal Feeney 's design of the 8-bit 8008 device announced in 1972. Designed for CTC ( later Datapoint ), prototypes of the 8008 function were also built by Texas Instruments as the TMX1795 but never offered commercially. Second generation 8-bit designs from Intel (8080) and from a team led by Tom Bennett at Motorola (6800) in 1974 established widespread acceptance of the MPU concept. A low-cost variant on the 6800 architecture by MOS Technology (6502) enabled personal computers and games from Apple, Atari, Commodore and others. By the mid-1970s many vendors offered enhanced 8-bit architectures, with Zilog 's Z80 being the most enduring. Two 1975 MPUs that presaged important later trends included RCA's CMOS COSMAC 1802 (1963 Milestone ) and John Cocke ’s 801 RISC device at IBM. Beginning in the mid-1970s, 16-bit MPUs emerged from General Instrument (CP1600), National (PACE), TI (TMS9900), and Zilog (Z8000). Boosted by the PC boom of the 1980s, Intel's 8086/8088 (IBM PC) and Motorola's 68000 (Macintosh) devices enjoyed the widest market success. 四相系统，Inc。AL-1 8位计算机处理器片。1968年十月设计开始。1969年三月配置设备。 金色的内连线突出了Intel 4004微处理器复杂的内部构局 2007年5月，Intel 4004开发团队合影T. Hoff, H. Feeney, S. Mazor, M. Shima, F. Faggin Busicom 计算机的MCS-4内部图片，设置有4004微处理器
IBM的工程师们开发了用以减少研发错误和设计时间的计算机辅助电子设计自动化工具。 当集成电路开始包含几百个门电路和数以千计的晶体管时，他们所支持的计算机已经可以完成加快设计速度和减少设计错误的任务了。这个方法被称作 CAD （计算机辅助设计）或者 EDA （电子设计自动化）。 IBM 在 20 世纪 50 年代末率先开发了在 700 系列电脑文档下运行的 EDA 程序。到了 1966 年， James Koford 和他的同事们在 IBM 纽约州东费西基尔公司用图形显示器采集 STL 混合电路模块（ 1964 里程碑事件）的图案，检查他们的错误并自动将信息转换为掩膜模式。在 Koford 加入 Fairchild RD 后他又与 Hugh Mays 、 Ed Jones 及其他同事一起将这项程序应用于单片集成电路。他们的努力创造了逻辑模拟软件（ FAIRSIM ）、测试程序生成器软件以及门列阵和标准单元布局布线软件（ 1967 年里程碑事件），这些为一代又一代的 EDA 工具打下了坚实的基础。 EDA 有两个重要项目源于非主流产业。 20 世纪 60 年代， Larry Nagel 和 Donald Pederson 以及后来的贡献者 Richard Newton 在美国加州大学伯克利分校开发了 SPICE （模拟集成电路重点项目）电路仿真程序。 1979 年，加州理工学院的 Lynn Conway of Xerox 和 Carver Mead 在他们论著的《超大规模集成电路系统导论》中描述的一个新方法揭开了系统设计和芯片设计过程秘密。 20 世纪 80 年代，益华电脑和美国新思科技公司受到在柏克莱加州大学（ SIS ）、洛杉矶加利福尼亚大学（ RSAP ）和科罗拉多大学（ BOLD ）所做调查的激发，开始对综合逻辑系统进行商业化的包装。这些和先进的布局布线技术、逻辑模拟技术以及其他厂商已有的设计核查规则共同使集成电路的设计生产能力能够紧跟设备复杂度不断增加的步伐。 IBM 360/67 仙童公司 1967 年的以大型计算机为运算动力的 CAD 设计系统 图 1 编辑者：费尔柴尔德摄像机仪器公司 掩模草图数字化手绘系统工具 图 2 提供者：因特尔公司 20 世纪 80 年代基于集成电路 CAD 设计系统的工作站 图 3 米德和加威的成就获得了 1981 年的美国电子奖 图 4 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840213- 邱东阳 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840229-朱泯西 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org 1966 - Computer Aided Design Tools Developed for ICs IBM engineers pioneer computer-aided electronic design automation tools for reducing errors and speeding design time. IBM 360/67 mainframe-powered CAD system at Fairchild in 1967 Credit: Fairchild Camera Instrument Corporation Mask layout drawing hand digitizing system tool Courtesy of: Intel Corporation Workstation-based integrated circuit CAD system 1980s 1981 Electronics Award for Achievement to Conway and Mead As ICs began to incorporate hundreds of gates and thousands of transistors, the computers they enabled were harnessed to speed the design task and eliminate errors. This process is called CAD (Computer Aided Design) or EDA (Electronic Design Automation). IBM pioneered EDA in the late 1950s with documentation of the 700 series computers. By 1966 James Koford and his colleagues at IBM Fishkill were capturing SLT hybrid circuit module ( 1964 Milestone ) designs on graphical displays, checking them for errors and automatically converting the information into mask patterns. After Koford joined Fairchild RD he worked with Hugh Mays, Ed Jones, and others to apply this process to monolithic ICs. Their efforts created logic simulators (FAIRSIM), test program generators, and place and route software for gate arrays and standard cells ( 1967 Milestone ) that laid the ground work for generations of EDA tools. Two important EDA projects originated outside the mainstream of the industry. Larry Nagel and Donald Pederson, with later contributions by Richard Newton, at U.C. Berkeley developed the SPICE (Simulation Program with IC Emphasis) circuit simulation program in the 1960s. A new methodology described in the 1979 Introduction to VLSI Systems by Lynn Conway of Xerox, PARC and Carver Mead of California Institute of Technology demystified the process of chip design for system designers. Commercial logic synthesis packages from Cadence and Synopsys in the 1980s were stimulated by research at U.C. Berkeley (SIS), U.C.L.A. (RASP), and University of Colorado, Boulder (BOLD). These, together with advancements in place and route, logic simulation, and design rule verification from other vendors, allowed IC design productivity to keep pace with increasing device complexity.
第三方供应商发展到具备了半导体结构的专业知识，并且作为技术改进的及关键部分生产设备的供应商出现。 在半导体工业发展的第一个十年，行业推行了 5 种基本结构的晶体管：点接触式晶体管、生长结式晶体管、合金结式晶体管、表面势垒式晶体管和扩散底层式晶体管。 制造商架构起他们自己的生产设施设备投入到每一代产品的制造中。杰克 ·基尔比（ 1958 年里程碑式人物）注意到说：“可能我们用到的设备的最贵的那一部分要花费至少 1 万美金 。 由于产品通过平面法（ 1959 年的里程碑）向大型化发展，因此出现了产业的和独立的设备制造商，从而将工艺技术也标准化了。制造商专门研究了前端（晶圆加工）和后端（封装、组配和测试）（ 1961 年的里程碑）的生产运行。 前端的生产设备，随着晶圆尺寸从 1958 年的 0.5 英寸增大到今天的 12 英寸（ 300mm ），其价格也呈数量级增长。早期的前端的生产设备配套供应商包括赛默公司（扩散熔炉）和它旗下的日本电子有限公司、 DW 工业（沉积系统），以及 GCA Mann 和铂金埃尔默公司（光刻设备）（ 1955 年的里程碑）。伊智公司， 1961 年费雅嘉分拆出的一个子公司，生产建造了用于晶圆测试的探测设备。 瓦里安公司建造了蒸发器、真空泵和离子注入系统。成立于 1967 年，为制造外延薄膜（ 1960 年的里程碑）提供化学气相沉积系统的应用材料公司，通过鼓励半导体供应商将其对制造工艺开发发展工作转交给他们的设备供应商，从而给行业动向带来了改变。 技术工艺的第三方资源，使半导体公司得以关注产品的体系结构及应用，而不再关注于生产和制造工艺的专业知识。这就造成了晶圆代工工厂的兴起，在 19 世纪 80 年代，这些工厂支持了作为新类型的无晶半导体公司的发展。 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840214葛峰 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840215申聪敏 原文： http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1967-Equipment.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org 1967 - Turnkey Equipment Suppliers Change Industry Dynamics Third-party vendors develop specialized knowledge of semiconductor fabrication and emerge as vendors of process technology and turnkey manufacturing facilities. During its first decade the semiconductor industry went through five basic transistor structures: point contact, grown junction, alloyed junction, surface barrier, and diffused-base. Manufacturers built their own equipment to support each generation. Jack Kilby ( 1958 Milestone ) noted that "probably the most expensive piece of equipment that we used cost less than $10,000." As production moved to high volumes with the planar process ( 1959 Milestone ), techniques were standardized across the industry and independent equipment producers emerged. Vendors specialized in "Front End" (wafer processing) or “Back End” (package, assembly, and test) ( 1961 Milestone ) operations. Front-end equipment prices increased by orders of magnitude as wafer diameters grew from 0.5 inches in 1958 to today’s 12 inches (300mm). Early front-end tool suppliers include Thermco (diffusion furnaces) and its Japanese licensee Tokyo Electron Ltd, DW Industries (deposition systems), and GCA/Mann and Perkin Elmer (photolithography) ( 1955 Milestone ).Electroglas, a 1961 Fairchild spinout, built probe equipment for wafer testing. In 1965 Kulicke Soffa introduced commercial contact aligners. Varian Associates built evaporators, vacuum pumps, and ion-implantation systems. Founded in 1967 to supply chemical vapor deposition systems for epitaxial films ( 1960 Milestone ), Applied Materials initiated a change in industry dynamics by encouraging semiconductor vendors to shift responsibility for development of manufacturing technology to their equipment suppliers.Third-party sources of technology allowed the semiconductor companies to focus on product architecture and applications rather than process and manufacturing expertise. This led to the rise of "wafer-foundry" vendors who supported a new breed of "fabless" semiconductor companies in the 1980. Michael McNeilly Walter Benzing pioneered epitaxial deposition equipment at Applied Materials, Inc. （应用材料公司倡导外延沉积设备的先驱——迈克尔 ·麦克尼尔，沃尔特·本辛 ） Credit : Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI) Applied Materials Model AMV 800 chemical vapor deposition epitaxial reactor (1969) （应用材料公司化学气相沉积外延反应设备 AMV 800 模型） Credit : Applied Materials Technology, Inc Electroglas Model 131B Motorized/Manual Prober allowed testing of die on the wafer before packaging （伊智公司的用于测试封装前晶圆上芯片的自动 / 手动探测器 131B 模型） Credit : Electroglas, Inc Perkin Elmer Micralign projection mask aligner team 1973 （ 1973 年铂金埃尔默公司的 Micralign 投射掩膜对准器团队） Credit : Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI)
1956- 硅片在硅谷首次出现 肖克利半导体实验室 建造了 加州北部的第一个原型开发半导体设备 来为 硅谷训练年轻的工程师和科学家 。 1955 年 9 月 , 威廉萧克利和阿诺贝克曼同意 建立肖克利半导体实验室作为贝克曼的部门来“积极 、大力开展 关于半导体材料的 活动 ”。肖克利在加利福尼亚州山景城 圣安东尼奥南部道路 租用了 391 号楼，同时，开始招聘“世界上 最有创造力的团队开发、设计、生产晶体管 ”。 他吸引了很 多 能干的工程师和科学家 ，其中 了解和开发硅相关技术和工艺 、 扩散 技术的 戈登 · 摩尔和罗伯特 · 伊斯 都被他招聘来工作。 1956 年 12 月萧克利 因为 发明晶体管获得了诺贝尔物理学奖 ，但是，他的助理开始厌倦了他懒散的管理模式。 他们也觉得公司应该追求更直接生产硅晶体管的机会 而不是期盼遥远的目标“他在实验室将硅应用到电话通讯领域”。 在要求肖克利再雇用一名新的管理后， 摩尔 、 尤利乌斯 · 伊斯 、 格里尼克 、 琼 · 霍尔尼 、 克莱纳 、 拉斯特 、 罗伯茨 8 名 萧克利员工 在 1957 年 9 月 辞职并创立了 美国飞兆半导体公司 在 帕洛阿尔托 。 许多 来自 播实之星的员工 随之而来。 在未来十年 里， 快捷半导体 成长为 在半导体产业最重要的和创新的公司 ，引导了硅谷其他企业科技和文化，其中超微半导体和 英特尔 连接技术，但是，他的公司从来没有获得实际的利润。 贝克曼 在 1960 年 把专利卖给了 Clevite 公司 。 萧克利在斯坦福大学成了一个教授的电气工程与应用科学 的老师。 Toasting Shockley's Nobel Prize award at Rickey's Hotel, Palo Alto, CA. Celebrants include G. Moore, S. Roberts, R. Noyce, and J. Last 肖克利诺贝尔奖奖在里奇的酒店，帕洛阿尔托约礼，包括穆尔，罗伯茨，诺伊斯，和 J · The Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory facility, Mountain View, CA. circa 1960. 肖克利半导体实验室设施，山景，约公元 1960 。 Small-scale silicon zone refining in the Shockley laboratory in Mountain View 小型硅精炼的肖克利实验室在山景 Small-scale silicon zone refining in the Shockley laboratory in Mountain View 小型硅精炼的肖克利实验室在山景 1956 - Silicon Comes to Silicon Valley Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory develops Northern California's first prototype silicon devices while training young engineers and scientists for the future Silicon Valley. In September 1955 William Shockley and Arnold Beckman agreed to found the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory as a Division of Beckman Instruments "to engage promptly and vigorously in activities related to semiconductors." Shockley rented a building at 391 South San Antonio Road in Mountain View, California, and began recruiting "the most creative team in the world for developing and producing transistors." He attracted extremely capable engineers and scientists, including Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce, who learned about and developed technologies and processes related to silicon and diffusion while working there. In December 1956 Shockley shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing the transistor, but his staff was becoming disenchanted with his difficult management style. They also felt the company should pursue more immediate opportunities for producing silicon transistors rather than the distant promise of a challenging four-layer p-n-p-n diode he had conceived at Bell Labs for telephone switching applications. After unsuccessfully asking Beckman to hire a new manager, eight Shockley employees - including Moore and Noyce plus Julius Blank, Victor Grinich, Jean Hoerni, Eugene Kleiner, Jay Last and Sheldon Roberts - resigned in September 1957 and founded the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation in Palo Alto. Many other employees, from technicians to PhDs, soon followed. Over the next decade, Fairchild grew into of the most important and innovative companies in the semiconductor industry, laying the technological and cultural foundations of Silicon Valley while spinning off dozens of new high-tech start-ups, including Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Intel. Shockley continued pursuing his four-layer diode but his company never realized a profit. Beckman sold the operation to Clevite Corporation in 1960. Shockley became a professor of electrical engineering and applied science at Stanford University. 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840120-王开伟 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840117-康志龙
在十九世纪五十年代，半导体设备在数字计算机上逐渐取代了真空管。直到十九世纪六十年代新设备完全晶体管化。 1950年4月，国家统计局的计算机开始工作，它使用了10,500个锗二极管和747个真空管。 在曼彻斯特大学托姆 基尔伯恩 教授手下学习，瑞查德 格瑞斯达尔和道格拉斯韦伯，于1953年11月16号展示了一台晶体管计算机的原型。这台由 卫星试验中心 制造的 48位的机器用了92个点相连的晶体管和550个二极管，装备到 美国埃梯梯 的联合王国的长途电话中继线装备。一代拥有 250个晶体管结 加强版于 1955年完成。MV电子公司制造了具有六个单元结构，同样拥有该结构 Metrovick950已从 1956年在公司内部实行商业推广。 在1954年，JEANH.FELKER领导一个包括工程师JAMES.R.HARRIS的来自贝尔实验室的研究小组为美国空军设计制造了一台全晶体管计算机，称之为TRADIC（晶体管电子计算机），该机包括大约700个 点接触晶体管和10000个二极管。当该试验机型工作在1MHZ的频率下时，功耗仅不到100W。一个更轻的机载版本（飞行版TRADIC）使用了结形晶体管取代了在C-131飞机上用于导航和控制航弹空投的模拟计算机。由WILLIAMPAPIAN领导的来自麻省理工学院林肯实验室的先进技术发展小组的成员在1956年4月使用来自PHILCO公司的高速锗开关晶体管搭建了速度达5MHZ的通用计算机，也就是众所周知的TX-0（晶体管实验性型）。同样在1956年，日本的第一台通用计算机，ETL3型，使用了130个点接触晶体管和1800个二极管。这台机器是由位于东京的电子技术实验室的HiroshiWada领导研发的. The SEAC computer operator's station 图一:东部标准自动计算机操作员的工作台 University of Manchester (UK) "Manchester TC" transistor computer 图二：联合王国曼彻斯特大学“曼彻斯特TC”晶体管计算机 J. H. Felker and J. R. Harris work on the Bell Labs TRADIC computer 图三：JH菲尔克和JR哈瑞斯在贝尔实验室的TRDIC计算机前工作 The RCA 501 computer, one of the first commercial transistorized machines in the U.S., was announced in 1958 图四：RCA 501计算机，美国第一台商业晶体管计算机在1958年面世 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840115-刘金鑫 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840116-赵英建 原文 http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1953-transistorized-computers-emerge.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org ———————————————————————————————— 1953 - Transistorized Computers Emerge During the 1950s, semiconductor devices gradually replaced vacuum tubes in digital computers. By 1960 new designs were fully transistorized. Operational in April 1950, the National Bureau of Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) employed 10,500 germanium diodes and 747 vacuum tubes. Working under Tom Kilburn at Manchester University, Richard Grimsdale and Douglas Webb, demonstrated a prototype transistorized computer on November 16, 1953. The 48-bit machine used 92 point-contact transistors and 550 diodes fabricated by STC, the UK arm of ITT. An enhanced version with 250 junction transistors was completed in 1955. The Metropolitan Vickers Electrical Company manufactured six units as the Metrovick 950, which they used commercially within the company from 1956. Jean H. Felker led a Bell Labs team including engineer James R. Harris that designed and built a fully transistorized computer dubbed TRADIC (TRAnsistor DIgital Computer) for the U. S. Air Force in 1954. Involving about 700 point-contact transistors and over 10,000 diodes, the prototype operated at 1 MHz while requiring less than 100 watts of power. A lighter airborne version (Flyable TRADIC) using junction transistors replaced an analog computer for navigation and bombing control in a C-131 aircraft. Led by William Papian, in April 1956 members of the Advanced Development Group of MIT Lincoln Labs used fast germanium switching transistors from Philco Corporation to build a 5 MHz general-purpose digital computer known as TX-0 (Transistor Experimental). Also in 1956, Japan’s first transistorized computer, the ETL Mark III, using 130 point-contact transistors and 1800 diodes was built under the direction of Hiroshi Wada at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in Tokyo.
1958年 - 所有半导体固态电路得以证明 杰克.基尔比用半导体材料制造了一个兼有主动与被动部分的微型电路。 随着计算机系统变得更加复杂，工程师们也在寻求更加简单的方法去连接他们所使用的数以万计的晶体管。政府机构资助微型模块和多芯片混合电路工程来解决这个问题。 1952 年，英国电信研究机构的 GWA Dummer 提出“随着晶体管的问世和半导体领域的广泛研究，现在看来可以设想出一种没有连接线的电子设备，并使之封闭于一个固体块中。” 从 50 年代中期到后期，一系列的项目成功地将多个组件集成于一个芯片上。在美国无线电公司， Harwick Johnson 取得了一个无线电振荡器专利， Torkel Wallmark 和 Sanford Marcus 分别创立了移位寄存器和逻辑门。 阿瑟 · 德阿萨罗和伊恩 · 罗斯贝尔实验室制作出了电话应用方面的四阶段计数器。 IBM 公司的乔 · 罗格和里克 · 迪尔制作出了一台使用双基极二极管结构的电脑。日本通产省的 Yasuro Tarui 和德州仪器的 Richard Stewart 提交了多个设备专利。 麻省理工学院的 Dudley Buck 研发了一种超导集成元件制成的低温管。尽管这些成就取得了不同程度的功能，但是没有一个可以解决通用性的系统集成带来的挑战。 1958 年 9 月 12 日，来自德州仪器的 Jack Kilby 在锗基片上用 PNP 型晶体管自己刻蚀制作了一个含有晶体管、电阻、电容等原件的电路。通过使用精致的金制“神奇导线”，他将各自分立的原件连接到了一个振荡电路。一个星期之后，他制作出了放大器。德州仪器在 1959 年 3 月宣布了 Kilby 的“固体电路”概念，并在 1960 年 3 月推出其首个商业设备， 502 型号的二进制触发器，每个售价为 450 美元。但是金线互联并不是一个实用的生产技术。 1961 年 10 月，德州仪器推出的 51 系列直接藕合晶体管逻辑 “ 完全集成电路 ” 系统，使用敷金属平面技术（ 1959 年里程碑） 。 图一： Jack Kilby with his lab notebook open at his first solid circuit drawing 杰克 · 基尔比与他的实验室笔记本，展示了他的第一固体电路图纸 Courtesy of: Texas Instruments, Inc 图二： Kilby’s original germanium multi-chip "solid-circuit" oscillator Kilby 的原锗多芯片 “ 固体电路 ” 振荡器 Courtesy of: Texas Instruments, Inc 图三： Connection diagram and open package photograph of the Type 502 flip-flop with "flying-wire" internal connections 连接图和 502 型 “ 飞线 ” 的封装内部连接触发器 Courtesy of: Texas Instruments, Inc 图四： G.W.A. Dummer predicted "solid block" circuits in 1952 G.W.A. dummer 1952 年预测 “ 固体块 ” 电路 Credit: Robert Cathles, under GNU Free Documentation License 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840123-薛彦峰 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840125-赵宏博 原文： http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1958-Miniaturized.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org 原文： 1958 - All semiconductor "Solid Circuit" is demonstrated Jack Kilby produces a microcircuit with both active and passive components fabricated from semiconductor material. As computer systems grew more complex, engineers sought simpler ways to interconnect the thousands of transistors they employed. Government agencies funded micro-module and multi-chip hybrid circuit projects in search of a solution to this problem. In 1952, G. W. A. Dummer of England's Telecommunications Research Establishment proposed "With the advent of the transistor and the work in semiconductors generally, it seems now possible to envisage electronic equipment in a solid block with no connecting wires." From the mid to late 1950s several projects succeeded in integrating multiple components on a chip. At RCA Harwick Johnson patented an oscillator and Torkel Wallmark and Sanford Marcus built shift registers and logic gates. Arthur D'Asaro and Ian Ross of Bell Labs fabricated a four-stage counter for telephone applications. Joe Logue and Rick Dill of IBM built a counter using a double-base diode structure. Yasuro Tarui of Japan's MITI and Richard Stewart of TI filed multiple device patents. Dudley Buck of MIT developed the cryotron, an integrated superconducting element. While achieving various degrees of functionality, none of these ideas yielded a solution to the challenge of general-purpose system integration. On September 12, 1958, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments built a circuit using germanium mesa p-n-p transistor slices he had etched to form transistor, capacitor, and resistor elements. Using fine gold "flying-wires" he connected the separate elements into an oscillator circuit. One week later he demonstrated an amplifier. T.I. announced Kilby's "solid circuit" concept in March 1959 and introduced its first commercial device in March 1960, the Type 502 Binary Flip-Flop priced at $450 each. However the flying-wire interconnections were not a practical production technique. In October 1961, T.I. introduced the Series 51 DCTL "fully-integrated circuit" family using deposited-metal planar technology ( 1959 Milestone ).
1959 年 “ 平面 ” 制造工艺的发明 Jean Hoerni 发展平面工艺解决了晶体管可靠性问题 , 从而使半导体制造革命化。 与台面晶体管（ 1958 里程碑）的可靠性问题寻求解决方案， Fairchild 的物理学家 Jean Hoerni 回忆起他曾在 1957 年 12 月记录的想法 — 一个新的进程，在离开氧化层的硅片上，以保护敏感的 PN 下面的路口。由于专注于首批设备的投入生产，在那时该公司没有追求这种做法。 由于担心可能的污染物，传统的智慧，也需要去除氧化物掩蔽完成后这一层，从而暴露了路口。 Hoerni 观看氧化物，而不是作为一种可能的解决方案 - 他的“平面”的方法，成品设备的地势平坦而命名，会保护这些路口。在 1959 年 1 月编写了专利披露后，那年三月，他证明了工作平面晶体管的存在。就像霍尔尼曾预言过的，确实发现氧化层保护的路口。 平面器件也被证明有更好的电气特性 - 尤其是远低漏电流，这是计算机逻辑设计中的关键。他们允许从一个晶圆（ 1960 里程碑）侧面制造集成电路的所有组件。 1960年4月，仙童公司推出了商业性的2N1613平面晶体管，并注册了该工艺在工艺中的所有权。今天的 10 亿个晶体管的集成电路全部依靠的是 Hoerni 的突破性理念。一位历史学家称它是“在半导体产业史上最重要的创新。” 虽然平面技术使硅晶体管以满足航空航天工业的严格要求，但是半导体厂商在遇到的每一个重大的技术进步的同时也会遇到新的麻烦。在 20 世纪 60 年代的重大问题，包括金丝上的“紫色的瘟疫”，铝与电的连线，和 MOS 晶体管的稳定。 1964 年（里程碑） 图一： 1 Jean Hoerni with transistor geometry in the background Jean Hoerni 在晶体管几何背景下的的照片 图二： Photomicrograph of a Model 2N1613 planar transistor 2N1613 平面晶体管模型的照片 图三： Figure from Hoerni’s patent on the planar manufacturing process Hoerni 的从图上显示的平面制造工艺过程的照片 图四： Cutaway view of an early Fairchild planar transistor 早期 Fairchild 平面晶体管的剖视图 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840124-于凯先 校对： 原文： http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1959-invention-of-the-planar-manufacturing-process-24.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org 原文： 1959 - Invention of the "Planar" Manufacturing Process Jean Hoerni develops the planar process to solve reliability problems of the mesa transistor, thereby revolutionizing semiconductor manufacturing. Seeking a solution to reliability issues with the mesa transistor ( 1958 Milestone ), Fairchild physicist Jean Hoerni recalled an idea he had recorded in December 1957 - a new process in which the oxide layer is left in place on the silicon wafer to protect the sensitive p-n junctions underneath. Focused on getting its first devices into production, the company did not pursue the approach at that time. Due to concerns about possible contaminants, conventional wisdom required removing this layer after completion of oxide masking, thus exposing the junctions. Hoerni viewed the oxide instead as a possible solution - his "planar" approach, named after the flat topography of the finished device, would protect these junctions. After writing a patent disclosure in January 1959, he demonstrated a working planar transistor that March. The oxide layer was indeed found to protect the junctions, as Hoerni had predicted. Planar devices also proved to have better electrical characteristics - particularly far lower leakage currents, which is critical in computer logic design. And they permitted fabrication of all the components of an integrated circuit from one side of a wafer ( 1960 Milestone ). Fairchild introduced the 2N1613 planar transistor commercially in April 1960 and licensed rights to the process across the industry. The billion-transistor integrated circuits of today rely on Hoerni’s breakthrough idea. One historian has called it "the most important innovation in the history of the semiconductor industry." While planar technology enabled silicon transistors to meet the stringent demands of the aerospace industry, semiconductor vendors continued to encounter new failure mechanisms with every major technology advance. Significant issues in the 1960s included “purple plague” on gold bonding wires, electromigration of aluminum interconnect lines, and MOS transistor stability. ( 1964 Milestone )
1960-第一个平面集成电路的制作 Jay Last引领了基于Hoerni的平面法和Noyce的整体方法的第一个商用IC的发展。 1959年8月Fairchild半导体研发主任Robert Noyce让共同创立者Jay Last开始开发一个基于Hoerni的平面法（1959里程碑）和Noyce的专利（1959里程碑）的平面集成电路。在Wescon用分立晶体管建立了一个多芯片触发器来诠释概念之后，Last组成了一个包括Sam Fok, Isy Haas, Lionel Kattner, 和 James Nall的团队。根据应用部门的Don Farina, Robert Norman提供的特性化数据,用一个改良的直接耦合晶体管逻辑(DCTL)电路设计了一个带有4晶体管和5个电阻器的兼有早期平面处理能力集成电路。 在一个芯片上集成多重相连的装置造成了许多新的工程挑战。1960年5月26日生产的第一个工作的单块集成电路设备使用了物理隔离来实现组件之间的电隔离。硅晶圆的背面刻蚀了深凹槽并且充满了不导电的环氧树脂。由Haas and Kattner研发的用硼扩散技术来实现p-n节电子隔离成为了首选的生产方法，并在1960年9月27日投入了集成电路的生产。 1960年Fairchild在工程会议提出了先进的信息并提供了面向的客户原型样品。在名为Logic (Micrologic)的贸易下，”F” 类型触发器功能在1961年通过一个在纽约的新闻发布会上展示广告和《生活》杂志上的一张照片向社会公告。五个包括" G "类型门功能(1962里程碑)，半加法器和一个半移位寄存器的外加的电路在10月被应用。 Jay Last with Gordon Moore in background Jay Last和Gordon Moore在背景下 Credit: Fairchild Camera Instrument Corporation Physically-isolated Micrologic flip-flop compared to a dime from LIFE magazine March 10, 1961 物理隔离的微程序控制逻辑触发器与硬币相比，摘自1961年3月10日的生活杂志 Credit: Fritz Goro, Time Life Pictures Junction-isolated version of the type "F" flip-flop. The die were etched to fit into a round TO-18 transistor package 节孤立版本的“F”类型触发器。晶片被蚀刻来适应一个圆TO-18晶体管封装。 Credit: Fairchild Camera Instrument Corporation Presentation block with a Micrologic wafer and IC in the TO-18 package 一个微程序控制逻辑晶圆和集成电路在圆TO-18晶体管封装中的展示块 CHM collection: Gift of Bob and Marcella Major 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840126-种兆永 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840124-于凯先 原文 http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1960-FirstIC.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org ———————————————————————————————————— 1960 - First Planar Integrated Circuit is Fabricate Jay Last leads development of the first commercial IC based on Hoerni’s planar process and Noyce’s monolithic approach. In August 1959 Fairchild Semiconductor Director of RD, Robert Noyce asked co-founder Jay Last to begin development of an integrated circuit based on Hoerni’s planar process ( 1959 Milestone ) and Noyce’s patent. ( 1959 Milestone ) After building a multi-chip flip-flop with discrete transistors to demonstrate the concept at Wescon, Last assembled a team including Sam Fok, Isy Haas, Lionel Kattner, and James Nall. Based on characterization data prepared by Don Farina, Robert Norman of the applications department designed a flip-flop with four-transistors and five resistors using a modified Direct Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL) circuit as most compatible with early planar processing capabilities. Integrating multiple interconnected devices on one chip posed many new engineering challenges. The first working monolithic devices produced on May 26 1960 used physical isolation to achieve electrical separation between components. Deep channels were etched from the rear of the silicon wafer and filled with non-conducting epoxy. The preferred production method, p-n junction electrical isolation using a boron diffusion technique developed by Haas and Kattner, yielded working circuits on September 27, 1960. Fairchild presented advanced information at engineering conferences and provided prototype samples to customers in 1960. Under the trade name Logic (Micrologic), the type "F" flip-flop function was announced to the public in March 1961 via a press conference at the IRE Show in New York and a photograph in LIFE magazine. Five additional circuits, including the type "G" gate function ( 1962 Milestone ), a half adder, and a half shift register, were introduced in October.
图1 Dawon Kahang的金属氧化物半导体（mos）晶体管的图形 M. M. (John) Atalla and Dawon Kahn g 在 1995 年于贝尔实验室成功制造了第一个绝缘栅极场效应晶体管，一直被 Lilienfeld, Heil, Shockley 等人长期期望的通过注入到半导体材料来克服表面态从而封锁电场。通过研究二氧化硅热生长层，他们发现这些 ** 会在一个由金属（金属极），氧化物（氧绝缘层），硅（硅半导体）组成的三明治（也就是 金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管，通常被成为金属氧化物半导体 ）的硅及其氧化物之间有一个明显的减小。因为他们的装置缓慢而起在电话系统中没有很急切的需求，所以它没有进一步的发展。在一个 1961 年的备忘中， Kahng 却指出了它在易于制造和在集成电路方面应用的可能性的潜力，飞兆半导体和美国无线电公司的研究人员认识到了这些优势。在 1960 年 Karl Zaininger 和 Charles Meuller 在美国无线电公司制造了一个 金属氧化物半导体晶体管，飞兆半导体的 C.T. Sah 制造了一个可控金属氧化物半导体四极管。 Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein 随后在美国无线电公司于 1962 年研制出了 实验用 16 个晶体管的集成装置。 图2仙童半导体的FI 100 的p沟道金属氧化物半导体开关晶体管 金属氧化物半导体晶体管的导电区域要么是 p 型 ( 称其 p 沟道 设备 ) 或 n 型 (n- 沟道设备 ) 材料，后者要比 p 沟道的更快，同时也更难制作。 金属氧化物半导体器件 在 1964 年冲击了商业市场。通用微电子公司和飞兆半导体公司将 p 型装置用于逻辑开关。美国无线电公司引进了一种 n 沟道的晶体管用于放大信号。由于它比双极性器件有更小的尺寸和功率消耗，如今超过百分之 99 的微型芯片都用金属氧化物半导体器件来制作。取得这样的普遍应用耗费了十年努力。 图3 RCA16金属半导体晶体管的电路放大图像 图4 1962年在RCA的 MOS IC开发者 Steven Hofstein 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840127-周超 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840128- 徐涛 原文 http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1978-PAL.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org ———————————————————————————————— 1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated John Atalla and Dawon Kahng fabricate working transistors and demonstrate the first successful MOS field-effect amplifier. In 1959 M. M. (John) Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs achieved the first successful insulated-gate field-effect transistor (FET), which had been long anticipated by Lilienfeld, Heil, Shockley and others ( 1926 Milestone ) by overcoming the surface states that blocked electric fields from penetrating into the semiconductor material. Investigating thermally grown silicon-dioxide layers, they found these states could be markedly reduced at the interface between the silicon and its oxide in a sandwich comprising layers of metal (M - gate), oxide (O - insulation), and silicon (S – semiconductor) - thus the name MOSFET, popularly known as MOS. As their device was slow and addressed no pressing needs of the telephone system, it was not pursued further. In a 1961 memo, however, Kahng pointed out its potential ease of fabrication and the possibility of application in integrated circuits. But researchers at Fairchild and RCA did recognize these advantages. In 1960 Karl Zaininger and Charles Meuller fabricated an MOS transistor at RCA and C.T. Sah of Fairchild built an MOS-controlled tetrode. Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein followed in 1962 with an experimental 16-transistor integrated device at RCA. The MOS transistor conducting region is either p -type (making it a p -channel device) or n -type ( n -channel device) material. The latter are faster than p -channel but are more difficult to make. MOS devices hit the commercial market in 1964. General Microelectronics (GME 1004) and Fairchild (FI 100) offered p -channel devices for logic and switching applications; RCA introduced an n -channel transistor (3N98) for amplifying signals. Because of their smaller size and lower power consumption than bipolar devices, over 99 percent of microchips produced today use MOS transistors. Achieving such ubiquity took decades of effort. ( 1964 Milestone )
1965 主机开始采用集成电路 大型电脑制造商发布了基于定制和特殊用途的集成电路机器。 用于商业和科学计算的大型电子数据处理系统称为“主机”电脑。在十九世纪六十年代，主机供应商通过专有的硬件、操作系统和应用软件在市场上区分他们的系统。他们要求组件能提供不同的特性和比目前可用的通用逻辑系列更快的速度（ 1961 年里程碑）。（ 1963 年里程碑）由于这些系统提供了大量的商机，飞兆、摩托罗拉、 Signetics 公司、德州仪器及其他手工制作系列的工程师团队都申请定制特殊用途的集成电路。 最早一批设计使用单片集成电路的主机有 1966 年发布的巴勒斯 B2500/3500 、 RCA 光谱 70 系列（ 1965 ）和科学数据系统西格玛 7 （ 1966 ）。巴勒斯的工程师和飞兆的 Robert Seeds 创建了互补晶体管逻辑体系并为惠普的 3000 系列创造了条件。 RCA 创建了电流型逻辑内部电路并与集成电路供应商合作生产它们。 SDS 和 Signetics 及另外几家公司合作完成一个六个设备的系列。 CDC 、通用电气、霍尼韦尔、 IBM 、 NCR 、 SDS 和 UNIVAC 等公司都创建了定制电路系列。 1962 年 1 月， Narud 领头创建了摩托罗拉的 MECL （ Motorola Emitter Coupled Logic 摩托罗拉发射极耦合逻辑）系列，一种单片实施了 IBM 公司基于晶体管的高速逻辑电路。虽然作为标准产品，昂贵的多层印制电路板和系统对冷却的要求限制了数据控制公司、 Cray 公司、通用电气、日立、 ICL 及其他公司对大量电子元件在科学计算机上的使用要求。 1976 年，每个克雷一号机器消耗 25 万对飞兆公司提供的 F100K 元件开关包，每个开关的转换时间都在 1ns 以内。 Describes how to specify a custom IC from Fairchild 图一 介绍如何从飞兆半导体公司定制指定的集成电路 Credit: Fairchild Camera Instrument Corporation A custom TTL gate design from 1964 图二 1964年设计的自定义TTL门电路 Credit: Fairchild Camera Instrument Corporation Burroughs B25/3500 Series used CTL ICs from Fairchild ITT 图三 飞兆半导体和ITT生产的巴勒斯B25/3500系列CTL集成电路 Credit: Burroughs Corporation RCA Custom CML circuits for the Spectra 70 computer 图四 RCA公司为光谱70计算机制造的CML集成电路 Credit: RCA Incorporated 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840209-常青 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840208-汪洋 原文 http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1965-Custom.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org ———————————————————————————————— 1965 - Mainframe Computers Employ ICs Large computer manufacturers announce machines based on custom and special purpose integrated circuits. Large electronic data processing systems for business and scientific applications are called "mainframe" computers. In the 1960s mainframe vendors distinguished their systems in the marketplace through proprietary hardware, operating systems, and applications software. They demanded components offering unique features and significantly faster speed (1961 Milestone) than the currently available general-purpose logic families. (1963 Milestone) As these systems offered high-volume production business opportunities, teams of engineers at Fairchild, Motorola, Signetics, TI, and others handcrafted families of custom and special purpose ICs for these applications. Some of the earliest mainframe designs to use monolithic ICs were the Burroughs B2500/3500 announced in 1966, RCA Spectra 70 series (1965), and Scientific Data Systems Sigma 7 (1966). Burroughs engineers cooperated with Robert Seeds at Fairchild to develop a Complementary Transistor Logic (CTL) family that also powered Hewlett-Packard’s 3000 Series. RCA developed Current Mode Logic (CML) circuits internally and worked with IC vendors to manufacture them. SDS worked with Signetics and others on a family of six devices. CDC, General Electric, Honeywell, IBM, NCR, SDS,and Univac also developed custom circuit families. In 1962 Jan Narud led the development of Motorola's MECL (Motorola Emitter Coupled Logic) family, a monolithic implementation of IBM's transistor-based very high speed logic circuits. Although offered as standard products, expensive multi-layer p.c. boards and system cooling requirements limited ECL usage largely to high-performance scientific computer applications at Control Data Corporation , Cray, GE, Hitachi, ICL, and others. In 1976 each Cray 1 machine consumed 250,000 dual F100K ECL gate packages from Fairchild that offered switching times of under 1ns per gate. n
1965-4-----半导体只读存储器芯片的出现 半导体只读存储器（光盘）提供高密度和低成本的单位比特 作为在制造过程中被写入只读存储器的永久数据，使用光盘存储的信息，在整个系统的生命历程中，将保持不变，如微程序代码，查找表，字符代码等。集成电路光盘由放置在行和列组织的信号线之间的二极管阵列组建成。晶圆制造过程中的最后一步是把以实现客户的代码所需的具体二极管连接起来。作为一个最小的存储单元结构的二极管， ROM 器件提供毎比特最高的密度和最低成本的半导体存储器。 在 1965 年，西尔韦尼亚为霍尼韦尔生产了一个 256 位的双极 TTL 电光盘，它由工厂里熟练的技术人员在一段时间内编写的，该人员从事把物理划片的金属环连接到选定的二极管的工作。定制面罩编程设备的生产订单是令人满意的。在 1965 年总微电子还开发速度较慢，但 四倍 1024 位光碟使用 MOS 技术。在 20 世纪 70 年代初，仙童，英特尔，摩托罗拉， Signetics 公司和 TI 提供 1024 位 TTL 光盘，而 AMD 公司， AMI ，电子阵列，通用仪器，国家，罗克韦尔和其他一些公司提供 4096 位（ 4K ） MOS 器件。 首次大批量应用的桌面计算器消费被来自美国和日本厂商的设备其采用亿万 16K 和更大的器件视频游戏墨盒所超越。任天堂的超级马里奥兄弟 NES 游戏单独的生产超过 4000 万单位。由于每个 ROM 有顺序的被供应，客户经常为较长的交货时间和供应商的供货不及时而感到沮丧,以用户可编程的光盘（ PROM 的）的形式来缓解。 Credit: Fairchild Camera Instrument Corporation 256-bit ROM number generator programming table 256位ROM数发生器编程表 Courtesy of: Intel Corporation Intel 3301, 1024-bit Bipolar ROM 英特尔3301 ， 1024位双极光盘 CHM Collection. Electronic image gift of William Blair Electronic Arrays 8316F 16K MOS ROM with package lid removed 电子阵列8316F 16K MOS去掉包盖的 ROM CHM Dan Rose Packaging Collection. Gift of SEMI Atari video game cartridge board with AMD 4K-bit MOS ROM circa 1982 雅达利游戏机墨盒板与AMD的4K位MOS ROM大约在1982年 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840211-杜伟 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海） 高阳 原文 http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1965-ROM.html 版权 copyright by www.nobeprize.org 英文原文 1965 - Semiconductor Read-Only-Memory Chips Appear Semiconductor read-only-memories (ROMs) offer high density and low cost per bit. As data is permanently written into a Read Only Memory during the manufacturing process, ROM storage is used for information that will remain unchanged throughout the life of a system, such as microprogram code, look-up tables, character generation, etc. Integrated circuit ROMs are built from arrays of diodes placed between signal wires organized in rows and columns. The last masking step of the wafer fabrication process makes connection to the specific diodes required to implement the customer's code. As a diode represents the smallest possible memory cell structure, ROM devices offer the highest density and lowest cost per bit form of semiconductor memory. In 1965 Sylvania produced a 256-bit bipolar TTL ROM for Honeywell that was programmed one bit at a time by a skilled technician at the factory who physically scratched metal link connections to selected diodes. Production orders were satisfied with custom-mask programmed devices. Also in 1965 General Microelectronics developed slower but four-times larger 1024-bit ROMs using MOS technology. By the early 1970s Fairchild, Intel, Motorola, Signetics, and TI offered 1024-bit TTL ROMs, while AMD, AMI, Electronic Arrays, General Instrument, National, Rockwell and others produced 4096-bit (4K) MOS devices. Desktop calculator consumption, the first high-volume application, was surpassed by video game cartridges that used hundreds of millions of 16K and larger devices from U. S. and Japanese vendors. Production of Nintendo’s first Super Mario Brothers NES game alone exceeded 40M units. As each ROM is manufactured to order, customers were often frustrated with long delivery times and vendors overwhelmed by production logistics. Relief came in the form of user-programmable ROMs (PROMs). ( 1971 Milestone )
图一仙童公司具有10位模数转换器的电流源-μA722 图二 DAC08 8位输入转换成一个模拟输出 图三单独的双极和CMOS组合包括从1978年年的12位ADCAD574 图四 AD 561和574设计者彼得.霍罗伟 1968 年 - 专用电流源 IC 集成了数据转换功能 将模拟和数字功能结合在一个芯片上制造精度要求，使他们成为众多使用先进单片解决产品问题的厂家之一。 数字是操纵多种信息最有效的形式。然而，现实世界的数据，在本质上是模拟的，必须转换成数字形式进行处理。结合模拟和数字电路的信号，这两种模式之间翻译的集成电路被称为混合信号设备。许多方法被用来完成从模拟到数字（ADC）和数模转换器（DAC）转换，每个方法都需要在不同的精度，速度和成本之间的权衡。 仙童公司的1968年乔治尔德设计的μA722是最早集成电路专用数据转换应用功能的10位电流源之一。在20世纪70年代，许多厂商包括ADI公司，AMD公司，哈里斯，Intersil公司，摩托罗拉，国家半导体，精密整体耐火材料（PMI），德州仪器，和TRW公司开发的家庭设备中的特定部分都集成了数据转换功能。 利用扩散电阻PMI的丹·杜利在1969年设计的第一个完全集成的DAC，6位DAC01。摩托罗拉（MC1408）和PMI（DAC08）随后在1975年的研制了8位器件。由位分辨率表示数据转换器的精度，受制于电阻串的准确性。位分辨率越大，电阻需要的精度越高。在1976年，彼得霍洛威在亚德诺半导体激光通过修剪晶圆薄膜电阻制造的AD561实现了首个单芯片10位DAC的精度要求。使用集成注入逻辑（I2L）双极电路技术，ADI公司的保罗布罗考在1978年设计了第一块单片ADC，10位的AD571。由于ADC比DAC要求更多电路元件，通过双极双芯片和CMOS来解决12位和较高的功能的方案在20世纪80年代初盛行一时。 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840216-鞠伯伦 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840226-王延博 原文： http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1968-Data.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org ———————————————————————————————————————— 1968 - Dedicated Current Source IC Integrates a Data Conversion Function The precision manufacturing requirements of combining analog and digital capability on one chip made them one of the last product areas to yield to monolithic solutions. Digital is the most efficient form for manipulating many kinds of information. However, real world data is analog in nature and must be converted to digital form for processing. Integrated circuits incorporating analog and digital circuitry where signals are translated between these two modes are called mixed-signal devices. Numerous approaches are used to accomplish Analog to Digital (ADC) and Digital to Analog (DAC) conversion; each entails different trade offs between accuracy, speed, and cost. Fairchild’s George Erdi designed one of the first ICs dedicated to data conversion applications, the A722 10-bit Current Source, in 1968. In the 1970s many vendors including Analog Devices, AMD, Harris, Intersil, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Precision Monolithics (PMI), TI, and TRW developed families of devices that integrated specific portions of the data conversion function. Using diffused resistors PMI's Dan Dooley designed the first fully integrated DAC, the 6-bit DAC01 in 1969. Motorola (MC1408) and PMI (DAC08) followed with 8-bit devices in 1975. The accuracy of data converters, expressed as bit resolution, is limited by the accuracy of a string of resistors. The larger the bit resolution, the higher the accuracy required of the resistors. In 1976 Peter Holloway at Analog Devices laser trimmed thin-film resistors on the wafers to achieve the required precision for the first single-chip 10-bit DAC, the AD561. Using integrated injection logic (I2L) bipolar circuit techniques, Paul Brokaw of Analog Devices designed the first monolithic ADC, the 10-bit AD571, in 1978. As ADCs require more circuit components than DACs, two-chip bipolar and CMOS solutions prevailed for 12-bit and higher functions through the early 1980s.
1970 - MOS动态存储器和磁芯存储器相争 约翰 · 施密特设计一个 64 位 p-channel 静态 RAM 在飞兆半导体 (MOS) 在 1964 年。供应商的 1968 萨姆 ( 半导体活跃记忆 ) 项目的十六巴勒斯一般聚集这些芯片在陶瓷基板 , 形成 1024 位混合的数组。整体解决方案和类似的 multi-chip 不久就追上了这个项目在计算机 Microtechnology 、英特尔、摩托罗拉、及 TI(SMA) 。 减少芯片尺寸乔尔 Karp GMe 构思出一种动态的时序方案 Boysel 适应李建造 256 位动态公绵羊在飞兆半导体在 1968 、 1024 和 2048 位装置系统在四个阶段在 1969 年。这些和竞争来自于先进的记忆系统达利克 (AMS6001) 采用晶体管每 4 到 6 点。霍尼韦尔的法案提出了一个 3-transistor 细胞 Regitz 实施 Karp 在英特尔 p-channel 硅门过程 (1968 里程碑 ) 。泰德霍夫提出改进 , 设计了由鲍勃 · 艾博特和调试了鲍勃芦苇于公元 1103 年。提供很多更快的速度 , 标价 1 分 / 一点 , 从 1970 年开始 ,1103 年很快换成了磁性核心技术对计算机内存。沃尔特 Krolikowski 描绘了一幅 Cogar 更快的 n-channel DRAM 于 1970 年。 IBM 是第一个进行这种新的生产工艺技术对系统 1972 年的 370/158 。 Mostek 罗伯特 Proebsting ion-implanted 电阻器用于减少功率消耗及模具尺寸足够装 4 K 位 (MK4096) 进入一个常规 16-pin 包裹于 1973 年。在 16 K(MK4116) 水平在 1976 年 Mostek 采用晶体管单管记忆细胞 , 由 IBM 公司专利的研究员罗伯特 ·Dennard 及设计方法 Karl-Ulrich 斯坦描述西门子。这种做法造成了 64 K 达利克从日本和美国的供应商在最后的十年、大容量的记忆系统 , 半导体 , 更经济可靠比磁芯。 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装技术 090840219--周明川 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海） http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1970-DRAM.html 原文： John Schmidt designed a 64-bit MOS p -channel Static RAM at Fairchild in 1964. Fairchild’s 1968 SAM (Semiconductor Active Memory) program for Burroughs assembled sixteen of these chips on ceramic substrates to form 1024-bit hybrid arrays. Monolithic solutions soon overtook this and similar multi-chip projects at Computer Microtechnology, Intel, Motorola, and TI (SMA 2001). To reduce chip size Joel Karp of GMe conceived a dynamic clocking scheme that Lee Boysel adapted to build 256-bit dynamic RAMs at Fairchild in 1968 and 1024 and 2048-bit devices at Four Phase Systems in 1969. These and competing DRAMs from Advanced Memory Systems (AMS6001) employed 4 to 6 transistors per bit. Honeywell’s Bill Regitz proposed a 3-transistor cell that was implemented by Karp in Intel’s p-channel silicon gate process ( 1968 Milestone ). Improvements suggested by Ted Hoff, designed by Bob Abbott and debugged by Bob Reed resulted in the 1103. Offering much faster speed and priced at 1 cent/bit, beginning in 1970 the 1103 quickly replaced magnetic core technology for computer main memory. Walter Krolikowski of Cogar described an even faster n-channel DRAM in 1970. IBM was the first manufacturer to commit to this new process technology on System 370/158 in 1972. Mostek's Robert Proebsting used ion-implanted resistors to reduce power consumption and die size sufficiently to pack 4K bits (MK4096) into a conventional 16-pin package in 1973. At the 16K level (MK4116) in 1976 Mostek adopted the single transistor memory cell patented by IBM researcher Robert Dennard and design methods described by Karl-Ulrich Stein of Siemens. This approach led to 64K DRAMs from Japanese and US vendors before the end of the decade and large capacity semiconductor memory systems that were as reliable as and more economical than magnetic cores. IMG style="FILTER: ; ZOOM: 1; CURSOR: pointer" class=replaced title="Next image " src="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/assets/images/400x400/1970_1_1.jpg" width=400 height=400 jQuery1331342725637="31" Fairchild 1024-bit SAM multi-chip memory plane uses sixteen 64-bit PMOS Static RAM chips (1968) Credit: Fairchild Camera Instrument Corporation 山姆 multi-chip 供应商 1024 位平面使用内存十六 64 位 PMOS 静态 RAM 芯片 (1968) 贷款 : 照相机和器械企业供应商 IMG style="FILTER: ; ZOOM: 1; CURSOR: pointer" class=replaced title="Next image " src="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/assets/images/400x400/1970_1_2.jpg" width=400 height=400 jQuery1331342725637="32" IMG style="FILTER: ; ZOOM: 1; CURSOR: pointer" class=replaced title="Next image " src="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/assets/images/400x400/1970_1_3.jpg" width=400 height=400 jQuery1331342725637="48" IMG style="FILTER: ; ZOOM: 1; CURSOR: pointer" class=replaced title="Next image " src="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/assets/images/400x400/1970_1_4.jpg" width=400 height=400 jQuery1331342725637="34"
1971 – 将微处理器的功能集成到一个 CPU 芯片上 硅栅 加工与成型技术的产生使得计算机中央处理器 (CPU) 压缩到一块单独的芯片上 在二十世纪六十年代末，设计人员致力于把计算机中央处理器的功能集合到微小的 MOS 大规模集成电路芯片上，这种技术被称为微处理器单元 ( 单片机 ) 芯片集合。 1969 年 Lee Boysel 创造了 Four-Phase 系统有限公司，他在一块半导体上设计植入了早期的八位逻辑算术单元（设计 3800/3804 型）。一个 8 位的 AL-1CPU 片被扩展到了 32 位。在 1970 年 , Garrett AiResearch 的 Steve Geller 和 Ray Holt 设计的 MP944 芯片被用于 F-14A 中央大气数据计算机的芯片，它是被 AMI 公司由六个金属栅晶片组成的。 英特尔的第一个微处理器—— 4004 ，来源于 Ted Hoff 和 Stanley Mazor 的构想。得益于 Masatoshi Shima ，在 1971 年， Federico Faggin 根据 Shima 在硅栅 MOS 芯片技术（ 1968 年里程碑式的发展）的经验，将一个由 2300 个晶体管组成的四位微处理器放入到 16-pin 封装起来。 Faggin 指导 Hal Feeney 设计的 8 位 8008 设备于 1972 年公布。为 CTC 公司（即后来的 Datapoint 公司）设计的 8008 设备的原型也曾被德州仪器用于 TMX1795 系统，但是却从没有被用于商业用途。第二代 8 位的设计来源于 Intel ( 设计 8080 型 ) 和 Tom Bennett 在 Motorola 领导的一个团队（设计 6800 型）， Tom Bennett 在 1974 年建立被广泛接受的微处理器理念。从 MOS 集成电路技术 -6502 体系衍生出的廉价变种 6800 使得个人电脑和来自于 Apple, Atari, Commodore 或其他公司的游戏可以任意连接。在二十世纪七十年代中期，许多供应商提供增强的 8 位结构，其中 Zilog 公司的最为强大。两个 1975 微处理器预示着后来重要发展趋势，包括在 IBM 工作过的 RCA 的 CMOS COSMAC(1802 里程碑 ) 与 John Cocke 801 精简指令集。 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840221--马东超 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840223--吴帅 http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1971-MPU.html 版权 copyright by www.computerhistory.org 1971 - Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip Silicon-gate process technology and design advances squeeze computer central processing units (CPU) onto single chips. By the late -1960s, designers were striving to integrate the central processing unit (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chip sets. Building on 8-bit arithmetic logic units (3800/3804) he designed earlier at Fairchild , in 1969 Lee Boysel created the Four-Phase Systems Inc. AL-1 an 8-bit CPU slice that was expandable to 32-bits. In 1970 Steve Geller and Ray Holt of Garrett AiResearch designed the MP944 chip set to implement the F-14A Central Air Data Computer on six metal-gate chips fabricated by AMI. Intel's first microprocessor, the 4004, was conceived by Ted Hoff and Stanley Mazor. Assisted by Masatoshi Shima , Federico Faggin used his experience in silicon-gate MOS technology ( 1968 Milestone ) to squeeze the 2300 transistors of the 4-bit MPU into a 16-pin package in 1971. Faggin also supervised Hal Feeney 's design of the 8-bit 8008 device announced in 1972. Designed for CTC ( later Datapoint ), prototypes of the 8008 function were also built by Texas Instruments as the TMX1795 but never offered commercially. Second generation 8-bit designs from Intel (8080) and from a team led by Tom Bennett at Motorola (6800) in 1974 established widespread acceptance of the MPU concept. A low-cost variant on the 6800 architecture by MOS Technology (6502) enabled personal computers and games from Apple, Atari, Commodore and others. By the mid-1970s many vendors offered enhanced 8-bit architectures, with Zilog 's Z80 being the most enduring. Two 1975 MPUs that presaged important later trends included RCA's CMOS COSMAC 1802 (1963 Milestone ) and John Cocke ’s 801 RISC device at IBM. Beginning in the mid-1970s, 16-bit MPUs emerged from General Instrument (CP1600), National (PACE), TI (TMS9900), and Zilog (Z8000). Boosted by the PC boom of the 1980s, Intel's 8086/8088 (IBM PC) and Motorola's 68000 (Macintosh) devices enjoyed the widest market success. Four Phase Systems, Inc. AL-1 8-bit computer processor slice. Design commenced October 1968. Final working devices March 1969 四相系统，Inc。AL-1 8位计算机处理器片。1968年十月设计开始。1969年三月配置设备。 Gold interconnects highlight the Intel 4004 MPU layout complexity 金色的内连线突出了Intel 4004微处理器复杂的内部构局 The Intel 4004 development team meet again in May 2007. T. Hoff, H. Feeney, S. Mazor, M. Shima, F. Faggin 2007年5月，Intel 4004开发团队合影T. Hoff, H. Feeney, S. Mazor, M. Shima, F. Faggin Internal view of the MCS-4 chip set including the 4004 MPU in the Busicom calculator Busicom 计算机的MCS-4内部图片，设置有4004微处理器
1974 - 通用单片机家族公布于世 一个单芯片的计算机设计的出现乃是 TMS 1000 单片机微单位或一个概念 , 引发了通用数字者家庭权力的工具和发达国家的玩具。 单片机为核心的单元 (MCU) 由相同的基本 ROM 、 RAM 和 CPU 因素以一种微处理器 ( 微控制器 ) 控制要求较低的任务如一个玩具或一个微波炉。这些应用程序不需要的终极速度或程序的复杂性 , 可以实现单片机设计 , 用更少的组件功能齐全适合在一个芯片上。 加里 Boone 和迈克尔的 1971 年《德州仪器的设计 TMS1802 计算机设备提供了基础的单片机为 TMS1000 通用 4 比特 MCU 家庭于 1974 年公布。定价为 $ 2 。在数量上 , 它的动力防盗警报、车库门开启器、游戏、玩具 , 如 “ 讲话和拼写 “ 介绍数码电子给消费者。 在 1976 年 , 两 Mostek 英特尔 (3870) 引入更严格的 8 位的体系结构 , 这种结构服务应用于汽车、电脑外设。英特尔 MCS-48 家庭提供了可擦可编程只读存储器 (8748) 和 (8048)masked-ROM 版本。可编程只读存储器的版本 MCUs 实用了原型与会收取少许生产体系。 (1971 年里程碑 ) 英特尔更加强大 ,1980 年的继任者 ,8051 年 , 成立了一个标准建筑 , 今天在众多变异幸存的具体应用。 到了 1980 年代 MCU 体系结构从欧洲、日本和美国的制造商众多专用应用。服务贝尔实验室的 MAC-4 遇到了电信的需要。摩托罗拉和日立公司从 68000 年 MCUs 派生高性能微处理器。通用设备的家庭照片 ( 今天微芯片 ) 赢的低成本的消费者设计。隐藏在小几百人在电器、汽车、个人电子产品 , 采用单片机可能是当今世界上最无所不在的半导体器件。 译者：哈尔滨工业大学（威海）电子封装 090840222--魏浩 校对：哈尔滨工业大学（威海） http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1974-MCU.html 原文： A single-chip calculator design emerges as the TMS 1000 micro-control unit or MCU, a concept that spawned families of general-purpose digital workhorses that power the tools and toys of the developed world. A microcontroller unit (MCU) comprises the same basic ROM, RAM and CPU elements as a microprocessor (MPU) for less demanding tasks such as controlling a toy or a microwave oven. As these applications do not require the ultimate in speed or program complexity, MCU designs can be implemented with fewer components so that the complete function will fit on a single chip. Gary Boone and Michael Cochran’s 1971 design of Texas Instruments TMS1802 single-chip calculator device provided the foundation for the TMS1000 general-purpose 4-bit MCU family announced in 1974. Priced at $2 in volume, it powered burglar alarms, garage door openers, games, and toys such as "Speak and Spell" that introduced digital electronics to the consumer. In 1976 both Intel and Mostek (3870) introduced 8-bit architectures that served more demanding applications in automobiles and PC peripherals. The Intel MCS-48 family offered both EPROM (8748) and masked-ROM (8048) versions. The EPROM version made MCUs practical for prototyping and low-volume production systems. ( 1971 Milestone ) Intel's more powerful 1980 successor, the 8051, established a standard architecture that survives today in numerous variants for specific applications. By the 1980s MCU architectures from European, Japanese and US manufacturers served numerous special-purpose applications. Bell Laboratories’ MAC-4 met telecommunications needs. Motorola and Hitachi derived high-performance MCUs from the 68000 MPU. General Instrument's PIC family (today Microchip) won low-cost consumer designs. Hidden by the hundreds in appliances, automobiles, and personal electronics products, the MCU may be today’s most ubiquitous semiconductor device. IMG style="FILTER: ; ZOOM: 1; CURSOR: pointer" class=replaced title="Next image " src="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/assets/images/400x400/1974_1_1.jpg" width=400 height=400 jQuery1331346818939="21" An early version of the TMS 1000 microcontroller Courtesy of: Texas Instruments, Inc. 一个早期版本的 TMS 1000 单片机 由 : 德克萨斯仪器公司
今年9月份，在Google的协助下，以色列博物馆终于把《死海古卷》数字化，放到了互联网上，向全世界学者和普通网民开放，此举可谓善莫大焉。 自从《死海古卷》发现以来，有很多学者致力于古卷的翻译工作，其中西奥多·加斯特(Theodore H. Gaster)翻译的The Dead Sea Scriptures已经由王神荫翻译成中文《死海古卷》，并于1995年由商务印书馆出版。近年来，国际上还出版了两个重要的英译本，分别是MichaelWise等人的《死海古卷新译》和Géza Vermes的《死海古卷全译》。两个版本各有千秋，都在力争忠实于原文的基础上，追求语言的优雅。 《死海古卷》的发现和翻译意义重大。虽然没有像《达芬奇密码》所杜撰的那样具有颠覆性，但对于研究早期基督教、对于校订旧约，考证圣经的成书年代，以及希伯来文和闪米特文的发展，有重要价值。古卷除个别段落用亚兰方言、希腊文之外，其余都用希伯来文写成。死海古卷比之前发现的最早的圣经抄本还要早1000年。
登上波音公司博物馆的协和号（ Concorde ） 黄安年文 黄安年的博客 /2011 年 9 月 5 日发布 8 月 28 日 , 我在西雅图美国波音公司的总部，参观了在展览广场展示的协和号飞机 , 并且登上了机仓 , 参观了内部设施和飞机外景。 展品片段照片 28 张为即时拍摄。 ************************** Concorde From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation , search For other uses, see Concorde (disambiguation) . Concorde Role Supersonic airliner Manufacturer BAC (now BAE Systems ) Sud-Aviation , Aérospatiale (now EADS ) First flight 2 March 1969 Introduction 21 January 1976 Retired 26 November 2003 Status Retired from service Primary users British Airways Air France See Operators below for others Number built 20 (including 6 non-airline aircraft) Program cost 1.3 billion Unit cost 23 million in 1977 (122m in 2008 ) Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde was a turbojet -powered supersonic passenger airliner , a supersonic transport (SST). It was a product of an Anglo-French government treaty, combining the manufacturing efforts of Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation . First flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and continued commercial flights for 27 years. Among other destinations , Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London Heathrow (British Airways) and Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport (Air France) to New York JFK , profitably flying these routes at record speeds, in less than half the time of other airliners. With only 20 aircraft built, their development represented a substantial economic loss, in addition to which Air France and British Airways were subsidised by their governments to buy them. As a result of the type’s only crash on 25 July 2000 and other factors, its retirement flight was on 26 November 2003. Concorde's name reflects the development agreement between the United Kingdom and France. In the UK, any or all of the type—unusual for an aircraft—are known simply as "Concorde", sans article. The aircraft is regarded by many as an aviation icon and an engineering marvel. Contents · 1 Development o 1.1 Concept o 1.2 Naming o 1.3 Testing · 2 Design o 2.1 General features o 2.2 Movement of centre of pressure o 2.3 Engines o 2.4 Heating issues o 2.5 Structural issues o 2.6 Range o 2.7 Increased radiation exposure o 2.8 Cabin pressurisation o 2.9 Flight characteristics o 2.10 Droop nose o 2.11 Brakes and undercarriage · 3 Operational history o 3.1 Scheduled flights o 3.2 BA buys its Concordes outright o 3.3 Concorde Flight 4590 crash o 3.4 Retirement § 3.4.1 Air France § 3.4.2 British Airways o 3.5 Restoration · 4 Impact o 4.1 Environmental o 4.2 Public perception o 4.3 Records o 4.4 Comparison with other supersonic aircraft o 4.5 Replacements in development · 5 Operators · 6 Specifications · 7 Notable appearances in media · 8 See also · 9 References o 9.1 Notes o 9.2 Citations o 9.3 Bibliography · 10 External links Development Concept Concorde's final flight, G-BOAF from Heathrow to Bristol, on 26 November 2003. The extremely high fineness ratio of the fuselage is evident. Concorde on takeoff Pre-production Concorde 101 on display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford , UK. Concorde G-BOAB in storage at London Heathrow Airport . This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976 and its final flight in 2000. In the late 1950s, the United Kingdom, France, United States, and Soviet Union were considering developing supersonic transport. The British Bristol Aeroplane Company and the French Sud Aviation were both working on designs, called the Type 223 and Super-Caravelle , respectively. Both were largely funded by their respective governments. The British design was for a thin-winged delta shape (which owed much to work by Dietrich Küchemann , then at the Royal Aircraft Establishment ) for a transatlantic-ranged aircraft for about 100 people, while the French were intending to build a medium-range aircraft. The designs were both ready to start prototype construction in the early 1960s, but the cost was so great that the British government made it a requirement that British Aircraft Corporation (which had been formed in 1960 as a consolidation of British aircraft companies, including the Bristol Aeroplane Company) look for international co-operation. Approaches were made to a number of countries, but only France showed real interest. The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies and included a clause, originally asked for by the UK, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation. A draft treaty was signed on 28 November 1962. By this time, both companies had been merged into new ones; thus, the Concorde project was between the British Aircraft Corporation and Aérospatiale. At first the new consortium intended to produce one long range and one short range version. However, prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version and it was dropped. The consortium secured orders (i.e., non-binding options) for over 100 of the long-range version from the major airlines of the day: Pan Am , BOAC and Air France were the launch customers, with six Concordes each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil , Continental Airlines , Japan Airlines , Lufthansa , American Airlines , United Airlines , Air India , Air Canada , Braniff , Singapore Airlines , Iran Air , Olympic Airways , Qantas , CAAC , Middle East Airlines and TWA . Design work was supported by a research programme that investigated the characteristics of the low ratio delta wing. The supersonic BAC 211 tested the high speed range while the Handley Page HP.115 served for low speeds. Naming Reflecting the treaty between the British and French governments which led to Concorde's construction, the name Concorde is from the French word concorde ( IPA: ), which has an English equivalent, concord ( IPA: /ˈkɒŋkɔrd/ ). Both words mean agreement , harmony or union . The aircraft was initially referred to in the UK as Concorde , with the French spelling, but was officially changed to Concord by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle . In 1967, at the French roll-out in Toulouse the British Government Minister for Technology , Tony Benn announced that he would change the spelling back to Concorde . This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed ‹e› represented "Excellence, England, Europe and Entente (Cordiale) ." In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: " ou talk about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland’s contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied, " t was also 'E' for ' cosse ' (the French name for Scotland) — and I might have added 'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!" Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as Concorde without an article , rather than the Concorde or a Concorde . Testing Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built by Aerospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at Filton , Bristol . Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by André Turcat , and first went supersonic on 1 October. The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw . Both prototypes were presented to the public for the first time on 7–8 June 1969 at the Paris Airshow. As the flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971, which was also the first transatlantic crossing of Concorde. Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at the new Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport’s opening. These trips led to orders for over 70 aircraft, but a combination of factors led to order cancellations: the 1973 oil crisis , financial difficulties of airlines, a spectacular Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 , and environmental concerns such as the sonic boom , takeoff -noise and pollution. By 1976 four nations remained as prospective buyers: Britain, France, China, and Iran. In the end only Air France and British Airways (the successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with the two governments taking a cut of any profits made. In the case of BA, 80% of the profit was kept by the government until 1984, while the cost of buying the aircraft was covered by a state loan. The United States cancelled the Boeing 2707 , its supersonic transport programme, in 1971. Industry observers in France and the United Kingdom suggested that part of the American opposition to Concorde on grounds of noise pollution was orchestrated, or at least encouraged, by the United States Government , out of spite at not being able to propose a viable competitor, despite President John F. Kennedy 's impassioned 1963 statement of commitment. Other countries, such as India and Malaysia, ruled out Concorde supersonic overflights stating noise concerns. Demonstration and test flights were flown from 1974 onwards. The testing of Concorde set records that have not been surpassed; the prototype, pre-production and first production aircraft undertook 5,335 flight hours; 2,000 test hours were at supersonic speeds. During one such test flight, on 7 November 1974, 001 performed the fastest civil flight across the North Atlantic, setting a record that still stands. Unit costs were 23 million (US$46 million, EUR 50 million) in 1977, and development costs were six times the projected amount. Design General features Concorde cockpit layout Fuel pitch trim Concorde is an ogival (also "ogee") delta-winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those employed in the RAF's Avro Vulcan strategic bomber . Concorde was the first airliner to have an (in this case, analogue) fly-by-wire flight-control system; the avionics of Concorde were unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuits . The principal designer for the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy. Concorde pioneered the following technologies: For high speed and optimisation of flight: · Double delta ( ogee /ogival) shaped wings · Variable engine air intake system controlled by digital computers · Supercruise capability · Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today’s FADEC -controlled engines · Droop-nose section for better landing visibility For weight-saving and enhanced performance: · Mach 2.04 (~2,170 kilometres per hour / 1,350 mph) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum although turbojet engines are more efficient at higher speed ) · Mainly aluminium construction for low weight and conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium) · Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climbout to landing · Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems · High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000 lbf/in²) for lighter hydraulic components · Complex Air Data Computer (ADC) for the automated monitoring and transmission of aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, side-slip). · Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system · Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity control · Parts made using " sculpture milling ", reducing the part count while saving weight and adding strength. · Lack of an auxiliary power unit , as Concorde would only visit large airports where ground air start carts are available. Movement of centre of pressure G-AXDN, Duxford, close up of pre-production engine nozzles. The nozzle/thrust reverser design was altered for production. When any aircraft passes the critical mach of that particular airframe, the centre of pressure shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch down force on the aircraft if the centre of mass remains where it was. The engineers designed the wings in a specific manner to reduce this shift, but there was still a shift of about 2 metres. This could have been countered by the use of trim controls , but at such high speeds this would have caused a dramatic increase in the drag on the aircraft. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre of mass, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control. Engines Main article: Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable; this required high efficiency. Turbofan engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag. Turbojets were found to be the best choice of engines. The engine used was the twin spool Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 , a development of the Bristol engine first used for the Avro Vulcan bomber, and developed into an afterburning supersonic variant for the BAC TSR-2 strike bomber. Concorde's intake system schematics Concorde's intake system The intake design for Concorde’s engines was critical. Conventional jet engines can take in air at only around Mach 0.5; therefore the air has to be slowed from the Mach 2.0 airspeed that enters the engine intake. In particular, Concorde needed to control the shock waves that this reduction in speed generates to avoid damage to the engines. This was done by a pair of intake ramps and an auxiliary spill door, whose position was moved during flight to slow the air down. The effectiveness of the intake system is such that, during supersonic flight, 63% of the aircraft's thrust is attributed to the intakes whilst the exhaust nozzles generate 29% and the engines just 8% of the thrust. Engine failure causes problems on conventional subsonic aircraft; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side but the engine creates drag, causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed engine. If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it could theoretically cause a catastrophic failure of the airframe. However, during an engine failure, air intake needs are virtually zero, so in Concorde, the immediate effects of the engine failure were countered by the opening of the auxiliary spill door and the full extension of the ramps, which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gaining lift and streamlining the engine, minimising the drag effects of the failed engine. Although computer simulations predicted considerable difficulties, in practice Concorde was able to shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach 2 without any of the predicted control problems. Concorde pilots were routinely trained in simulators to deal with a double engine failure. The aircraft used reheat ( afterburners ) at takeoff and to pass through the transonic regime (i.e., "go supersonic") between Mach 0.95 and Mach 1.7, and were switched off at all other times. Due to jet engines being highly inefficient at low speeds , Concorde burned two tonnes of fuel (almost 2% of the maximum fuel load) taxiing to the runway. To conserve fuel only the two outer engines were run after landing for taxiing. Heating issues Besides engines, the hottest part of the structure of any supersonic aircraft is the nose . The engineers wanted to use duralumin , an aluminium alloy, throughout the aircraft due to its familiarity, cost and ease of construction. The highest temperature that aluminium could sustain over the life of the aircraft was 260 °F (127 °C), which limited the top speed to Mach 2.02. Concorde went through two cycles of heating and cooling during a flight, first cooling down as it gained altitude, then heating up after going supersonic. The reverse happened when descending and slowing down. This had to be factored into the metallurgical modelling. A test rig was built that repeatedly heated up a full-size section of the wing, and then cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken for testing. Owing to the heat generated by compression of air as Concorde travelled supersonically, the fuselage would extend by as much as 300 mm (almost 1 ft), the most obvious manifestation of this being a gap that opened up on the flight deck between the flight engineer 's console and the bulkhead. On all Concordes that had a supersonic retirement flight, the flight engineers placed their hats in this gap before it cooled, where the hats remain to this day. To keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel as a heat sink for the heat from the air conditioning, the same method also cooled the hydraulics. During supersonic flight the surfaces forward from the cockpit became heated, a visor was used to deflect much of this heat from directly reaching the cockpit. Concorde had livery restrictions; the majority of the surface had to be covered with a highly reflective white paint to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to heating effects from supersonic flight at Mach 2. In 1996, Air France briefly painted F-BTSD in a predominantly blue livery (with the exception of the wings) in a promotional deal with Pepsi . In this paint scheme, Air France were advised to remain at Mach 2 for no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no restriction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F-BTSD was used because it was not scheduled for any long flights that required extended Mach 2 operations. Structural issues Due to the high speeds at which Concorde travelled, large forces were applied to the aircraft's structure during banks and turns. This caused twisting and the distortion of the aircraft’s structure. In addition there were concerns over maintaining precise control at supersonic speeds; both of these issues were resolved by active ratio changes between the inboard and outboard elevons , varying at differing speeds including supersonic. Only the innermost elevons, which are attached to the stiffest area of the wings, were active at high speed. Additionally, the narrow fuselage meant that the aircraft flexed. This was visible from the rear passengers’ viewpoints. Range In order to travel between London and New York, or Washington, non-stop, Concorde was developed to have the greatest supersonic range of any aircraft. This was achieved by a combination of engines which were highly efficient at supersonic speeds (The world's most energy-efficient jet engine ), a slender fuselage with high fineness ratio , and a complex wing shape delivering a high lift to drag ratio . This also required carrying only a modest payload and a high fuel capacity, and the aircraft was trimmed with precision to avoid unnecessary drag. Nevertheless, soon after Concorde began flying, a Concorde "B" model was designed with slightly larger fuel capacity and slightly larger wings with leading edge slats to improve aerodynamic performance at all speeds. It featured more powerful engines with sound deadening and without the fuel-hungry and noisy reheat. It was speculated that it was reasonably possible to create an engine with up to 25% gain in efficiency over the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593. This would have given 500 mi (805 km) additional range and a greater payload, making new commercial routes possible. This was cancelled due in part to poor sales of Concorde, but also to the rising cost of aviation fuel in the 1970s. Increased radiation exposure Concorde fuselage The high altitude at which Concorde cruised meant passengers received almost twice the flux of extraterrestrial ionising radiation as those travelling on a conventional long-haul flight. Upon Concorde's introduction, it was speculated that this exposure during supersonic travels would increase the likelihood of skin cancer. However, due to the proportionally reduced flight time, the overall equivalent dose would normally be less than a conventional flight over the same distance. Unusual solar activity might lead to an increase in incident radiation. To prevent incidents of excessive radiation exposure the flight deck had a radiometer and an instrument to measure the rate of decrease of radiation. If the radiation level became too high, Concorde would descend below 47,000 feet (14,000 m). Cabin pressurisation British Airways Concorde interior. The narrow fuselage permitted only 4 seats across the aircraft with limited headroom and locker space. Airliner cabins were usually maintained at a pressure equivalent to 6,000–8,000 feet (1,800–2,400 m) elevation. Concorde’s pressurisation was set to an altitude at the lower end of this range, 6,000 feet (1,800 m). Concorde’s maximum cruising altitude was 60,000 feet (18,000 m); subsonic airliners typically cruise below 40,000 feet (12,000 m). Above 50,000 feet (15,000 m), the lack of air pressure would give a " time of useful consciousness " in even a conditioned athlete of no more than 10–15 seconds. A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all passengers and crew. At Concorde’s altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough so that the plastic emergency oxygen masks installed on other passenger jets would not be effective, and passengers would quickly suffer from hypoxia despite quickly donning them. Concorde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event of a breach, a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and made note of Concorde’s higher operating altitude, concluding that the best response to a loss of pressure would be a rapid descent. The Continuous Positive Airway Pressure would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly to the pilots through masks. Flight characteristics Concorde performing a low-level flypast at an air show While commercial jets take eight hours to fly from New York to Paris, the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Concorde had a maximum cruise altitude of 18,300 metres (60,039 ft) and an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02, about 1155 knots (2140 km/h or 1334 mph), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft. With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising altitude of about 56,000 ft (17,000 m), dedicated oceanic airways or "tracks" were used by Concorde to cross the Atlantic. Due to the nature of high altitude winds, these SST tracks were fixed in terms of their co-ordinates, unlike the North Atlantic Tracks at lower altitudes whose co-ordinates alter daily according to forecast weather patterns. Concorde would also be cleared in a 15,000-foot (4,600 m) block, allowing for a slow climb from 45,000 to 60,000 ft (18,000 m) during the oceanic crossing as the fuel load gradually decreased. In regular service, Concorde employed an efficient cruise-climb flight profile following take-off. The delta-shaped wings forced Concorde to attain a higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. The normal landing speed was 170 miles per hour (274 km/h). Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the "back side" of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the sink rate, the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload. Droop nose Concorde’s drooping nose enabled the aircraft to switch between being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimum aerodynamic efficiency, and not obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, takeoff, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the capability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would raise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining. Concorde with droop nose in fully down position during rollout after landing A controller in the cockpit allowed the visor to be retracted and the nose to be lowered to 5° below the standard horizontal position for taxiing and takeoff. Following takeoff and after clearing the airport, the nose and visor were raised. Shortly before landing, the visor was again retracted and the nose lowered to 12.5° below horizontal for maximum visibility. Upon landing the nose was raised to the five-degree position to avoid the possibility of damage. On rare occasions, the aircraft could take off with the nose fully down. A final position had the visor retracted into the nose but the nose in the standard horizontal position. This setup was used for cleaning the windscreen and for short subsonic flights. The two prototype Concordes had two fixed "glass holes" on their retractable visors. The Federal Aviation Administration objected to the restrictive visibility and demanded a design change before it would permit Concorde to serve US airports, which led to the redesigned visor used on the production and the four pre-production aircraft (101, 102, 201, and 202). The nose window and visor glass needed to endure temperatures in excess of 100°C at supersonic flight were developed by Triplex . Brakes and undercarriage Concorde tyres and brakes Tail bumper of Concorde G-BOAG at the Museum of Flight in Seattle Because of the way Concorde's delta-wing generated lift, the undercarriage had to be unusually strong. At rotation , Concorde would rise to a high angle of attack, about 18 degrees. Prior to rotation the wing generated almost no lift, unlike typical aircraft wings. Combined with the high airspeed at rotation (199 KIAS ), this increased the stresses on the rear undercarriage in way that was initially unexpected during the development and required a major redesign. Due to the high alpha needed at rotation, a small set of wheels were added aft to prevent tailstrikes. The rear main undercarriage units swing towards each other to be stowed but due to their great height also need to retract telescopically before swinging in order to clear each other when stowed. Additionally, due to the high average takeoff speed of 250 miles per hour (400 km/h), Concorde needed upgraded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde has anti-skid braking – a system which prevents the tyres from losing traction when the brakes are applied for greater control during roll-out. The brakes, developed by Dunlop , were the first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner. They could bring Concorde to a stop from an aborted takeoff within one mile (1600 m) when weighing up to 185 tons (188 tonnes ) and travelling at 190 miles per hour (310 km/h). This braking manoeuvre brought the brakes to temperatures of 300–500 °C, requiring several hours for cooling. Operational history See also: Concorde aircraft histories Scheduled flights Scheduled flights began on 21 January 1976 on the London–Bahrain and Paris– Rio (via Dakar ) routes, with BA flights using the " Speedbird Concorde " callsign to notify air traffic control of the aircraft’s unique abilities and restrictions, but the French using their normal callsigns. The Paris- Caracas route (via Azores ) began on 10 April of the same year. The US Congress had just banned Concorde landings in the US, mainly due to citizen protest over sonic booms , preventing launch on the coveted transatlantic routes. However, the US Secretary of Transportation , William Coleman , gave permission for Concorde service to Washington Dulles International Airport , and Air France and British Airways simultaneously began service to Dulles on 24 May 1976. Air France Concorde in 1977 When the US ban on JFK Concorde operations was lifted in February 1977, New York banned Concorde locally. The ban came to an end on 17 October 1977 when the Supreme Court of the United States declined to overturn a lower court’s ruling rejecting efforts by the Port Authority and a grass-roots campaign led by Carol Berman to continue the ban. In spite of complaints about noise, the noise report noted that Air Force One , at the time a Boeing VC-137 , was louder than Concorde at subsonic speeds and during takeoff and landing. Scheduled service from Paris and London to New York’s John F. Kennedy Airport began on 22 November 1977. In 1977, British Airways and Singapore Airlines shared a Concorde for flights between London and Singapore International Airport via Bahrain. The aircraft, BA’s Concorde G-BOAD, was painted in Singapore Airlines livery on the port side and British Airways livery on the starboard side. The service was discontinued after three return flights because of noise complaints from the Malaysian government; it could only be reinstated on a new route bypassing Malaysian airspace in 1979. A dispute with India prevented Concorde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian airspace, so the route was eventually declared not viable and discontinued in 1980. British Airways Concorde making a low pass at Farnborough Airshow , 1978 During the Mexican oil boom , Air France flew Concorde twice weekly to Mexico City’s Benito Juárez International Airport via Washington, DC, or New York City, from September 1978 to November 1982. The worldwide economic crisis during that period resulted in this route’s cancellation; the last flights were almost empty. The routing between Washington or New York and Mexico City included a deceleration, from Mach 2.02 to Mach 0.95, to cross Florida subsonically and avoid creating a sonic boom over the state; Concorde then re-accelerated back to high speed while crossing the Gulf of Mexico. On 1 April 1989, on an around-the-world luxury tour charter, British Airways implemented changes to this routing that allowed G-BOAF to maintain Mach 2.02 by passing around Florida to the east and south. Periodically Concorde visited the region on similar chartered flights to Mexico City and Acapulco. From 1978 to 1980, Braniff International Airways leased 10 Concordes, five each from Air France and British Airways. These were used on subsonic flights between Dallas-Fort Worth and Washington Dulles International Airport , flown by Braniff flight crews. Air France and British Airways crews then took over for the continuing supersonic flights to London and Paris. The aircraft were registered in both the United States and their home countries; the European registration was covered while being operated by Braniff, retaining full AF/BA liveries. The flights were not profitable and typically less than 50% booked, forcing Braniff to end its tenure as the only US Concorde operator in May 1980. BA buys its Concordes outright By around 1981 in the UK, the future for Concorde looked bleak. The British government had lost money operating Concorde every year, and moves were afoot to cancel the service entirely. A cost projection came back with greatly reduced metallurgical testing costs because the test rig for the wings had built up enough data to last for 30 years and could be shut down. Despite this, the government was not keen to continue. In late 1983, the managing director of BA, Sir John King , convinced the government to sell the aircraft outright to (the then state owned, later privatised) BA for 16.5 million plus the first year’s profits. An Air France Concorde at John F. Kennedy International Airport in 1987 Sir John King realised that he had a premier product that was underpriced, and after carrying out a market survey, British Airways discovered that customers thought Concorde was more expensive than it actually was (because most customers' companies paid for flights). Ticket prices were progressively raised to match these perceptions. It is reported that British Airways then ran Concorde at a profit, unlike their French counterpart. British Airways's profits have been reported to be up to 50 million in the most profitable years, with a total revenue of 1.75 billion, before costs of 1 billion. Between 1984 and 1991, British Airways flew a thrice-weekly Concorde service between London and Miami, stopping at Washington’s Dulles International Airport. Until 2003, Air France and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. Concorde routinely flew to Grantley Adams International Airport , Barbados , during the winter holiday season. Air France also used Concorde on flights to Denpasar , Indonesia, from early 1988 into the 1990s, when the route to Denpasar was terminated and replaced by conventional services to Jakarta . The Jakarta route was considered for service by Concorde, but Jakarta's airport did not meet the requirements for the aircraft. Prior to the Air France Paris crash, several UK and French tour operators operated charter flights to European destinations on a regular basis; the charter business was viewed as lucrative by British Airways and Air France. Concorde Flight 4590 crash Main article: Air France Flight 4590 On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F-BTSC, crashed in Gonesse , France, killing all 100 passengers and nine crew members on board the flight, and four people on the ground. It was the only fatal incident involving Concorde. According to the official investigation conducted by the French accident investigation bureau (BEA), the crash was caused by a titanium strip that fell from a Continental Airlines DC-10 that had taken off minutes earlier. This metal fragment punctured a tyre on the Concorde's left main wheel bogie during takeoff. The tyre exploded, a piece of rubber hit the fuel tank, and while the fuel tank was not punctured, the impact caused a shock-wave which caused one of the fuel valves in the wing to burst open. This caused a major fuel leak from the tank, which then ignited due to sparking electrical landing gear wiring severed by another piece of the same tyre. The crew shut down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning, and with engine number 1 surging and producing little power, the aircraft was unable to gain height or speed. The aircraft entered a rapid pitch-up then a violent descent, rolling left and crashing tail-low into the Hotelissimo Hotel in Gonesse. On 6 December 2010, Continental Airlines and John Taylor, one of their mechanics, were found guilty of involuntary manslaughter. Prior to the accident, Concorde had been arguably the safest operational passenger airliner in the world in terms of passenger deaths-per-kilometres travelled with zero, but with a history of tyre explosions 60 times higher than subsonic jets. Safety improvements were made in the wake of the crash, including more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining to the fuel tanks and specially developed burst-resistant tyres. The first flight after the modifications departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister . During the 3-hour 20-minute flight over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2.02 and 60,000 ft (18,000 m) before returning to RAF Brize Norton . The test flight, intended to resemble the London–New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the ground at both locations. The first flight with passengers after the accident took place on 11 September 2001, which landed shortly before the World Trade Center attacks in the United States. This was not a revenue flight, as all the passengers were BA employees. Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G-BOAE and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK , where passengers were welcomed by the mayor Rudy Giuliani . Retirement Concorde G-BOAD on a barge beneath the Verrazano Narrows Bridge in New York City in November 2003, bound for the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum On 10 April 2003, Air France and British Airways simultaneously announced that they would retire Concorde later that year. They cited low passenger numbers following the 25 July 2000 crash, the slump in air travel following 11 September 2001, and rising maintenance costs. Although Concorde was technologically advanced when introduced in the 1970s, 30 years later its analogue cockpit was dated. There had been little commercial pressure to upgrade Concorde due to a lack of competing aircraft, unlike other airliners of the same era such as the Boeing 747. By its retirement, it was the last aircraft in British Airways' fleet that had a flight engineer ; other aircraft, such as the modernised 747-400 , had eliminated the role. On the same day, Sir Richard Branson offered to buy British Airways’ Concorde fleet at their "original price of 1" for service with Virgin Atlantic Airways . Branson claimed this to be the same token price that British Airways had paid the British Government; however, BA denied this and refused the offer. The aircraft were bought for 26 million each with money lent from the government, who in turn took 80% of the profits. Subsequently BA bought two aircraft for a book value of 1 as part of the 16.5 million buy out in 1983. Branson wrote in The Economist (23 October 2003) that his final offer was "over 5 million" and that he had intended to operate the fleet "for many years to come". Hopes for Concorde remaining in service were thwarted by Airbus's reluctance to continue providing maintenance support. It has been suggested that Concorde was not withdrawn for the reasons usually given but that it became apparent during the grounding of Concorde that the airlines could make more revenue carrying first class passengers subsonically. Rob Lewis suggested that the Air France retirement of its Concorde fleet was the result of a conspiracy between Air France Chairman Jean-Cyril Spinetta and Airbus CEO Noel Forgeard , and stemmed as much from a fear of being found criminally liable under French law for future Concorde accidents as from simple economics. A lack of commitment to Concorde from Director of Engineering Alan MacDonald was cited as having undermined BA’s resolve to continue operating Concorde. Air France Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing in the United States in New York City from Paris on 30 May 2003. During the following week, on 2 June and 3 June 2003, F-BTSD flew a final round-trip from Paris to New York and back for airline staff and long-time employees in the airline's Concorde operations. Air France's final Concorde flight took place on 27 June 2003 when F-BVFC retired to Toulouse. Air France Concorde at Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at Christie's in Paris on 15 November 2003; 1,300 people attended, and several lots exceeded their predicted values. French Concorde F-BVFC was retired to Toulouse and kept functional after the end of service, including engine runs, for a short while, in case taxi runs were required in support of the French judicial enquiry into the 2000 crash. The aircraft is now fully retired and no longer functional. French Concorde F-BTSD has been retired to the " Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace " at Le Bourget (near Paris) and, unlike the other museum Concordes, a few of the systems are being kept functional, so that, for instance, the famous "droop nose" can still be lowered and raised. This led to rumours that they could be prepared for future flights for special occasions. French Concorde F-BVFB currently rests at the Auto Technik Museum Sinsheim at Sinsheim , Germany, after its last flight from Paris to Baden-Baden, followed by a spectacular transport to Sinsheim via barge and road. The museum also has a Tu-144 on display – this is the only place where both supersonic airliners can be seen together. British Airways British Airways Concorde in the initial BA livery at Heathrow Airport British Airways conducted a North American farewell tour in October 2003. G-BOAG visited Toronto Pearson International Airport on 1 October, after which it flew to New York’s John F. Kennedy International Airport . G-BOAD visited Boston ’s Logan International Airport on 8 October, and G-BOAG visited Washington Dulles International Airport on 14 October. Misleading claims were made that G-BOAD’s flight to Boston set a record for the fastest transatlantic flight from east to west, making the trip from London Heathrow in 3 hours, 5 minutes, 34 seconds. However the fastest transatlantic flight was from London Heathrow to New York JFK airport on 7 February 1996 which took 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from takeoff to touchdown. In a week of farewell flights around the United Kingdom , Concorde visited Birmingham on 20 October, Belfast on 21 October, Manchester on 22 October, Cardiff on 23 October and Edinburgh on 24 October. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into Heathrow to the cities, often overflying them at low altitude. Concorde G-BOAC at the Manchester International Airport Aviation Viewing Park (Now housed indoors) On 22 October , Heathrow ATC arranged for the inbound flight BA9021C, a special from Manchester , and BA002 from New York to land simultaneously on the left and right runways respectively. On the evening of 23 October 2003, the Queen consented to the illumination of Windsor Castle , an honour normally reserved for major state events and visiting dignitaries, as Concorde's last west-bound commercial flight departed London. British Airways retired its Concorde fleet on 24 October. G-BOAG left New York to a fanfare similar to that given for Air France’s F-BTSD, while two more made round trips, G-BOAF over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including former Concorde pilots, and G-BOAE to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled over London, having received special permission to fly at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The captain of the New York to London flight was Mike Bannister . G-BOAE (212) took its retirement flight on 17 November 2003 from Heathrow to Grantley Adams International Airport on Barbados, where the plane is now on display. Mike Bannister (left) in the cockpit of BA002 All of BA's Concorde fleet have been grounded, drained of hydraulic fluid and their airworthiness certificates withdrawn. Jock Lowe, ex-chief Concorde pilot and manager of the fleet estimated in 2004 that it would cost 10–15 million to make G-BOAF airworthy again. BA maintain ownership and have stated that they will not fly again as Airbus ended support of the aircraft in 2003. On 1 December 2003, Bonhams held an auction of British Airways’ Concorde artefacts, including a nose cone, at Kensington Olympia in London. Proceeds of around 750,000 were raised, with the majority going to charity. In 2007, BA announced that the advertising spot at the entrance to Heathrow Airport where a 40% scale model of Concorde was located would not be retained, the model is now on display at the Brooklands Museum . The last commercial Concorde flight took place on 24 October 2003. On its way to The Museum of Flight the Alpha Golf set a New York City-to-Seattle speed record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds. The Museum's aircraft, registration code G-BOAG, is referred to as "Alpha Golf." It was first flown in April 1978, and delivered to British Airways in 1980. Equipped with four powerful Rolls-Royce/SNECMA Olympus 593 Mk. 610 turbojet engines, the Alpha Golf logged more than 5,600 takeoffs and over 16,200 flight hours while in service. This aircraft is on loan from British Airways. Restoration Although only used for spares after being retired from test flying and trials work in 1981, Concorde G-BBDG was dismantled and transported by road from Filton then restored from essentially a shell at the Brooklands Museum in Surrey . One of the youngest Concordes (F-BTSD) is on display at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum in Paris. In February 2010, it was announced that the museum and a group of volunteer Air France technicians intend to restore F-BTSD so it can taxi under its own power. On 29 May 2010, it was reported that a group comprising the British Save Concorde Group and the French Olympus 593 had begun work on inspecting the engines of a Concorde at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum, with the intent to restore the plane to be able to fly again in demonstrations and air shows. Flying in the opening ceremony for the 2012 London Olympics is also a goal. Impact Environmental Prior to Concorde’s flight trials, the developments made by the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by governments and their respective electorates. The opposition to Concorde’s noise, particularly on the eastern coast of the United States, forged a new political agenda on both sides of the Atlantic, with scientists and technology experts across a multitude of industries beginning to take the environmental and social impact more seriously. Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a general noise abatement programme for aircraft flying out of John F. Kennedy Airport , many found that Concorde was quieter than expected, partly due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines (known as "noise abatement" – spoken by the pilots as the command "Noise" during take off) to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas. Even before the launch of revenue earning services, it had been noted that Concorde was quieter than several aircraft already commonly in service at that time. Concorde fuel efficiency comparison Aircraft Concorde Gulfstream G550 business jet Boeing 747 -400 passenger miles/imperial gallon 17 19 109 passenger miles/US gallon 14 16 91 litres/passenger 100 km 16.6 14.8 3.1 Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated chemical interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet operated meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. Concorde’s technical leap forward boosted the public’s understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment as well as the awareness of the complex decision analysis processes that surround such conflicts. In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s controversy over aircraft noise. In the UK, the CPRE have issued tranquillity maps since 1990. Public perception Parade flight at Queen’s Golden Jubilee HM The Queen and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh disembark Concorde. Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by other flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts. It is a symbol of great national pride to many in the UK and France; in France it was thought of as a French aircraft, in the UK as British. The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde". Whilst in France it was known as "le Concorde" due to "le", the definite article, used in French grammar to introduce the name of a ship or aircraft, and the capital being used to distinguish a proper name from a common noun of the same spelling. In French, the common noun concorde means "agreement, harmony, or peace". Concorde’s pilots and British Airways in official publications often refer to Concorde both in the singular and plural as "she" or "her". As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows . On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at Heathrow Airport. Significant numbers of people attended the final landings; the event received widespread media coverage. 37 years after her first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum . A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating design icons such as the Mini , mini skirt , Jaguar E-type , Tube map and the Supermarine Spitfire . Records The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996 by British Airways' G-BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from takeoff to touchdown. Concorde also set other records, including the official FAI "Westbound Around the World" and "Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records. On 12–13 October 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of Columbus’ first New World landing, Concorde Spirit Tours (USA) chartered Air France Concorde F-BTSD and circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling stops at Santo Domingo , Acapulco , Honolulu , Guam, Bangkok , and Bahrain . The eastbound record was set by the same Air France Concorde (F-BTSD) under charter to Concorde Spirit Tours in the USA on 15–16 August 1995. This promotional flight circumnavigated the world from New York/ JFK International Airport in 31 hours 27 minutes 49 seconds, including six refuelling stops at Toulouse , Dubai , Bangkok, Andersen AFB in Guam , Honolulu, and Acapulco . By its 30th flight anniversary on 2 March 1999 Concorde had clocked up 920,000 flight hours, with more than 600,000 supersonic, much more than all of the other supersonic aircraft in the Western world combined. The last commercial Concorde flight took place on 24 October 2003. The New York City-to-Seattle speed record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds was set, on its way to The Museum of Flight. Comparison with other supersonic aircraft Tu-144 as a research aircraft for NASA in 1997 The only other supersonic airliner in direct competition with Concorde was the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 , which was nicknamed "Concordski" by Western Europeans for its outward similarity to Concorde. It had been alleged that Soviet espionage efforts had resulted in the theft of Concorde blueprints, ostensibly to assist in the design of the Tu-144. As a result of a rushed development programme, the first prototype of the Tu-144 was substantially different from the preproduction machines, but both were cruder and less refined than Concorde. The Tu-144 S had a significantly shorter range than Concorde, due to its low-bypass turbofan engines. The vehicle had poor control at low speeds because of a simpler supersonic wing design; in addition the Tu-144 required parachutes to land while Concorde had sophisticated anti-lock brakes. The Tu-144 had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air Show , and another during a pre-delivery test flight in May 1978. Later production versions had retractable canards for better low-speed control, and a 126-seat research version used turbojet engines that gave them nearly the fuel efficiency and similar range to Concorde. With a top speed of Mach 2.35 it was potentially a more competitive aircraft – but was quickly taken out of service due to severe safety defects. The American designs, the Boeing 2707 and the Lockheed L-2000 were to have been larger, with seating for up to 300 people. Running a few years behind Concorde, the winning Boeing 2707 was redesigned to a cropped delta layout; the extra cost of these changes helped to kill the project. The operation of US military aircraft such as the XB-70 Valkyrie and B-58 Hustler had shown that sonic booms were quite capable of reaching the ground, and the experience from the Oklahoma City sonic boom tests led to the same environmental concerns that hindered the commercial success of Concorde. The American government cancelled the project in 1971, after having spent more than $1 billion. The only other large supersonic aircraft comparable to Concorde are strategic bombers , principally the Russian Tupolev Tu-22 / Tu-22M and Tu-160 and the American B-1B Lancer . Replacements in development The desire for a second-generation supersonic aircraft has remained within some elements of the aviation industry, and several concepts emerged quickly following the retirement of Concorde. In November 2003, EADS —the parent company of Airbus —announced that it was considering working with Japanese companies to develop a larger, faster replacement for Concorde. In October 2005, JAXA , the Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency, undertook aerodynamic testing of a scale model of an airliner designed to carry 300 passengers at Mach 2 (working name NEXST ). If pursued to commercial deployment, it would be expected to be in service around 2020–2025. On 18 June 2011, the Zero Emission High Speed Transport or ZEHST concept aircraft was unveiled by EADS at the Paris Air Show . The ZEHST, a hypersonic aircraft to be capable of 3,000 mph (4,800 km/h), is a result of the collaboration efforts between EADS and Japan. The British company Reaction Engines Limited , with 50% EU money, has been engaged in a research programme called LAPCAT , which examined a design for a hydrogen-fuelled plane carrying 300 passengers called the A2 , potentially capable of flying at Mach 5+ non-stop from Brussels to Sydney in 4.6 hours. The follow-on research effort, LAPCAT II began in 2008 and is to last four years. In May 2008, it was reported that Aerion Corporation had $3 billion of pre-order sales on its Aerion SBJ supersonic business jet. In late 2010, the project continued with a testbed flight of a section of the wing. Supersonic Aerospace International 's Quiet Supersonic Transport was a 12 passenger design from Lockheed Martin that was to cruise at Mach 1.6, and was to have created a sonic boom only 1% as strong as that generated by Concorde. Operators · Air France · British Airways · Braniff International Airways (short term lease) · Singapore Airlines (short term wet lease ) Specifications Concorde G-BOAC Data from Wall Street Journal , Kelly (2005) , concordesst.com , Richard Seamen aircraft museum General characteristics · Crew: 3 (2 Pilots and a flight engineer ) · Capacity: 92–120 passengers (128 in high-density layout) · Length: 202 ft 4 in (61.66 m) · Wingspan : 84 ft 0 in (25.6 m) · Height: 40 ft 0 in (12.2 m) · Fuselage internal length: 129 ft 0 in (39.32 m) · Fuselage width: maximum of 9 ft 5 in (2.87 m) external 8 ft 7 in (2.62 m) internal · Fuselage height: maximum of 10 ft 10 in (3.30 m) external 6 ft 5 in (1.96 m) internal) · Wing area: 3,856 ft 2 (358.25 m 2 ) · Empty weight : 173,500 lb (78,700 kg) · Useful load: 245,000 lb (111,130 kg) · Powerplant : 4 × Rolls-Royce/SNECMA Olympus 593 Mk 610 afterburning turbojets o Dry thrust: 32,000 lbf (140 kN) each o Thrust with afterburner : 38,050 lbf (169 kN) each · Maximum fuel load: 210,940 lb (95,680 kg) · Maximum taxiing weight: 412,000 lb (187,000 kg) Performance · Maximum speed : Mach 2.04 (≈1,350 mph, 2,172 km/h) at cruise altitude · Cruise speed : Mach 2.02 (≈1,320 mph, 2,124 km/h) at cruise altitude · Range : 3,900 nmi (4,500 mi, 7,250 km) · Service ceiling : 60,000 ft (18,300 m) · Rate of climb : 5,000 ft/min (25.41 m/s) · lift-to-drag : Low speed– 3.94, Approach– 4.35, 250 kn, 10,000 ft– 9.27, Mach 0.94– 11.47, Mach 2.04– 7.14 · Fuel consumption : 46.85 lb/mi (13.2 kg/km) operating for maximum range · Thrust/weight : 0.373 · Maximum nose tip temperature : 260 °F (127 °C) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concorde
世博会圆满结束了，我因世博会而写的淌过博物馆系列也选择世博会结束的今天画上句号。 这个系列从去年11月17日开始，包括首尾，历时几乎一年，整整写了19篇，大大超出了我的预算。期间我也经历了患病的 摧残，系列几乎夭折。好在得到大家的鼓励，加上我追求做事有始有终的性格，跌跌撞撞，终于写完了。 停笔掩砚，感到非常欣慰。其实在写这个系列的过程中，我查阅了大量资料，将回忆的碎片 用文字和图片串起来，我经历了一次再学习的过程，收益鉴赏皆丰。 结束前，还有一个问题需要讨论一下。在我写时令篇的时候，二傻哥哥质疑，定期的博览会算不算博物馆？它和 商业目的的展销会有什么不同。 标题： 发表评论人： 隔壁家的二傻子 删除 回复 哈哈！这种形式一般叫EXPO(展览会或博览会或广交会）？是一种BUSINESS的临时推介会，与CULTURE的永久普及形式博物馆好像有些本质不同？ 博主回复：是不是博物馆的观察点在于1.目的性：是文化性还是商业性；2.展品特点：着重知识层面还是着重实用层面。商业目的展览叫交易会或展销会，现场可以做买卖。而很多展览会或博览会虽然没有商业目的却大都是临时的，不会同地重复。该农展每年同地举办，有各种评奖，也多少有点参展单位推介的意思，却没有生意。但因为展品为农业品，有其时鲜性的特点。而且会上有很多介绍和讲座，很有博物馆的特征。农业品也可以算进博物吧，所以我还是把它算进了博物馆系列。其实，有时界限也很难分，很多商业团体，特别是名牌，都有自己的博物馆，例如我曾参观过一个著名威士忌酒厂的博物馆，介绍了威士忌的生产过程，该厂各种产品的样本等。博物馆本身不卖酒，但外面有个小卖铺，可以买到很多不同年份的该酒厂名牌产品。对于这样的东东，我觉得仍然应该算作博物馆吧。 这个问题，说实话，我在写这个系列前并没有深入考虑。同样的质疑也存在于我写这个系列目的的世博会。 为此，我查下资料。 维基百科的定义 （ http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86 ）： 博物馆（英语：museum），又称博物院，是安置一套文物典藏的建筑物或机构。 博物馆蒐藏并维护具有科学、艺术或历史重要性的物件，并透过展示（常设展或特展），使公众得以 观看这些物件。大多数的大型博物馆位于世界各地的重要城市，更具地方性质的博物馆位于较小城 市、城镇甚至乡村。 早期的博物馆始于富裕的个人、家庭或艺术的私人蒐藏，而且是珍罕或奇特的自然物件与文物。 现在博物馆遍布世界各地。在古代的博物馆，例如亚历山大港的缪斯（Musaeum），其地位相当于 现代的研究所。 英文Wikipedia的定义 （ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_(disambiguation )）： A museum is a building or institution that houses and cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary . Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and artifacts. The museums of ancient times, such as the Musaeum of Alexandria, would be equivalent to a modern graduate institute. 重要的是博物馆所富有之功能为：典藏、研究、展示、教育四大项。英文的定义特别强调 exhibits that may be permanent or temporary。 所以我在时令篇中提到的农业展览会和世博篇谈的世博会都应该属于博物馆的范畴。它们与商业性的展销会的根本区别是目的，即前者以展览为目的，后者是以商业为目的。特别是世博会，几乎集中了我所写的各篇的特点：科学、艺术、文史、专题、综合、时令、巡回、杂类等等。 这个系列，受到了相当的欢迎，非常感谢大家有耐心陪我一路走来。很多博友鼓励我整理出书，这虽然不是我的初衷，也觉得我学识初浅，博物馆也不是我的专业，但我现在也想斗胆试一试。 我已经把所有这个系列的博文集中到左边的淌博物馆板块里，欢迎大家继续访问、讨论、批评、指正。 最后，再次感谢大家！
有很多博物馆相当独特或者另类,很难归于本系列前面各篇讨论过的类型。在短短的博文中，我也不可能一网打尽。所以我立了一个杂类，谈 谈几个这样的博物馆，也算是一个补充。 首先不能不提的是蜡像馆。蜡像馆归到杂类实有点委屈，因为其影响力不输于很多传统的博物馆。但其主题在人物，其展品 却不是真品而是仿造品。但考虑到真人的确难以做成标本，而蜡像虽然没有唯一性但也的确起到博物馆展品的功能。即便 从艺术角度来欣赏，蜡像馆作为博物馆当之无愧。最有名的蜡像馆当属伦敦的杜莎夫人蜡像馆。这个杜莎夫人以 卓群的蜡像艺术所创建的蜡像馆以其人物生动、水平高超而闻名，现在其分馆已遍及全球，上海也有个分馆。 蜡像馆陈列着当今世界历史和当今名人，能塑一尊蜡像挤进这样的博物馆 不是件容易的事，能够长期驻扎更是难上加难。对普通老百姓来说，虽然见不到真人，和高度仿真蜡像一起照张像也算过了把追星梦。当年我陪父母参观伦敦的蜡像馆，这是伦敦的博物馆少有要排队的馆。那天博物馆给我们和施瓦辛格一起拍了张像， 时过境迁，这张照片现在居然找不到了。 随着蜡像技术的发展，越来越多的博物馆开始应用这种技术复原名人，仿照场景，使得 博物馆更加生动，例如在古老的城堡里用蜡像重复贵族生活场景。有一次在一堆制作钱币的蜡像工人中忽然有一人给我打招呼着实把鬼怪都不怕的我吓了一大跳。 接着要提到的是恐怖博物馆。这类博物馆真假参半。有实实在在的地牢、刑具、杀人器具和真骷髅的展出，也有复制的残肢断臂， 血淋淋的内脏的陈列，还有传说的吸血鬼、冤魂、幽灵的杜撰，更有一些灾难和超自然场面的模拟。反正什么恐怖什么来， 吓死人不赔钱。供好探奇喜刺激的游客观赏。我在欧洲公园参观过一次这样的博物馆，坐着轨道车滑过博物馆，时不时跳出个 青面獠牙的鬼怪或凄厉大叫或惊悚怪吼，加上各种灯光声音的背景效果，的确恐怖的可以。可惜本人定力太高，未能所动。 不过这类博物馆，如果可算博物馆的话，商业的意义大于研究教育的意义。 最后想提的是一类开放博物馆。展馆就是一个城市，展品就是这个城市的建筑和风俗。例如西班牙城市巴塞罗那简直就是 建筑天才高第的个人作品博物馆，我在本系列艺术篇提过（ http://www.sciencenet.cn/m/user_content.aspx?id=278386 ）。葡萄牙中南部的世界文化遗产城市vora也素有博物馆城市之称, 那是因为该城市除了葡萄牙人外还曾被罗马人（Roman）、西哥特人（Visigoth）、摩尔人（Moor）占领过， 从而难得在一座城市里集中了从古罗马到文艺复兴等时期哥特和阿拉伯等不同风格的建筑。其中最著名的是人骨祈祷室 （Capela dos Ossos）。这种另类教堂欧洲还有几个，而葡萄牙的这个人骨祈祷室是圣弗朗西斯科教堂（Igreja de So Francisco） 的一部分。 祈祷室内从墙壁到柱子都由人骨、头颅和骷髅叠筑而成，但看起来怎么都觉得这些骷髅的尺寸太小，不太真实。但昏黄的灯光打在墙壁上， 鬼影憧憧。 这个祈祷室汇集了五千具人骨，据说是为了处理坟场土地有限同时解决建筑材料短缺问题。但真正的目的恐怕没那么简单， 是不是有宗教的意义，乃至影射博物馆的实质？入口有警示为证： Ns ossos que aqui estamos pelos vossos esperamos （ We bones here, for yours await）。还有诗感叹（译自葡语）： Where are you going in such a hurry traveler? Stop do not proceed; You have no greater concern, Than this one: that on which you focus your sight. Recall how many have passed from this world, Reflect on your similar end, There is good reason to reflect If only all did the same. Ponder, you so influenced by fate, Among all the many concerns of the world, So little do you reflect on death; If by chance you glance at this place, Stop for the sake of your journey, The more you pause, the further on your journey you will be. by Fr. Antnio da Asceno (translation by Rev. Carlos A. Martins, CC （本文图片摘自网上）
Experimenta博物馆里最吸引我的两个主题是能源和赌博。 对于不可再生性能源的控制使用和新能源的开发利用，是德国科技政策方面的重要主张，也是其政策制定和实施的重点所在。且不说那些复杂而具体的政策内容，单就宣传方面来看，突出这个重点就做得比较到位。从这个博物馆里可见一斑。 PS: 这里编辑窗口太小，图片编辑真的很成问题，希望以后有所改进！！ 解释潮汐产生能量的原理 水坝工程的原理 植物油（来自种子或茎秆）也是一种新能源 光合作用的原理（能量也同时被储存到植物体内) 屏幕上，不同颜色显示了人体不同部位的热量 地下岩层的分布，深藏其间的地热也是一种可用能源 最早利用风能的是帆船 电磁转化 运动也能产生能量，现在已经有利用此能的健身设备了 氢气是最安全环保的燃料，这是一个将水分解成氢气和氧气的设备 下面是赌博展区的照片，玩一玩，想一想，gambling is not about luck but a theory of probability.
标签: 博物馆
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