科技英语写作 英文科技论文写作讲座 一、 论文标题 1． 标题不是句子，不要求主、谓、宾齐全，但应注意用词前后次序和用词简练，重点明确。 2． 标题中尽量避免“study on”，“research on”，“investigation of”之类没有多少实际意义的词组，尤其是在题目较长的情况下。 3． 标题中不要用缩略语、化学式和专利商标名（在某技术领域内大家熟知的缩写除外）。 4． 标题不要太长，第一个词和实词的首字母要大写（其他如the、a、an、and和所有介词都小写）。 二、 摘要写作注意事项 1． 摘要基本内容为论文的研究目的（purpose），主要研究过程（procedure），采用的方法（methods）以及主要结论（conclusion）。 2． 摘要应突出文章的创新和独到之处（what is new and original in this paper？）。 3． 摘要要使用正规英语和标准术语，避免使用缩写词（除非是大家熟知的如CAD、CAM、IT等）。 4． 摘要尽可能使用短语，用被动语态，用第三人称。描述作者以往的科研工作可用过去时或现在完成时，但结论用一般现在时。 三、 科技论文、项目文件、协议汉译英常用时态 1． 在论文、项目文件和协议等文件中，提及以前所做的研究工作，而且有具体时间或时间状语时，用过去时或过去完成时。 2． 论文中实验叙述可用一般过去时。 3． 论文中的讨论和结论叙述可用一般现在时。 4． 论文中的讨论和结论叙述可用一般现在时。 5． 一般真理、定理、公式用一般现在时。 6． 计划要做的工作、项目活动及预期要达到的目标用一般将来时。 四、 英文论文写作应注意的事项 1． 不能在毫无把握的情况下想当然造字，专业词汇一定要准确，应以英美学者写的原文为参考标准（中国学者写的不足为据！）。 2． 走出受制于金山词霸。中英文单词的最大区别是具体的中文词（语）只存在一种写法，而译成英文时要根据其确切含义选择最恰当的英文单词（或词组）。比方“潇洒”一词，如果翻英文词典可能又多个词，究竟选哪个呢？（handsome、open-minded、smart、elegant、graceful、natural and unrestrained、noble、cool、in a relaxed state of mind、debonair（轻松愉快）、dashing、vigorous（朝气蓬勃）。 3． 尽量不连用三个以上的of（可用所属格或从句表示）。 4． 不用含糊不清的句子，比方某句中的it看不出代表前面哪个词或句子，这在同学们写的论文中屡见不鲜。 5． 单复数主语应有对应的谓语动词形式，这种类型的错误时常可见，比方data是复数，（单数形式是datum，注意！它又是加工、测量基准的意思。）谓语动词要用复数形式。而games（大型运动会）、proceeding（论文集）、news、United States、United Nations、airlines（航空公司）、headquarters（总部）。看起来是复数，实际上是单数名词。 6． 论文中不能用过分肯定夸张的句子或词汇（如perfect、best、most desirable、most ideal、create…for the first time、lay a foundation for…等）。而应采用would、should、will、surely、certainly、probably、perhaps和provide a technological support for、supply a basis for、conduct a basic research on、carry out a preliminary exploration in、make a preparation work for等婉语。 7． 要用多个同义词（synonym）代替某个词，不要老是重复用一个词，显得文章乏味。 1） 做、开展、进行、从事 do、make、carry out、perform、conduct(research、study、experiment、survey、investigation…) 2） 制造、制作 make、fabricate、build、manufacture、construct… 3） 改变、改换、修改、重建、重组 convert、transform、charge、modify、adapt、alter、reform、correct、reconstruct、rebuild、reconfigure、reorganize… 4） 建议、提出 advise、recommend、suggest、propose、introduce、put forward、present、develop… 5） 建立 establish、set up、form、construct、formulate、build… 6） 给、提供 give、offer、provide、supply、furnish 7） 改善、改进 improve、enhance、raise、better 8） 开发、利用 develop、exploit、take advantage of、make use of、employ、tap、open up… 9） 验证、证明 verify、prove、check、test、identify、justify、affirm、confirm… 10）由…组成：constitute（department A ，department B constitute the School of Mechanical Engineering；the School of Mechanical Engineering（is composed of、consists of、comprises、is comprised of department A ，department B）注意区别：整体（be composed of、consist of、comprise、be comprised of）分部，而分部（constitute）整体。 注意科技文章中一些常用词意上的差别 1）manufacture一般指工业上批量的、成熟的有一定规模的制造，而fabricate一般指具有技巧性的，手工方式制造，而且一般是小批量的甚至是单独制作。make是泛指的做和制造。 2）transform指根本的转换、变换、改造（常跟into）。convert只指物理形式的变换（比方数模转换），transfer和transmit指传递、传送、发射等（比方heat transfer传热学，data transmission数据传输，power transmission功率传递，TV transmission power电视发射塔，hydraulic transmission液压传动），特别要注意：技术改造是technological transformation，但技术转让却是technology transfer，还有transformation matrix转换矩阵等。communication指信息交流、通讯、联络，transport指交通运输。transit是转运、转口、过渡（phase transition相变，during the transition of the centuries世纪之交，trans-century talent跨世纪人才）。 3）Management：企业管理enterprise management、项目管理project management、工商管理business administration、公共管理public administration、数据管理data administration、管理操作员administrative operator 4）tool工具，cutter刀具，tooling（无复数形式）工装、模具，device小装置，equipment（无复数形式）设备，instrument仪器、仪表、乐器，（注意，instrument还有手段、方法、证书等意思）installation成套装置设备，apparatus电器、机电设备，appliance家用（电）器具，utensil器皿、厨具，facility（常用复数facilities）设施、设备、工具、机构（例如：sport facilities体育器材、设施），utility公共事业设备（水、电、煤气等），implement工具、器械（农具）。 5）element、part零件，component组件、元件、组分、分量（imaginary component虚部，pressure component分压力，structural component结构件），subassembly组合件、机组、分组成、分步装配，assembly总装、装配，machine机器，machine tool机床，machinery机械（总称）。 6）trouble麻烦，defect故障缺陷，glitch小毛病，fault人为错误，error计算、测试错误、误差，breakdown故障停机（stoppage diagnosis或fault diagnosis故障诊断），flaw瑕疵、缺陷，mistake理解不当造成的错误，blunder犯大错、失策。（平常只能说：Sorry， it’s my fault or it’s my mistake.） 7）accuracy精度（machining accuracy加工精度，positioning accuracy定位精度，positional accuracy位置精度，measuring accuracy测量精度，precision精密（precision instrument精密仪器，precision machining精密加工，precision mold精密模具）。 8）intensity指强化的程度、力度（比方加大投资力度－to increase the investment intensity，提高训练强度－to strengthen the training intensity），strength指材料受力后能承受而不被破坏的能力，指力学强度（如疲劳强度－fatigue strength，极限强度－ultimate strength等），另外一个特殊用法是strengthen，有时也可做优势、实力用。比方on the strength of…凭借…方面的实力。 9）conference正式的会议、讨论会、学术会议、协商会（CPPCC中国人民政府协商会议）；convention全国性大会、公约、协定（the Geneva Convention日内瓦公约）；congress全国代表大会、美国国会；council政务会、理事会、委员会。如国务院（中）state council，联合国安理会the U.N. Security Council；assembly集会、议会，如：联合国大会General Assembly；meeting一般会议；session某一届会议，如：全会plenary session；parliament 某些国家的国会或议会的名称，尤指英联邦一些国家的议会；seminar、workshop指规模较小的学术研究会；forum是论坛；conference是正式的大型学术会议，常规表达方式是：International Conference on… 10）verify证明、验证，validate使生效、合法、批准，justify认为…合理、划算、为…辩护，confirm确认。 11）prove证明，approve批准。 12）base基地、机座（experimental base实验基地，incubation base孵化基地），basis（抽象的基础，on the basis of…在…基础上），basic（al）基本的。 13）big、large、great、huge、enormous、giant、titanic、tremendous、vast、massive、substantial、immense、grand的用法区别：big用于形容重量、质量、体积（主要形容外形）。This child is big for his age. Large可用于形容重量、体积、数量、容量（只能描述物理尺寸、体积，不能描述抽象事物，而big有时可以描述抽象事物，有重大、严重之意，如big fire、big difficulty等）。 常见用法举例： 1． 可以说big boy（一个大个子男孩）但不能讲large boy。而small boy和little boy都对（但前者强盗个头，后者既包括个头又包括年纪小）。 2． 可以讲large deformation（大变形），large number（大数字）this city has a large population（这个城市人口众多）。但不能说big number、big deformation和big population。 3． 讲大人物可以用big potato或great man或VIP（very important person）。great用于形容重物理量大或抽象的大（伟大、巨大）。The great western development西部大开发。 4． giant指体积和力量的巨大（比方巨人）。The reactor is contained in a giant pressure vessel. giant panda大熊猫，giant brain大型计算机。 5． titanic力大无比的（从希腊神话中的巨人Tian而来）。 6． tremendous指规模、体积、程度大得惊人。They have made tremendous achievements in their work. 7． vast一般用于形容范围、区域、视野的广阔，a vast expanse of desert。有时也可形容巨额和大量，如a vast sum of money，vast difference。 8． massive用于形容大块、笨重，也可形容大量。massive structure块状结构，massive destructive weapons大规模杀伤性武器，massive dump大量（信息/存储），massive resonance大质量共振。但大量生产、大规模生产、大规模销售只能说mass production、large-scale production、mass marketing等。 9． substantial用于形容抽象的、无法具体描述的多和大量意思。The improvement of the light 10． grand指宏伟庄严The National Grand Theater国家大剧院，grand stand大看台grand champion冠军grand piano大三角钢琴。 下面是常用的与“大”有关的词组： 大量：a lot of，a large quantity of，a large amount（wealth） of；大规模：large scale，mass，massive；大幅度：a large extent，substantial；大批订货：（an） extensive order；大量资料：a wealth of data，a great mass of data；大用户：large user，bulk user；大宗买卖：bulk sale；大数：large number，great number；大小（尺寸）：size；大小（幅度）：magnitude；大雨：heavy rain；大雪：heavy snowfall；大（厚）截面：heavy section；大火：big fire；大分子：giant molecule；大系统：large system；大型铸（锻）件：heavy casting（forging）；大科学：big science；大电流：heavy current；大功率：high power；大容量（信息）：mass storage；大容量（物质）：high volume；大螺距：high pitch；大量服务：bulk service；大量交货：bulk delivery 几个常用的“最大”的表达方式： 最大诚意：utmost sincerity；最大份额：lion’s share；最大鼓舞：great encouragement；最大速度：top speed；最大牺牲：ultimate sacrifice；最大幸福：supreme happiness；最大障碍：biggest obstacle 14）1．state政府、行政意义上的国家（the state key laboratory国家重点实验室，the State Ministry of Education国家教育部） 2．country地理概念上的国家（the whole country全国） 3．nation民族（improve the bilateral relationship of the two nations改善两国的双边关系）national全国的（the National People’s Congress全国人民代表大会，National Day国庆日，National defence国防，National Laboratory of…国家实验室 15）need（人类）自然需要，急需（注，need除了做实义动词外还可做助动词，you need not to care me any more！demand（for）市场、物质需求（to meet the market demand）。requirement（s）对…提出的要求，request祈求、强烈请求、恳求（make a request for，on request如索求则…），solicit（只有动词）恳求、祈求、要求、征求，后跟for或to＋inf例：solicit assistance请求支援，solicit for subscription征求订户。 16）change改变、改动，modify修改（设计），correct改错、改正，revise修订、修改（文件、著作、合同等），adapt改编（将文学作品由一种形式改写或另一种形式）。 17）平衡（balance、equilibrium），转子动平衡rotor’s dynamic balance，某种过程达到动平衡dynamic equilibrium，化学平衡chemical equilibrium，生态平衡ecological balance，双方之间的势力均衡power balance between two sides。 遗产、传统heritage、legacy，historical legacy历史遗产，cultural heritage文化遗产，继承inherit（inheritance），继承人inheritor，遗产税inheritance tax，遗传的（生）genetic，遗传学genetics，遗传工程（密码、基因、算法）genetic engineering（code、genome、algorithmic）。 19）relation指人际、国际、贸易关系，而科学研究、实验中的各影响因素之间的关系都用relationship（between、among）。 20）related to与…有关的，relevant to与…相关的，relative to相对…而言，correlative有相关性的（数据关系），coherent相干的、凝聚的，coherent effect相干效应，coherent light相干光，coherent imaging相干成像。 21）关于不同形式的同一个词（名词、形容词、动名词等）用法区别 1．高等院校higher educational institutions，而高教出版社却是higher education press 2．实验结果experimental results，实验基地experimental base（实验一词做定语时通通用形容词形式） 3．系统工程system engineering，系统管理system management，系统误差 4．技术改造technological transformation，技术转让technology transfer 5．国家技术进步奖State Award for Scientific and Technological Progress，国家自然科学奖State 6．一些用法上很难区分的词：experiment实验，experimental一套实验、实验方法、整个实验安排和布置，document文件，documentation文档、文档生成、处理等，instrument一台仪器设备，instrumentation测试装置、测试技术、整套测试工作的安排布置，circuit电路，circuiting一套装置中全部电路总称（如同poem诗歌和poeting诗歌集的区别），technology泛指的广义的技术、技巧和工艺，technique具体技术手段、工艺，forming：与die有关的锻造成型加工，shaping ：与mold有关的铸造、注塑成型加工 22）complete、accomplish和finish的用法区别：complete用于完成某个项目、工程（project、engineering）；accomplish用于完成某项目标、指标（goal、index）；finish则用来完成作业（homework）、学业（finish with school）、论文（thesis、dissertation）等。另外，complete还是形容词，表示完整、成套的… 23）关于subject的用法： 1．Subject做名词：主语、科目（required subject 必修课）、学科、主题、研究对象。 2．Subject做形容词：从属的、受支配的、以…为条件的、be subject to以…为条件的，受…约束的 3．Subject做动词：使…受…作用或约束，Subject M… to …N迫使M受N作用（影响约束等）故subject又常用be subjected to的形式。 24）关于地域、地区几个同义词的用法区别： 1．自治区autonomous region 2．碑林区 Beilin district 3．华北区North China Area西北区Northwest China Area 4．汉中地区Hanzhong prefecture 5．经济特区SEZ（special economic zone） 6．地方经济regional economy 7．地方政府local government 8．局部战争local war 9．局域网local area network 25）关于首字母缩略词（acronym）使用注意事项： 1．缩略词的首字母如果是：A、E、F、H、I、L、M、N、O、R、S、X则前面的不定冠词用an（因为这12个字母发元音）。 2．缩略词复数在后面加s或es要根据最后一个字母确定，而且字要小一号，例如：ICs、FMSes 26）校园常用词汇： 1．必修课required（compulsory） course 2．选修课elective（optional）course 3．辅修课minor course 4．基础课basic course 5．专业课specialized course 6．成绩单school report、academic record 7．考试成绩exam scores 8．排名次序ranking position 9．学籍卡registration record card 10．硕士学位master’s degree 11．博士学位doctoral degree 12．博士后流动站post -doctoral mobile research station 13．毕业论文thesis（本科和硕士生）、dissertation（博士生） 14．毕业答辩oral defense for one’s thesis（dissertation） 15．毕业实习graduation field work 16．毕业设计graduation project 17．课程设计curricular project 18．应届毕业生this year’s graduates 19．毕业证diploma、graduation certificate 20．授予学位confer a … degree on sb 21．博导doctoral advisor 22．奖学金scholarship、助学金stipend 23．高等院校higher educational institutions、institutions of higher education 24．理工科大学university of science engineering 25．重点高校：key（major、leading、banner） university 26．大专junior college、大专文凭associate degree 27．中专secondary specialized school、polytechnic school 28．职校vocational（training） school 29．技工学校technical school 27）论文中人称问题：科技论文在人称代词的使用上有两种主张，一种是传统式的主张，认为科技论文侧重叙事和推理，读者重视的是论文的内容和观点，感兴趣 28）正式论文不能用省略形式的词，如let’s、haven’t等。 29）书面文章不要用生僻的怪字或俚语。 30）为使文章更流畅、通顺，应注意结构词的使用。在一篇科技论文中，普通词和结构词可占90%以上，而专业词汇不过只占5%左右。现将常用的结构词列举如下： 1．增加、继续扩展：additionally、in addition、as well as、besides、furthermore、moreover、equally important、on the second thought、subs equently 比较：after all、alternately、a similar analysis shows、however、in comparison with、in contrast、 nevertheless、on the contrary、on the other hand、otherwise、whereas、yet… 3．详述：as an example、for instance、such as、in general、objectively speaking、generally speaking、namely、that is to say… 4．概括：in essence、in other words、in short、in summary、to sum up、let us review the steps in the preceding chapter（above-mentioned procedure）、several remarks need to be made at this point、as mentioned above 、all in all… 5．目的：for this purpose、for this reason、in order to、with this goal… 6．结果：as a result、accordingly、consequently、hence、in view of these considerations、so far、the forging discussion illustrates、therefore、in spite of… 7．赞同：certainly、obviously、fortunately、hopefully、in fact、of course、undeniably、without any question… 8．时间：a little later、as will be seen、at present、at this point、finally、immediately、meanwhile、at the same time、presently、recently、ultimately。 第二讲 科技论文中动词的时态和语态特点 英语科技文章中动词常用的时态种类较少，经常使用被动语态，现分别介绍如下： 一、时态 英语动词共16种时态，其中最常用的只有5种，即一般现在时、一般过去时、现在完成时、一般将来时、现在进行时。科技文章中一般现在时、一般将来时和现在完成时比另外两种更常用些： 1． 一般现在时 一般现在时是科技文章中最常见的时态，主要有三种用法。 A． 叙述一般过程 A scientist observes carefully applies logical thought to his observations and tries to find relationships in data. B．叙述客观事实或科学定理 Sound travels through the air in waves. Work is equal to the product of force and the distance through which the force moves. C.通常或习惯发生的行为 Alternating current is usually supplied to people’s house at 50 cycles per second. 2． 一般将来时 表示将来发生的行为或情况。 Electronic products will become more and more miniaturized because of the increase of inter 1． During the part few years，several countries have pooled（开发利用） their resources in order to carry out certain scientific investigation more efficiently. 2． The September 11 terrorist attacks have caused great compact on the global economy. 二、被动语态 在科技文章中被动语态用得十分频繁，这主要有两个原因：第一是谁来执行这些行为和过程并不重要；第二是行为或过程的主体或者没有必要指出，或者根本指不出来。由于摘要语言简明直接，故摘要中大量使用被动语态。 三种句型： 1：主语＋修饰语＋被修饰语 2：主语＋被动语态＋修饰语 3：主语（＋修饰语）＋被动语态＋补足成分 例1：A triangulation technique consisting of participant observation 、interviews and questions was used to collect data from 100 engineers and twenty project managers over a two year period. 例2：The technical and economic aspects of the problem involved are examined in detail，emphasizing the comparison among different possible alternative solutions. （各种可供选择的解决方案） 在科技文章中有带by的短语或句子，但数量不是很多，而且这种带by的短语或句子常常不是指行为的主体，而是行为或过程的方式或工具。 1． The insulating substance was severely damaged by the sea water. 2． The phenomenon was recognized many years ago and put into use in various applications although it was then poorly understood. 3． The spectrum of the antibiotic substance could be determined by testing its effectiveness against various types of bacteria. 4． Most of the drags in current use were discovered by accident or trial and error. 使用被动语态的另一个原因是用于向后扩展句子，不至于显得头重脚轻。 例：In the digital computer the number to be manipulated are represented by sequences of digits which are first recorded in suitable code ，then converted into positive and negative electrical impulses. 第三讲 名词化和动词非限定形式 light scans――the scanning of the light to apply force――the application of force to translate Chinese into English――the translation of Chinese into English 例如，名词化既是句子的简化手段，又是句子复杂化的手段。 1． Conversion of the energy of a mountain stream into the powerful torque of an electric motor a hundred miles away. 2． The General Secretary has prepared a five year survey program which is designed contribution to the development of natural resources by indicating economic and technologically advanced approaches to the exploration and assessment of these resources. 动词非限定形式： 1． 动词不定式 动词不定式在句子中可作主语、表语、宾语、定语和状语。 1． Although it（形式主语） isdifficult （for scientists to know）（to deal with such a large subject 实际主语），the first step is perhaps to consider the main economic difficulties（表语）an underdeveloped on emerging region has to face. 2． The refusal to be disturbed or disorganized（干扰和搅乱）by unexpected or apparently adverse occurrences（意外事件），put on the contrary，to be stimulated （激励）by them（定语），has in fact been a marked characteristic of successful investigators. 3． Industry everywhere forced rising labor costs and more complex processes， both arising from the determination of human being to achieve a better stand and of living. 2． 分词 作定语、状语、补足语。分词短语起定语从句或状语从句作用，并且和它们交替使用。句子不至于显得单调。 1． Thus we may be faced with a society having two basic groups in industrial organization ：one consisting of those who carry out the decision of this organizing group. 2． It is not easy ，for example ，to explain the processes involved in a computerized control system if the basic algebraic symbols are without meaning. 3． Confronted with the many problems presented by，let us say，an active volcano， we many ask：How does volcano work and how is the heart generated？When did volcano first begin to erupt and when is if likely to erupt again？ 英语科技文章中有时还用独立分词结构，它有两种结构形式： Optimal design 优化设计 Digital manufacturing 数字制造 （a） 分词有自己的逻辑主语，它和句子的主语不一样 The engineering solution is the optimum solution，the most desirable end result taking into account many factors. （b） 介词＋宾语＋宾补 The volunteers would come into a room where there was a row of five calicles with their doors shut. 动名词： 可作主语、定语、表语、宾语，也可以有自己的宾语和。在科技英语中动名词和动名词短语还可作介词和的宾语。 2．The technique of making the computer carry out a particular task is known as programming ，which involves first breaking the calculation down into a sequence of arithmetic operations and then preparing a series of instructions which cause the discreet computers to carry out the required operations on the stored information in the current order. Operation on＋对象/with＋手段 多重复合句： This instrument works on the principle that each individual substance emits a characteristic spectrum of light when its molecules are caused to vibrate by the application of the heat ，electricity ，etc. and after studying the spectrum he had obtained on this occasion，Hilebrendreported the gas to be nitrogen. When we look into the matter carefully，we will find that the world we live in presents an endless variety of fascinating problems which excite our wonder and curiosity. 语法分析：找谓语－后找主语；找连接词。 The point I am anxious to make is that the research for models of this kind，the study of their behavior and the relationship of this behavior with the real situations which they seek to represent and the consequential modification of them so as to lead to reliable prediction and then to decision－making would not be possible if there were no assistance afforded to the investigator by the digital computer and by the work of the technologists who it（works） is founded into stable ，reliable and economical pieces of electrical equipment. 该句的主语就是：我很想说明的一点就是…… 部门：sector It also means that governments are increasing compelled to interfere in these sections in order to set up production and ensure that it utilized to the best advantage：for example，They may alter the structure of education ，or interface in order to reduce the consumption of natural resources or tap resources hither to unexploited；or they may cooperate directly in the growing number of international the international Atomic Energy Agency，the European Including…后不加and so on Such as 后加and so on Industry产业，狭义：工业 Interactive交互式（上课） 四、关于科技论文摘要的语言特点 以下几种行文格式可参考： （1）The author（or writer）of this article（paper、dissertation、thesis）reviews（discusses、tries to describe、explores、deal with、summarizes、gives an account of、etc.）something… （2）The aim（purpose、objective）of this article is to determine（explore、review）sth… （3）… problem of…is discussed（researched、investigated、analyzed、evaluated、assessed、reported） （4）The method（theoretical foundation、experimental scheme、modification to、algorithm…）is discussed （suggested、proposed、presented、developed…） 例1：The author presents some new observations both theoretical and experimental concerning the effect of the mutualinteraction between micro－sized particles in a standing waves. 例2：The author describes a configuration 固定搭配： 1．与system连用的词组 build up、develop、improve、set up、work out（通过努力达到、制定出、设计、研究、估计出）、establish、devise、examine、found、formulate（系统阐述、说明、表达）、check 2．与influence have（has、exert、produce、impose、bring about）a great（favorable、beneficial、deep、predominant、considerable、lasting、wide-spread、decisive、permanent、harmful、destructive…）influence on …，under the influence of… 另外说明：effect一般指直接的影响（科学研究、实践中），influence指深远重大影响，impact指重大的冲击般的影响。 3．与develop achieve（affect、attain、hinder、reach、prevent）a（the）great（remarkable、rapid、comprehensive）development of… 关于结论的建议有如下格式： 1． The author suggests（recommends、concludes）that 2． This article shows that 3． The author’s suggestion（conclusion）is that 4． The author finds（considers、seems）if necessary to 例1：The author proposes an approach to the creation of a synthetic（integrated、comprehensive）method of investigating and designing objects. 结论结果比较： 1． These results are（quite） consistent with the original hypothesis. 2． These results provide substantial evidence for 3． These experimental results support the original hypothesis that… 4． Our research results are in substantial agreement with… 5． The experimental and theoretical values agree quite well. 6． These experimental values(data) are higher(lower)than those with traditional(common) methods， 7． The result observed in our study are better than those reported by howell（1996）。
1.首先是大量阅读文献，如果要撰写高水平论文，基础是读很多高水平文献。建议多看影响因子高的国外文献，最好IF3以上。国内综述性杂志还是可以看，特别是刚刚接触陌生的研究领域时。 2.看文献的同时注意随时摘录，好记性不如烂笔头。英语论文的写作实际上又很多现成固定的模式和表达方法，将这些固定用法随时做笔记，并随时复习，加上不断阅读新文献，自己动手写时也就不会举步维艰。 3.课题设计的IDEA十分重要，观点的创新性决定了文章能否受editor和reviewer青睐。 4.实验完成开写文章，或者时自己写，实在不行，就找几篇与你的课题十分相近的文章阅读，有些表述方法可以直接借鉴，当然不可直接照搬，必须进行适当的修改，如语序，近义词替换等等。最后进行通篇连贯的阅读，总体使其变得通顺。投稿前必须仔细修改，不可仓促投稿，可以先放几天，在回头来看，这样反复多次。最好的话是请英语高手帮你修一修。或者也可以请一般同学看看，从别人的角度来取长补短。 5.投递建议多投网上可以submission的杂志，快又省钱，投之前好好看看guideline for authors。严格按照上面的条例修改，象图片的分辨率等等细节都要十分注意。 6.修回的稿件一般是要求point to point的回复，必须一一进行回答，个人建议是所有问题最好都按要求去做，这样的accept可能性很高，当然审稿人的水平也有不同，有些明显错误的观点应当用详细的理由加以回复，有可能的话附上参考文献增加可信度。 7.文章基本上accept了，有时审稿人会要求你把文章给专业领域离的英语专家修改，有些人可能未必找的到，那怎么办，呵呵，那就自己来，反复阅读，尽量减少一些低级错误比如拼写和语法，还有就是表述以简洁至上,simple is the best。再就是尽量多改一些地方(这是一滥招，高手就免了)，就算没什么错误的地方可改用别的表达方法，表面上看来编辑部会觉得你很严谨仔细，呵呵，反复多看看，多修，就能成功，我就是这么做的，你也可以。
来源： http://bbs.sciencenet.cn/forum.php?mod=viewthreadtid=68680 多谢！ 以下12点内容是老师和我从收集的审稿人意见中总结出来的，希望能对大家的写作有所帮助，也希望大家能给与支持。其中的错误，请各位大牛不吝赐教。 以下12点是随机排序，无轻重主次之分。每一点内容由总结性标题和代表性审稿人意 见构成。 1、目标和结果不清晰。 It is noted that your manuscript needs careful editing by someone with expertise in technical English editing paying particular attention to English grammar, spelling, and sentence structure so that the goals and results of the study are clear to the reader. 2、未解释研究方法或解释不充分。 ◆ In general, there is a lack of explanation of replicates and statistical methods used in the study. ◆ Furthermore, an explanation of why the authors did these various experiments should be provided. 3、对于研究设计的rationale: Also, there are few explanations of the rationale for the study design. 4、夸张地陈述结论/夸大成果/不严谨： The conclusions are overstated.For example, the study did not show if the side effects from initial copper burst can be avoid with the polymer formulation. 5、对hypothesis的清晰界定： A hypothesis needs to be presented 6、对某个概念或工具使用的rationale/定义概念： What was the rationale for the film/SBF volume ratio? 7、对研究问题的定义： Try to set the problem discussed in this paper in more clear, write one section to define the problem 8、如何凸现原创性以及如何充分地写literature review: Thetopicisnovelbuttheapplicationproposedisnotsonovel. 9、对claim,如A＞B的证明，verification: There is no experimental comparison of the algorithm with previously known work, so it is impossible to judge whether the algorithm is an improvement on previous work. 10、严谨度问题： MNQ is easier than the primitive PNQS, how to prove that. 11、格式（重视程度）： ◆ In addition, the list of references is not in our style. It is close but not completely correct. I have attached a pdf file with quot;Instructions for Authorsquot; which shows examples. ◆ Before submitting a revision be sure that your material is properly prepared and formatted.If you are unsure, please consult the formatting nstructions to authors that are given under the quot;Instructions and Formsquot; button in he upper right-hand corner of the screen. 12、语言问题（出现最多的问题）： 有关语言的审稿人意见： ◆ It is noted that your manuscript needs careful editing by someone with expertise in technical English editing paying particular attention to English grammar, spelling, and sentence structure so that the goals and results of the study are clear to the reader. ◆ The authors must have their work reviewed by a proper translation/reviewing service before submission; only then can a proper review be performed. Most sentences contain grammatical and/or spelling mistakes or are not complete sentences. ◆ As presented, the writing is not acceptable for the journal.There are problems with sentence structure, verb tense, and clause construction. ◆ The English of your manuscript must be improved before resubmission. We strongly suggest that you obtain assistance from a colleague who is well-versed in English or whose native language is English. ◆ Please have someone competent in the English language and the subject matter of your paper go over the paper and correct it. ? ◆ the quality of English needs improving. Encouragement from reviewers: ◆ I would be very glad to re-review the paper in greater depth once it has been edited because the subject is interesting. ◆ There is continued interest in your manuscript titled quot;……quot; which you submitted to the Journal of Biomedical Materials Research: Part B - Applied Biomaterials. ◆ The Submission has been greatly improved and is worthy of publication.
1. 用字要准确.Promote 一般指职位的提升, 不能当Increase来使用. 2. 推理用语的使用 is compatible with, imply, suggest, indicate, show, prove. 这基本上是一个从弱到强的顺序. is compatible with, is consistent with, in line with 表示是个合理的解释, 不矛盾, 但可能还有其他的解释. imply, suggest 表示支持现在的结论 ， 这个结论比其它的更合理, 但不能 证明就是这个结论. ndicate, show, demonstrate 就更确定 , 表示几乎就是这个结论了. 其他的可能性不大, 但还不是百分之百的证明. prove 表示完全肯定， 没有任何其他可能性了. 科研中很少有这种情况. 用 prove 要特别注意. 3. 用词要保持一致 论文从头到尾用字要保持一致.minutes,简写成min,二者都可以，但只能用一种写法.Figure或 Fig只用一种写法.数字的写法上，如果一个写成 fifteen,另一个写成12也是不一致.修改论文稿件时应特别注意用词的一致性. 4. 尽量 少用简写 5. 不要用缩约语， 正式地写作中, 不要使用如 didn't, don't, can't, haven't….缩约语. 应该 写完整形式, did not, do not, cannot (一个字), have not …. . 6. 避免使用俚语 注意 不要使用像 a lot, sort of, pretty good…的 口头用语. 7. 经常使用， 但容易出现问题的字 Above 经常用来指前面提到过的，表示 “ 如前所述 , as discussed above” “ 前面的方法 , the above method” 等 . 但 above 不确定，用起来容易 ， 读起来不易明白 , 容易 造成表达不清 . 这时 应把所指的事情明确 地写 出来 . 类似不明确的字还有 former, latter. 应避免使用 Adapt, adept, adopt ： Adapt 是动词 ， 适应 . Adept 是形容词 ， 熟练的 . Adopt 是动词 ， 采用 . Affect 影响可换用influence , Effect多做名字结果, Impact冲击 Affect 是动词， (influence) 的意思 . 如 “ 温度对细胞生长的影响 , “Temperature affected the growth of cells”. Effect 是名词，是结果 (result), 影响的意思 . 有时也可以作动词 , 招致 (bring about) 的意思 . 科技论文中很少使用 effect 的动词形式 . Impact 当冲击，碰撞讲 . 如 “ Western popular culture has a huge impact on Asian society ”. 自然科学不同参数的相互影响一般不用 impact 来描写 , 用 affect 或 influence 更合适 . Agree to 是同意 , giving consent. “I agree to a biopsy test”. Agree with 是一致 , in accord. “The results agree with our previous observation”. Alternate 是交替的 ， 轮流的 . Alternative 是另外的 ， 选择的 . And 连接 类似 的词 , 词组或句子 . 用 and 连接的词 , 词组或句子是相关联但又各自独立的 . 当排列三个以上的词时，最后的一个词之前加 and . 其它的词后都加逗号 . Pollution in the river affected the population of different animals, such as fishes, birds, and turtles. 美国写法 ， And 之前也可以不加逗号 . Pollution in the river affected the population of different animals, s uch as fishes, birds and turtles. 不加逗号是英国写法 . 用 and 连接句子时，若两个句子都很简单，中间可以不加逗号 . One liter of water was added and the solution was left at 4 o C overnight. 但中间加个逗号也正确 . One liter of water was added, and the solution was left at 4 o C overnight. 两个比较复杂的句子中间一定要加逗号， 以便于阅读和理解 . The assay was carried out by heating the sample in boiling water for two hours, and the volume of the assay solution was kept constant by adding water. 用 and 来开始一个句子也是可以的 . and 起到对一些相关和并列的描述来 连接的作用 . AIDS drugs are effective to control the replication of HIV, but they cannot cure AIDS. And a vaccine for AIDS is still elusive. Therefore, education and prevention are the most effective weapons against AIDS for now. 用 and 连接两个独立的句子时 , 可以在 and 之前加逗号 ， 也可以不加逗号 . 但连接一个不完整的句子时 , 不能用逗号分 开 . The sample was added to the testing solution, and allowed to react in a water bath at 37 ℃ for 10 min. 宜改为： The sample was added to the testing solution and allowed to react in a water bath at 37 ℃ for 10 min. But 的用法同 and 很类似 ， 只是它连接的句子是对照和相反的 . Apparently (apparent)在不能确定的情况下 , 应避免使用 , 选用 obvious 或 seemin g 更好 . Apparently 也是一样，选用 obviously 或 seeemingly . Appear有 ” 出现 , to come into view ” 和 ” 好象 , seem” 两种讲法 , 一般 在科技论 文中 , 当 “ 好象 , seem” 的讲法用的要多些 . After cooling down to room temperature, yellowish crystals appeared . It appears that deformation of frogs in the Hui River is caused by pesticides. As As 有很多不同的讲法，它有表示因果关系的用途，类似 because 和 since . 但 as 表示的因果关系最弱 ， since 在中间 ， because 的因果关系最明确 . 所以 不要用 as 来表示因果关系 . 用 because 或 since . For 和 since 表示的因果关系要弱些 , 用 since 时往往强调的是当时的情况 ， 时间，地点等 . 有中文的 “ 既然 ” 的意思 As 用来表示 “ 同样地 ”, “ 像 … 一样 ”.也当 “ 在 … 的时候 ， when ” 讲 . 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 average 和 mean 是 12.4, median 是 8. Below同 above 一样 ， 所指含糊，应避免使用 . Beside 是 “ 在 … 旁边 ” ， besides 是 “ 除了 … ”. But同 and 一样 , but 是一个被经常使用的连接词 . 它连接的句子有对照和相反的 意思 . 在连接比较简单的两个句子，并不影响句子的流畅的时候， but 之前可以不加逗号 . He felt better but did not fully recover after taking the medicine. 连接两个比较长的句子时候， but 前应加逗号，把两个句子分开 . Scientists spent months to figure out why the satellite did not reach its orbit, but they never find the truth. But 也可以放在句子的开头 .For a long time people realize there has to be a natural ligand for the cannabinoid receptor. But its identity was only elucidated recently. 用逗号把 but 隔开是不对的 .But , its identity was only elucidated recently. Cannot 是一个字 ， can not 应写成 cannot. Case，没有实质意义 . 应 避免使用类似 “ in the case of ” 的词组 . *Compare with 是比较的意思 ， 而 compare to 是比作的意思,在做状语时候可以与 Compare with互换，但弄不明白，避免使用吧。。 Compared to/with mine, your car looks new.Beijing is large, compared to/with Taipei. compare sth to/with sth Compose, consist , comprise：“xxx is composed of xxx” 的形式 .“xxx consists of xxx” 的形式 .Comprise干脆不要用这个字 . Continual 是经常发生的 ， continuous 是连续和不间断的 . Correlate with 是正确用法 ， correlate to 是不对的 . Related to 是正确 . Due to不是很 确定 , 应避免使用 due to ， 用 because of 或 caused b y . Equipment单数和复数都是 equipment ， 没有 equipments 的写法 . Flammable, inflammable 都是易燃的意思 . nonflammable 才是他们的反义词 . Following 是形容词 ， 表示 “ 接着的，下述的 ”. 它也可以是动词 follow 的名词形式 .Following the flood, many wild lives found new habitant. Minimal 是最小的 , trivial 是轻微的 ， 不重要的 . Percent, percentage , percentile：57 percent (57%). Percentage 是百分率 , percentage 不能同数字一起用 . 可以说 small percentage or large percentage . Percentile 是一个统计学用语 , 表示在 100 个分组中事物 出现的机率 . Proven 是形容词 ， proved 是过去式 . Provided that连接词 ， 假如 . Providing 是现在分 词 . Remainder, remaining都可以当 ” 剩余 ” 讲 . Subsequently 表示时间顺序， consequently 表示逻辑推理结果 . Such as 一般用逗号从主句分开，当 such as 后面排列的名词只有 1-2 个时， 不影响 句子的流畅 ， 可以不用逗号分开 . 排列 的 事物和概念要相等 . Heavy metals such as lead are especially toxic to children. The river is heavily polluted with heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium. Than用 than 来比较的两个对象要一致 . Acid A has a lower pKa than Acid B. The water content in sample A is higher than that in sample B. 有些词代表最终状态，不能进行比较 . 一些这样的词有 full, absolute, complete, unique, extinct, permanent, universal, 等 . That, which That/which 经常用来引导修饰从句 . 如果修饰从句可以省略掉而不影响句 子的完整性，也就是非限制性从句 , 用 which, 并用逗号把修饰从句从主句分 开 . The recovered dogs, which were treated with antibiotics, are released. 如果修饰从句不可以省略掉 , 也就是限制性从句 , 那就用 that ，并不用逗号 分开 . Dogs that were treated with antibiotics recovered. 限制性从句和非限制性从句在句子中的作用有很大区别 . 第一句话中 ， 就是 指 “ recovered dogs ”, 没有别的狗 . 第二句表示除了 “ Dogs that were treated with antibiotics ” ， 还有其他的狗 . Toward, towards 的用法是一样的 。 美国用 toward , 英国用 towards . Use, using, utilize, employ 我们写作时经常会使用 using 这个字，但用 using 时经常会导致同主句的 主语名词不一致 ， 应避免使用 . 可用 with 或 by 取代 . Using the reductive reaction, reducing power of VC was examined. 宜改为 : The reducing power of VC was examined with the reductive reaction. Utilize 是利用 , 有效使用的意思 , 同 use 不同 . 不能相互替代 . Employ 雇用人 , 使从事于 …. While 既可以用来做表示时间的连接词 ， “ 当 … 的时候 ”. 也可以用来表示 转折和逻 辑的连接词 , 当 ” 然而，虽然，尽管 ” 讲 . 为避免含义不清 ， 用 when 或 although 取代更好 .
在我们写英语科技论文的时候，对一些词汇的把握往往不是很准确。比如说：我们要介绍自己的研究成果和别人的不一样的时候，有如下选择： in contrast， contrast to, on the contrary, to the contrary, as opposed to, etc.. 那么，这些小词汇有什么区别呢？ 下面咱们来进行一下比较分析： 1) in contrast 是最常见的用来，提出不同发现或者结论的词汇： In contrast to **** et al. (1999), we found that.........; 2) Contrary to 也比较常见，但是通常用来引入相互矛盾的结论或者截然不同的结果， 意思是conflixting with或者是counter to. 3) On the contrary 主要用来强调结论或者结果的另一个方面。 并不一定和别人的结果不同。 4）to the contrary和as opposed to 主要用来引入和别人结果或者结论不一样的研究发现，类似contrary to.
不管是说英文的外国人还是说中文的中国人，用英语进行写作都有很大的难度，因为写作是有规则的，违背这些规则就等于犯错。英文写得好不好，首先要看是不是符合语法，其次是看用词是否恰当，搭配是否合理。因此，如何用英语写作其实是一门高深的学问，一辈子学习都嫌不够。 我本人的英语写作刚入门，而且仅限于科技英语写作。在这里不想“班门弄斧”谈如何写作英语科技论文，只是根据自己的体会，总结一下在英语科技论文写作中的几个小窍门，仅供广大青年学子参考，恐令学者们见笑。 一、时态的使用 有人在一篇文章中时态的使用很混乱，前后不一致，可能是因为不能活学活用英语语法的缘故。虽然时态错用并不会严重影响读者对文章内容的理解，但体现了作者的写作手法不规范，表达不严谨。一般而言，在Introduction和Discussion中提到一些普遍的认知或常识时，应该用现在时，如Cancer is a disease that fails tocontrol cell division。如果提到别人的发现或报道，可以使用现在完成时，如Those authors have found that …、Someone has reported that …。在Materials and methods和Results中，若涉及动作，通常用过去时，如The wavelength was measured after 10 min。 二、从句的使用 过去分词短语可以放在名词后作定语，但当这个过去分词出现在作谓语的动词之前时，容易被误认为就是句中的谓语，此时宜将过去分词短语改用that引导的定语从句修饰，如There are isoprenoid products used in cancer therapy中的过去分词短语在下面的句子中宜改为that引导的定语从句：Isoprenoid products that are used in cancer cells have not been fully explored。又如：The enzymes that maintain tight control over the carbocation species will produce a single dominant product。 三、被动式的使用 众所周知，科技英语中多使用被动语态，以避免主观表述之嫌。但是，若分不清及物动词还是不及物动词就容易出错，如A fresh idea occurred to him容易误写成A fresh idea was occurred to him。 四、The的使用 何时用the、何时不用the是个最令人头痛的选择，而知道用the和不用the却最能体现英语水平的高下。一般来说，单数名词要用the，复数名词可省略the，但在动宾关系句里即使复数名词也要用the：We identify the relevant genes in the present study。以下复数名词前都加the：The enzymes often lack the characteristic aspartate-rich motifs，因为其中的the有those的含义。位于of之前的名词要用the，但当名词位于句首并有动宾关系时可省略the：Production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide is achieved by photosynthesis。 五、选词 英语不喜欢重复，单词也是如此。这样就要求用英语写作时必须要有很大的同义词词汇量，否则就会“理屈词穷”。例如demonstrate、indicate、elucidate、reveal等用来引出某种客观结果，可以交替使用。 六、搭配 有主谓一致的问题，如200μl of the diluted cell suspension was placed at 37?C中的was应为were，也有动宾搭配的问题，如reply the question应为reply to the question。还有一些固定搭配，如pave the path、raise the question、share the homology等。 七、拉丁语 科技英语中经常使用拉丁语，一般用斜体表示，如动植物及微生物的拉丁学名、 in vivo （活体内）、 in vitro （试管中）、 in situ （原位）、 per se （本身）等。注意：这些外来词用来修饰名词时放在名词前，修饰动词时放在动词后。注意区分They haveintroduced the in vivo synthesis of vitamin D和Microorganisms are not ordinarily destroyed in vivo by bacteriostatic drugs。不过，有些拉丁词已被当做英语词汇使用，在文章中出现时不用斜体，如et al.和e.g.等。 八、专有名称 基因与蛋白质的名称一般用相同词汇表示，但基因名称要用斜体，蛋白质名称要用正体。大小写的规定似乎不严格，但基因名称用小写、蛋白质名称用大写较常见。另外，基因工程中的限制性内切酶名称要用斜体，而且第一个字母要大写，但表示菌株来源及酶编号的英文字母及罗马数字用正体，如 Eco RI、 Bam HI等。
Dr. Daneil McGowan论文写作系列第十讲 —— Responding to peer reviewers: dealing with rejection Dr. Daneil McGowan 论文写作系列的中文版本终于与大家见面了，希望大家继续支持！译文见下方。 Your papers will sometimes be rejected. It is inevitable. The percentage of papers that is accepted and published without the need for any revisions is very small, and even the best scientists, writing up the best science, will face rejection from journals or the need to make revisions before their paper is considered acceptable for publication. Rather than thinking of rejection from your target journal and requests for major revisions as a negative experience, it is important to realize that this is an integral part of the publication process that exists to make your paper as robust and complete as possible before it joins the ‘collective knowledge’ as part of the literature. There are many different possible reasons for rejection from a journal, and most of these have been described in previous tips in this tips series. For example, if you submitted your manuscript to an inappropriate journal it is likely you will receive a rejection letter without the paper even being sent to review. By selecting an appropriate journal (see tip on journal selection ) you will increase the chances that your manuscript will be sent out for review. Similarly, a poor cover letter might result in immediate rejection without review, so submitting your manuscript with a good cover letter is essential (see tip on cover letter development ). Failure to follow the instructions set out in the target journal’s Guide for Authors is another possible reason for rejection and considered insulting to the journal editors, although it is likely that you will simply receive an invitation to resubmit in the correct format. Other reasons for rejection include flawed study design , poor written language , inappropriate or incompletely explained methodology or statistical tests , incorrect description or overstatement of results, lack of balance or detail in the introduction and/or discussion, or simply a lack of novelty (for example, if your study simply repeats something that has already been done before), significance or relevance. By critically analyzing your paper prior to submission, and considering all of the items that peer reviewers will look at, you will hopefully be able to identify any problems in advance. By following the advice in the tips in this tips series, you will speed up the process from initial submission to publication and make the stages in between considerably less stressful. Therefore, it is worthwhile getting your paper into the best possible form before submitting it anywhere to minimize the likelihood of rejection. In considering peer review and how to address it, it is helpful to think about how a peer reviewer would have approached your paper. Different journals will ask different things of peer reviewers, but in general they will be checking for the following aspects of good science and scientific writing, and asked to comment whenever any of these criteria are not satisfactorily met in the submitted manuscript: Significance What is the importance of the findings to researchers in the field? Are the findings of general to interest to researchers in related and broader fields? Novelty Are the claims in the paper sufficiently novel to warrant publication? Does the study represent a conceptual advance over previously published work? Introduction Does the introduction provide sufficient background information for readers not in the immediate field to understand the problem/hypotheses? Are the reasons for performing the study clearly defined? Are sufficient and appropriate references cited to justify the work performed? Are the study objectives clearly defined? Methods/Technical rigor Are the methods used appropriate to the aims of the study? Is sufficient information provided for a capable researcher to reproduce the experiments described? Are any additional experiments required to validate the results of those that were performed? Are there any additional experiments that would greatly enhance the quality of this paper? Are appropriate references cited where previously established methods are used? Results/Statistics Are the results clearly explained and presented in an appropriate format? Do the figures and tables show essential data or are there any that could easily be summarized in the text? Is any of the data duplicated in the graphics and/or text? Are the figures and tables easy to interpret? Are there any additional graphics that would add clarity to the text? Have appropriate statistical methods been used to test the significance of the results? Discussion Are all possible interpretations of the data considered or are there alternative hypotheses that are consistent with the available data? Are the findings properly described in the context of the published literature? Are appropriate references cited in meeting the above criterion? Are the limitations of the study discussed Conclusion Are the conclusions of the study supported by appropriate evidence or are the claims exaggerated? Are the significance/applicability/implications of the findings clearly discussed? Literature cited Is the literature cited balanced or are there important studies not cited, or other studies disproportionately cited? Journal selection Is the target journal appropriate? Language Is the manuscript clearly written so as to be understandable by researchers not in the immediate field? When you receive a letter of rejection and peer review reports from the journal editor it is important that you carefully study all of the comments (from the editor as well as the reviewers), address these in your manuscript as appropriate, and prepare a detailed response. It is usual to return a revised manuscript and response letter (it is also acceptable to separate the cover letter and responses into different files), and these normally need to be returned within a set period of time or the revised manuscript will be considered as a new submission. It is essential that you respond to all of the points made by the editor and/or reviewers, even if you disagree with them. If you do disagree with a point that has been made, you should provide a polite and scientifically solid rebuttal. This might take the form of a reference to a particular paper that supports your statement (such a paper might need to be added to the reference list of your manuscript if it isn’t already cited), an explanation of why an experiment was performed in a particular way, or an explanation of why you didn’t perform additional experiments recommended by the reviewer. Whatever you do, do not ignore or overlook comments, because this will only lead to delays. Your paper will not be published until all comments are appropriately addressed. The best format for a response letter is to paste in the comments made by the editor and reviewers and write your response beneath each comment. Use different font styles (for example, normal and italics) to differentiate comments from responses. When referring to changes in the text provide the page and line numbers so that these changes can quickly be identified. Copy the new or modified text into the letter so it is immediately clear how your changes address the comment. It is also usual to distinguish major changes in the text in some way, for example, with yellow highlight and/or underline and strikethrough fonts, to make them easy to identify. Finally, if additional analyses or experiments are required to satisfy the editor or reviewers, you should perform them and add the data to your manuscript; these serve to make the final paper stronger and will increase the chances of eventual publication. Example Checklist Don’t take rejection personally; the object is to make your paper stronger and more reliable Address all points raised by the editor and/or reviewers by revising the manuscript and showing the changes in your letter Perform any additional experiments or analyses requested unless you feel that they would not add to the strength of your paper (in which case you should provide a rebuttal) Provide a polite and scientifically solid rebuttal to any points or comments you disagree with Differentiate comments and responses in the letter file by using different font styles Identify major revisions in the text, made in response to peer review comments, with highlight, underline and strikethrough fonts Return the revised manuscript and response letter within the requested time period to avoid your paper being treated as a new submission 回复审稿人：冷静应对拒稿 论文有可能被拒。谁都被拒过稿。只字不改就接受的论文极少，即使是最优秀的科学家，最漂亮的研究，也照样可能被拒或者被要求修改。不要消极对待目标期刊拒稿和退修要求，而应把它视为发表过程的一个环节，其目的是为了让你的论文在科学上尽可能更健全，以便将来被录用为科学文献，并成为“集体知识”的一部分。 期刊拒稿有各种原因，大多数在本系列讲座的前文中已经提及。 比如，如果对拟投期刊的选择不当，就有可能不送去审稿便直接拒稿。期刊定位恰当才能增加稿件获得同行评议的机会(参见 第六讲“选择合适的目标期刊” 中的注意事项)。同理，拙劣的投稿信也可能造成不经审稿便直接拒稿(参见第三讲“ 如何写出吸引读者的‘cover letter’” 中的注意事项)。违反目标期刊《稿约》的规定可能被期刊编辑认为不尊重对方，从而造成拒稿，当然更可能的是被要求修改格式后再投。其他拒稿原因包括 研究设计 有缺陷、论文写作 语言水平 不合格、研究方法或 统计检验 选择或解释不当、结果叙述不当或夸大其辞、引言和/或讨论不客观公正或缺乏细节；或者就是缺乏新颖性(比如你的研究只是简单重复别人已发表的工作) 、重要性或相关性。投稿之前严格分析你的论文，考虑审稿人会着眼的所有要素，你就可能提前发现这些问题。照着本讲座系列中的经验来做，就能加快从初投到录用的进度，并让其间的各个阶段相对顺利。所以，在投稿前值得尽全力完善文稿质量，以减小拒稿的可能。 关于同行审稿和如何应付，可以考虑一下审稿人会如何处理你的稿件。不同的期刊对审稿人的要求各不相同，但是他们基本上都会要求审稿人审查你的稿件是否满足如下这些良好科研和写作的要素；如果你的稿件不满足其中某项，审稿人还要写出相关评语。 重要性 结果对该领域的重要性是什么？ 结果是否对会受到相关和更广范围的研究者关注？ 新颖性 文中的主张是否足够新颖、因此值得发表？ 研究是否在已有发表工作基础上取得进展？ 引言 是否提供充分的背景信息，让非本领域读者能理解研究问题/假说？ 研究的理由是否定义清楚？ 为论证本研究工作所引文献是否充分恰当？ 研究目的是否定义清楚？ 方法/技术严谨性 所用方法对研究目的是否适当？ 叙述的实验信息是否完整，能让其他研究者重复？ 是否另需实验来验证该研究结果？ 补充实验是否能显著提高该文质量？ 对于已确立的方法，其引用文献是否适当？ 结果/统计 结果解释是否清晰，表达方式是否恰当？ 图表信息是否必要，是否更易于用文字表达？ 插图和正文内部或二者之间数据有无重复？ 图表是否易于解读？ 是否需要补充插图以增加清晰性？ 有否使用适当的统计学方法来检验结果的显著性？ 讨论 有否考虑数据的所有可能解释，是否存在也能解释数据的备择假设？ 有无在现有文献背景基础上适当说明结果？ 满足上述标准同时是否引用了适当的参考文献？ 有无讨论研究局限性？ 结论 研究结论是否有适当证据支持，有无夸大？ 是否清楚讨论了结果的重要性/应用性/意义？ 文献引用 所引文献是否全面客观，有无遗漏重要研究，有无过分引用某些研究？ 期刊选择 目标期刊是否恰当？ 语言 稿件行文是否清楚、因此能被该领域以外的研究者理解？ 当你收到退修信和审稿意见时，应仔细研读其中所有评语(包括编辑评语和审稿人评语)，根据需要在稿件中作出相应调整，然后撰写一份详细的回复函。通常需要返回修改稿和回复函(回复函和再投稿信可分为两个文件)，并且需要在规定时间之前返回，否则修改稿将被作为新稿处理。编辑和/或审稿人的所有意见都必须回应，即使你不同意其意见。若你对某点持反对意见，应该礼貌并有理有据地反驳。在反驳时，可以引用某论文来支持你的说法(如该文不在参考文献中，可以考虑将其收入参考文献列表)，可以解释为何某个实验是以某种特定的方式开展的，也可以是解释为何你不按照审稿意见去做补充试验。但无论如何，不要不理睬或忽略审稿意见，因为这只会导致延迟。只有所有意见都妥当回应之后，你的论文才有可能发表。 回复函最好的格式是把编辑和审稿人的意见复制下来，然后在各条意见下面逐条回应。审稿意见和回应要用不同字体加以区分(如正体和斜体)。当提到文中的改动时，给出页码和行号以便迅速查找。把修改前后的文字都复制在回复函中，让人一目了然你如何修改回应审稿意见。通常要在文中标记出主要改动之处以便查找，比如用黄色高亮和/或使用下划线/删除线。最后，若编辑或审稿人要求补充分析或者实验，你应该照办并把数据加入稿件；这会让稿件更富有说服力并增加发表的机会。 实例 切记 1. 不要带着个人情绪去看待拒稿；拒稿的目的是使你的论文更有力和更可靠。 2. 修改稿件来回应编辑和/或审稿人提出的全部意见，并在回复函中说明这些修改。 3. 按要求补充实验或分析，除非你认为这样做意义不大(在这种情况下，需要给出反驳意见)。 4. 对于你不同意的审稿意见,礼貌而地提出有根据的反驳。 5. 用不同字体区分审稿意见和回应。 6. 为回应审稿人意见而在正文中所作的主要改动之处要予以标记，可以用黄色高亮、加下划线，或加删除线等方式。 7. 按期返回修改稿和回复函，以免被当作新投稿处理。 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
Statistics: what can we say about our findings? Today, few professional activities are untouched by statistical thinking, and most academic disciplines use it to a greater or lesser degree Statistics has developed out of an aspect of our everyday thinking to be a ubiquitous tool of systematic research Statistical thinking is a way of recognizing that our observations of the world can never be totally accurate; they are always somewhat uncertain. Rowntree D (1981). Statistics without tears. A primer for non- mathematicians. Penguin Books Ltd., London, England. The term statistics refers to the methods used to collect, process and interpret data. Because these methods are so inherent in the process of scientific inquiry, there have been multiple references to statistics throughout this tips series, namely, in the tips on study design, methods, results and display items. However, given the importance of statistics in most scientific studies, it is worthwhile having a separate tip on how they should be used and presented. Statistics should first be considered long before the commencement of any research, during the initial study design. First, consider what information you need to collect in order to test your hypothesis or address your research question. It is important to get this right from the outset because, while data can be reanalyzed relatively easily if the wrong tests were used, it is far more difficult and time-consuming to repeat data collection with a different sample group or obtain additional variables from the same sample. If you wish to test the efficacy of a treatment for use in the general population, then your sample needs to be representative of the general population. If you wish to test its efficacy in a given ethnicity or age group, then your sample needs to be representative of that group. If comparing two groups of subjects separated on the basis of a particular disease or behavior, then other variables, such as age, sex and ethnicity, need to be matched as closely as possible between the two groups. This aspect of statistics relates to the collection of data; get it wrong and you could face major problems, potentially the need to start the research all over again, at the peer review stage many months later. Second, you need to consider what statistical tests should be applied so that you can make meaningful statements about your data. This depends on the type of data you have collected: do you have categorical data, perhaps describing the presence or absence of a particular marker, or quantitative data with numerical values? If your data is quantitative, is it continuous (that is, can it be measured) or discrete (counts)? For example, age, weight, time and temperature are all examples of continuous data because they are measured on continuous scales with units that are infinitely sub-divisible. By contrast, the number of people in a given group and the number of cells with apoptotic features are examples of discrete data that need to be counted and are not sub-divisible. You also need to know how your data is distributed: is it normally distributed (Gaussian) or skewed? This also affects the type of test that should be used. It is important that you know what type of data you are collecting so that you apply the appropriate statistical tests to analyze the data and so you present them in an appropriate manner. The following useful website provides a guide to choosing the appropriate statistical test: http://www.graphpad.com/www/Book/Choose.htm Finally, you need to know how to interpret the results of the statistical tests you have selected. What exactly does the p (or t or 2 or other) value mean? That, after all is the point of statistical analysis: to determine what you can say about your findings, what they really mean. Statistics enable us to determine the central tendency (for example, mean and median) and dispersion (for example, standard deviation, standard error, and interpercentile range) of a dataset, giving us an idea of its distribution. Also using statistics, values from two or more different sample groups can be compared (for example, by t-test, analysis of variance, or 2 test) to determine if a difference between or among groups could have arisen by chance. If this hypothesis, known as the null hypothesis, can be shown to be unlikely, then the difference is said to be significant. It is important to keep in mind that there are two risks associated with reducing a decision about the reality of a difference to probabilities, and both depend on the threshold set to determine significance: the first, known as type I error, is the possibility that a difference is accepted as significant when it is not; the opposite risk, known as type II error, refers to the possibility that a significant difference is considered not to be significant because we demand a larger difference between groups to be certain. Reducing the risk of type I errors increases the risk of type II errors, but this is infinitely more preferable than reaching a conclusion that isnt justified. Statistics also provides a measure of the strengths of correlations and enables inferences about a much larger population to be drawn on the basis of findings in a sample group. In this way, statistics puts meaning into findings that would otherwise be of limited value, and allows us to draw conclusions based on probabilities, even when the possibility of error remains. Example Extracts from The Journal of Clinical Investigation (doi:10.1172/JCI38289; reproduced with permission). Checklist 1. Indicate what parameters are described when listing data; for example, meansS.D. 2. Indicate the statistical tests used to analyze data 3. Give the numerator and denominator with percentages; for example 40% (100/250) 4. Use means and standard deviations to report normally distributed data 5. Use medians and interpercentile ranges to report data with a skewed distribution 6. Report p values; for example, use p=0.0035 rather than p0.05 7. Only use the word significant when describing statistically significant differences. 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
Display items: a picture tells a thousand words In the tip on abstract I mentioned that many readers will only read the abstract of your paper, and so the abstract needed to be self-contained, describing all of the important findings and their significance. Some readers will go further than just the abstract and look at the display items to validate the findings described in the abstract, but still not read the entire paper. Thus, like the abstract, the display items in your paper (along with their associated legends) need to be able to stand alone and be understood without the need to refer to the text of the paper. Display items include figures and tables, which are essentially graphical representations of the results described in the text. Simply put, they are the most effective and efficient way to present your results. With good figures and tables you will be able to impart to the reader exactly what you found in your study in a relatively short period of time (that is, much faster than it would take the reader to read the entire paper). Researchers in rapidly moving fields or with limited time to keep up to date with advances in their field will appreciate the rapidity with which they can be informed of your findings; journals editors and peer reviewers will appreciate the clarity. Therefore, it is worthwhile devoting some thought and attention to developing good quality figures and tables that clearly convey your results. As with the other sections of scientific manuscripts, there are certain rules that should be followed when generating display items. First, if you have a target journal in mind already, consider how many display items they allow and ensure that you do not exceed that limit. If you have more results to describe than can be simply shown in the allowable number of display items, some may need to be included in a Supplementary Information section, or described in the text with the statement (data not shown). However, only the least important or peripheral findings should be described in this way, and all findings that support your hypothesis need to be shown. Thus, you may need to consider an alternative journal if your first choice will not allow you to present all of your important data. By contrast, if a journal allows more display items than is necessary to show your findings, do not add redundant or unnecessary display items simply because you can. All display items must have a clear and necessary purpose. Second, the data shown in figures and tables needs to be easy to interpret. Consider how much data you wish to show in a given display item and how it can be organized to convey the important message. Therefore, rather than combining multiple parameters or treatments into a single graphic, consider splitting the data across multiple simpler graphics that can be grouped together in a single figure. Remember to clearly label any graph axes, table columns and rows, and components of diagrams if appropriate. Trendlines, scale bars and the results of any statistical tests should be also shown, where relevant, for example by using an asterisk to indicate significance, or a variety of symbols to indicate different levels of significance. With large samples, report the % change or % difference as well as absolute values. Third, the legends accompanying display items need to be able to stand alone such that the display items are entirely understandable without the need to read the entire manuscript. That means abbreviations should not be used or need to be defined, and technical terms should be avoided. It should be clear exactly what was done and what was seen. Statistical tests should be briefly described in the legends, with p values given and any symbols used defined. Legends, including their headings, should be written in the present tense with the exception of any methods described within them. For example, use Western blot showing an increase in the levels of p53 after rather than Western blotting showed that the levels of p53 increased after. Finally, there should be no redundancies between the display items and the text. Therefore, do not produce a display item to show information that can easily and briefly be stated in the text, and do not duplicate information among tables and figures, for example, by making a table to show the same information already conveyed in a figure. Do not embed figures and their legends within the text of the manuscript you plan to submit. The publisher will put your text and display items into a template proof that will be specific to the target journal. What they usually require from authors is a separate file containing display items (occasionally these can be placed at the end of a manuscript files) and a text file that includes figure and table legends listed together at the end (usually following the references). Check the instructions for authors of your intended target journal for their specific requirements. By preparing good quality, clear display items before writing the results section, this section will practically write itself. The display items can be grouped in a logical order that progresses your argument or progressively strengthens your hypothesis. With one subsection and one display item for each of the major findings, the subsection headings will be similar to the relevant legend headings, and the text in each subsection will provide a brief description of the findings shown in each display item, complete with the results of statistical analyses, with the reader being referred to the display items for more detail. Examples Tables are a great way to present large amounts of necessary data with minimal description required. The table shown above is a truncated version of a table in a paper published in The Journal of Clinical Investigation (doi:10.1172/JCI37622; reproduced with permission). The data presented clearly and economically in this table would have required a considerable amount of word space to describe in the text, but the use of a table makes the information available without the need for a wordy description. All that was required to describe this in the main text was the following statement: Clinical characteristics of all patients and tumor samples are summarized in Table 1. The figure below, taken from the same paper, contains many of the elements of a successful display item described in this tip and listed in the checklist below. Checklist 1. Stand alone legends 2. Comply with the allowable number of display items 3. Avoid redundancy among display items or between display items and text 4. Divide data showing different effects or parameters among different panels within the same display item 5. Use scale bars, trendlines and clear labels, and show the results of statistical tests 6. Avoid or define all symbols and abbreviations 7. With large samples, show % changes/differences as well as absolute values 8. Submit figures in a separate file or at the end of the manuscript file rather than embedded in the main text 9. Check the instructions for authors for any specific requirements regarding format, size, color, number of items and any other parameters 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
Scientific enquiry can take a number of different forms. As a result, there is a variety of publication types, including papers describing original research, reviews, case studies, methodology papers and theoretical papers. By far the most common format for writing scientific papers describing original research is the IMRaD format. The letters in this acronym stand for introduction, methods, results and discussion, representing the sections lying between the abstract and references in such manuscripts (although in some journals, the methods section is presented at the end rather than after the introduction). The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), in their Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals: Writing and Editing for Biomedical Publication, section IV.A.1.a (General Principles), provide the following description of the IMRaD format and why it is used: The text of observational and experimental articles is usually (but not necessarily) divided into the following sections: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. This so-called IMRAD structure is not an arbitrary publication format but rather a direct reflection of the process of scientific discovery. Long articles may need subheadings within some sections (especially Results and Discussion) to clarify their content. The following four sections describe the important components of each of these sections as well as some common mistakes to avoid. However, it is worth mentioning that these sections should not be written in the order in which they appear (or in which they are described here); rather, there is a specific order in which the sections of a manuscript should be written to achieve maximum clarity and consistency throughout. The recommended order for writing these sections, with the addition of the abstract and title, is as follows: Methods Results Introduction Discussion Title Abstract The methods can be written while you are performing the research or, for certain standard protocols, before it has even begun. Doing this early in the course of your research could make you aware of any potential problems in your study design, or point to additional controls you might not previously have considered. The advantage of this is that the methods can be adjusted before performing experiments, preventing the need for time-consuming and costly repeats of experiments already performed. With the methods written up and the experiments performed, you will want to analyze your results to determine how they relate to your hypothesis, and what they actually show. It is pointless writing the introduction prior to this stage because the results you obtain will determine how the paper needs to be framed, that is, what context the results are described in. Therefore, the results should be analyzed and written up second. During this stage you will determine how your data should be presented (for example, in tables, graphs, schematics or photographs; see tip on graphics), how they need to be analyzed (see tip on statistics), and what they mean; once decided, you will then need to describe them. By now you will have a good idea of how your findings relate to your hypothesis and the existing literature in your field. It might be necessary at this point to ask a different research question or to change the focus of your research. Following such a change, re-analyses of your data and/or additional experiments might be necessary to make a complete story. Once these are done, the introduction can be written, to provide the context, and then the discussion can be written to describe the relevance of your findings within that context. Finally, with all of that fresh in your head, the abstract and title, the important components of which are described in previous tips, should be written last. 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
Choosing the right platform 在本帖中， 理文编辑 学术总监Dr. Daniel McGowan将向大家展示如何选择合适的目标期刊。 Selection of an appropriate journal and publication type is critical: get it right and you instantly increase your chances of successful publication and regular citation. By contrast, sending a manuscript to an inappropriate journal is a frequent cause of rejection. The aims and scope of the journal, the journals target audience and recent publication history, the significance and broadness of appeal of the findings described in your manuscript, and the type of study performed should all be considered before selecting your target journal. Start by considering what the main focus of your paper is, and therefore, who you would expect to want to read it. This should have become clear while writing the paper, particularly the discussion section. Is there a clinical focus or do you describe basic science findings? Are the findings of relevance to a broad cross-section of the scientific community or will they only appear to researchers in a specialist field? Are the findings preliminary, with more work required to make an irrefutable and comprehensive story, or do you have multiple types of complementary data to support your hypothesis? Indeed, do you need to publish right away, or can you delay publication while collecting more data to try for a journal with a higher impact factor? By asking yourself these questions, among others, you will be able to build up a picture of the type of journal you should be targeting. Then, you need to generate a short-list. An immediate source of potential target journals is in your own papers reference list. Any similar or related previous work should have been cited in your study; identify those studies and the journals they were published in. Some journals will appear more than once, and these are likely candidates. Another way to identify candidate journals is performing keyword searches in literature databases such as Medline and PubMed. Again, journals that appear repeatedly are potentially suitable. Of course, journals that havent previously published in the same area of research might equally be interested in your findings; the best way to identify these is to search or browse your librarys journal shelves, Thompson ISI databases, including the Science Citation Index, or the websites of major publishers (see below, but note that these are just a few of many publishers of academic journals). You should be able to recognise journals that might be appropriate based on your answers to the questions above. Now that you have a short-list of possible target journals and a clear picture of the type of journal your study would be suitable for, you need to merge the two to see where they correspond. Journal websites generally contain and aims and scope section and occasionally describe their target audience. They will usually also contain information on impact factor, publication types, publication frequency, time from acceptance to publication, rejection rates, and publication charges. All of these factors need to be weighed up. For example, if you require rapid publication, you should specifically look for journals that offer fast response times and short periods from acceptance to publication. If you are on a tight budget you may need to rule out open access journals or journals that have high publication charges. If you require publication in a journal with an impact factor above a certain level, you can instantly rule out any with impact factors lower than that. Study the journal websites closely and consider why the editors and readers of each would be interested in your findings; as well as giving you an angle for the approach in your cover letter ( see the previous post on journal cover letters and a free example letter here ), this will help you decide which of the remaining journals in your short-list is the most relevant platform from which to disseminate your findings. When your short-list has been reduced to two or three journals on the basis of the above criteria, you should rank them as first, second and third choices based on your particular requirements. Then you are ready to write your cover letter and submit your manuscript! To assist you in this process, Edanz has developed a Journal Selection Tool that is free to download. Helpful Links To search or browse Science Citation Index journals: http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi-bin/jrnlst/jloptions.cgi?PC=K Thompson ISI searchable databases: http://science.thomsonreuters.com/mjl/ US National Library of Medicine database PubMed: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Elsevier journal titles: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journal_browse.cws_home Science Direct: http://www.sciencedirect.com/ Springer: http://www.springer.com/?SGWID=5-102-0-0-0 Wiley-Interscience journals: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/browse/?type=JOURNAL Taylor Francis: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/sublist.asp Liwen Bianjis Select your field page (find journals from a wide variety of publishers for your field): http://www.liwenbianji.cn/selectyourfield Example The following manuscript title was used in the exercise accompanying the section on writing a good title: Region-specific neuronal degeneration after okadaic acid administration. This imaginary study showed degeneration of neurons in the CA3 and dentate gyrus regions of the hippocampus after administration of the toxin okadoic acid, let us assume in mice. It also showed involvement of a MAP kinase-dependent pathway in this neurodegeneration. Without a functional correlate of the neuronal cell loss, the study would be considered very preliminary and would be difficult to publish; thus, let us assume that behavioural studies were also performed and that these showed deficits in learning and memory in mice administered the toxin. Therefore, the data shown are histological, biochemical and behavioural. A keyword search of the PubMed database throws out very little in the way of similar studies (not surprisingly given that the example study is imagined), but does point to potential journals such as the Journal of Neuroscience, European Journal of Neuroscience, Neuroscience, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Neuropharmacology and the Journal of the Neurological Sciences. Among these, the Journal of Neuroscience and the European Journal of Neuroscience are likely to require more data, perhaps showing relevance to a human disease or condition and/or an exhaustive analysis of the mechanisms involved in the cell death, although the latter journal is a possibility and might be worth an initial submission. The Journal of the Neurological Sciences has more of a clinical focus and should only be considered if administration of OA was known to provide a good model of a particular disease or condition. However, if such a link was shown, this journal would represent a good target. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications has a broad focus, publishing studies in diverse fields of biological research; however, neurobiology is one of their areas of interest and they claim to be devoted to rapid dissemination of results. For authors who want a quick answer or who need to publish soon, this could represent a good initial target journal. Depending on the novelty of the behavioural data, the journal Neurobiology of Learning and Memory could be a good target; with a rapid communications section, this journal could also suit those authors in need of immediate publication. Finally, Neuroscience represents a good target journal if the findings reveal aspects of how the nervous system works. Thus, depending on the focus of the final paper (eg. clinical vs neurobiological vs behavioural) and the authors requirements (impact factor and time to publication), the candidate journals selected can be ranked in terms of their suitability. Exercise Using the methods described above, and/or the Edanz Journal Selection Tool, generate a short-list of potential journals for your next (or any previous) paper and rank them in terms of their suitability. I will need a brief description of what your study showed, but will comment on the suitability and rankings of the journals you select, and offer alternative suggestions where appropriate. 练习 使用前面所讲的方法或者是理文编辑 目标期刊选定工具 为你即将发表的(或之前发表过的)文章列一个目标期刊清单，并按照优先性排序。请各位简单描述自己的研究内容，我会根据你的描述评价所选的目标期刊是否合适，排序是否科学；需要的话我还会帮助给出其他选择。欢迎大家踊跃参与。 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
Good study design and forward planning 在本帖中， 理文编辑 学术总监Dr. Daniel McGowan将向大家展示如何做好研究设计和预先规划工作。 Rejection following peer review can mean a considerable amount of additional work for many authors to get their studies published. In the worst cases, their studies may be simply un-publishable. Much heartbreak and hard work can be avoided by simply planning and designing your study properly in advance. In the long run, this will save you time, allowing you to get on with the research for your next big paper. No-one wants to have to repeat experiments because the controls were inappropriate or the case/sample numbers were insufficient to provide enough statistical power. Frequently though, researchers rush into experiments without making all the proper considerations, and this can result in delays when their manuscripts reach the peer review stage. Remembering a few basic principles of study design can help to reduce the risk of outright rejection and repeated experimentation. 1. Have a hypothesis or research question Having a hypothesis or appropriate research question enables you to frame your research within an appropriate context, which in turn will help you apply the appropriate controls. It will also help you describe the rationale for your study when it is time to write it up. Having a hypothesis also means that the objectives of the study are clearly defined, thus reducing the chance that your study will be open-ended and possibly criticised for being incomplete. You can then logically work through these objectives and, importantly, present your results in a logical manner rather than haphazardly. 2. Ensure that the appropriate methods are used Once you have a clear idea of the aims of your study, and the specific research question you are setting out to answer, you will need able to determine what methods would be appropriate to achieve these. Important considerations include deciding whether subjective, qualitative data will be sufficient to address your question, or whether there is a need for more quantitative methods. For basic science studies, such considerations might include the following questions. Will the combination of RT-PCR and in situ data be enough, or is there a need for qPCR? Is Western blotting alone sufficiently sensitive or do you need to also perform immunohistochemistry and cell counting experiments to show a difference between groups? For clinical studies, important considerations include the choice of controls, sample sizes, statistical tests and approach, all of which are described in more detail in the points below. 3. Ensure that the appropriate controls are used Controls are included in experiments to rule out alternative hypotheses. Theres an old saying that nothing can be proven, only disproved, and this is precisely why appropriate controls are necessary: to disprove any feasible alternative interpretations of the data you obtain and/or to eliminate or minimize the effects of extraneous variables. Consider what alternative hypotheses exist, and systematically rule them out by performing experiments that disprove them. There are generally two types of controls: positive and negative. Positive controls show that a negative result is not due to a failure of the experimental system. Negative controls provide an indication of the background noise or baseline value with which to compare values from your experimental sample. In quantitative studies, a relative control or housekeeping control is required to show that changes in the apparent levels of a target gene or protein are not caused by differences in the amounts of protein or DNA in the sample. These levels can be used as a baseline to measure changes in relative levels of a target gene or protein. Common housekeeping molecules include -actin and GAPDH. In clinical trials, subjects in a placebo group in intervention trials, and normal control subjects in observational trials, need to be matched as closely as possible to those in the treatment or disease group in terms of age, sex and numerous other potential confounding factors. In randomized controlled trials, accepted procedures for assignment to groups also need to be followed (see, for example, the ICH good clinical practice guidelines at: http://www.ich.org/LOB/media/MEDIA482.pdf). 4. Use sample sizes large enough to provide a definitive result Many studies fail to achieve the desired impact or to fully support a given hypothesis because the effect is too small or the variability too large to show statistical significance. Often this can be simply overcome by increasing the sample size. However, once a study has been performed and the data analyzed, it can be impossible to go back and increase the numbers without starting all over again. For this reason, pilot studies are often performed in advance of larger scale studies. Talk to a statistician. Determine the size of the effect of your treatment and/or the variability in your population before starting large-scale studies, and use this information to determine the sample size required to give you statistical power. Doing this can save you time, money and potential disappointment later. 5. Use appropriate statistical tests to analyze your data Statistical analysis of your data is essential to show that an effect is genuine and significant. Tests of significance demonstrate the robustness of your findings, essentially showing how unlikely it is that your findings were obtained by chance. Are your data continuous or discrete? Are they normally distributed or non-normally distributed? The nature of your data will determine how they should be analyzed and what tests are appropriate. If in doubt, consult a statistician who will be able to advise you on the most appropriate tests to use and what these tests indicate. Determining the right tests to use in advance will save you having to repeat your analyses if you got it wrong first time round, with the distinct possibility that no significant effect will be observed when the appropriate tests are used. For clinical trials, the following guidelines may be useful: http://www.ich.org/LOB/media/MEDIA485.pdf. 6. Remove investigator and patient bias Many experiments involve subjective measurements or assessments performed by the investigators, as opposed to objective results provided by the experimental system. If the investigator has prior knowledge of the groups to which individuals/samples belong, then investigator bias is a distinct possibility, and this can invalidate any of the findings obtained. In such cases, where the investigator is a factor inherent in the experimental system, it is essential that the investigator is blinded to the groups to which individuals or samples belong. Doing so ensures the objectivity of the findings and improves their reliability. Such blinding can refer to treatment in an intervention trial, or to assessment or interpretation of clinical findings in an observational trial. Similarly, the outcome of a treatment could be influenced if a patient knows if they are receiving a placebo or drug; such patient bias should be avoided, by blinding the patient to the nature of the treatment. Being aware of the potential for bias before commencing experimentation can again save the need for time- and resource-consuming repeats. 7. Comply with ethical requirements There are strict regulations regarding the use of human and animal subjects, and in many countries, regarding the use of stem cells, cell lines and genetically modified materials. Failure to comply with these regulations will prevent publication of your findings and could lead to legal issues; at best, it will limit the range of journals to which you can submit your findings. Make yourself aware of these regulations before you commence your study and ensure that all requirements are complied with so you dont encounter problems later on. As well as ethical requirements regarding experimentation, there are also strict guidelines provided by most journals regarding the requirements for authorship, and these also need to be complied with. Clinical trials should comply with the Declaration of Helsinki (http://www.wma.net/e/policy/b3.htm) in addition to any local requirements. Informed consent is essential for most trials involving human subjects. Animal studies should comply with local and national regulations, although many journals are now aligning themselves with standards such as the NIH Guidelines for the Care and Use of Animals (http://oacu.od.nih.gov/regs/guide/guide.pdf). Finally, many journals require a statement describing who gave ethical approval for the study. 8. Clinical study registration Many top-tier journals now request that prospective clinical trials involving human participants should be registered online in an accessible database. Many journals will instantly reject studies of this type that have not been registered. More information on this can be found at http://www.icmje.org/faq.pdf. International clinical trial registries include the Chinese Clinical Trials Register (http://www.chictr.org/), the Japanese Primary Registries Network (http://rctportal.niph.go.jp/), The International Standard Randomised Control Trial Number database (http://isrctn.org/) and Clinical Trials.gov (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/). Registration should be done before the first participant is enrolled, but many of the databases do allow retrospective registration. However, by registering the trial once you receive ethical consent you will save time and overcome a major obstacle to publication. All studies are different and therefore have different requirements regarding appropriate study design. The points above are just a few of the important considerations that should be made prior to the commencement of experimentation, and the general principles apply to a variety of different study types. It is true that sometimes even peer review fails to detect flaws in study design, as shown, for example, in the following report on randomized controlled clinical trials published in Chinese journals: http://www.trialsjournal.com/content/10/1/46. However, if you want your study to stand the test of time, be published in a top-tier journal and to be widely accepted by the international research community, then planning ahead and designing your study to make it robust and reliable will only serve to save you time, money and heartbreak later on. 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
Overcoming the language barrier: writing in English for non-native authors 在本帖中， 理文编辑 学术总监Dr. Daniel McGowan将向大家展示克服语言障碍，非英语母语科研人员如何写作? Journal editors, overloaded with quality manuscripts, may make decisions on manuscripts based on formal criteria, like grammar or spelling. Don't get rejected for avoidable mistakes; make sure your manuscript looks perfect (quote from a senior executive at a large international publishing house). Scientific writing is difficult enough for many authors who have English as their first language; for non-native English-speaking authors, writing a paper in English represents a massive challenge that can make or break their papers chances of publication. With increased pressure on publication space and increased demands on editors time many journals are introducing language screening protocols to check submissions before they reach the editors desk; some editors simply choose to overlook papers that are too poorly written to consider or send for review in the knowledge that, among the submissions they receive, will be well written studies containing interesting and robust science. However, all is not lost for non-native English-speaking authors: by being aware of some of the most common scientific writing language errors and how to avoid them, you can improve the quality of your paper and increase its chances of being accepted. It is helpful to think of the writing process in the same way that you think about performing experiments; that is, the language needs to be easily and accurately understood by the reader, without multiple possible interpretations arising. In experiments, we use controls to rule out alternative hypotheses. In language, we must avoid ambiguities and unnecessary text (such as repetition and redundancies) to get our message across clearly. Scientific writing should possess what I call the three Cs: clarity, conciseness and correctness (accuracy). The key to achieving this is to be as brief and specific as possible without omitting any details that might be essential for the reader to fully understand your meaning. In other words, say no more than you need to accurately convey your message. Although writing that fails to meet this standard is sometimes described as sloppy or lazy writing, authors are frequently unaware that what they have written is unclear and ambiguous. Thus, attention to detail and an appreciation of how your writing could be misinterpreted are essential. What follows is just a small selection of error types that, when present in large numbers, could result in your paper going straight to the rejected pile. Articles/Plural vs singular Articles (a/the) are adjectives that modify nouns. Where they are used incorrectly the reader can be left wondering if you are referring to a specific thing or to a non-specific item or category. Worse, they could interpret the text incorrectly and make a wrong assumption. Incorrect use of articles can also lead to confusion relating to singular vs plural senses. The word the should be used in conjunction with a noun referring to a particular item or group of items (it can be used with both plural and singular nouns); for example, the sections were/the section was then stained with HE implies that the sections you had referred to in recent sentences were stained. By contrast, a should be used in conjunction with non-specific nouns; for example, a section was then stained infers that a single section, any section, was stained. A should only be used to refer to a single item or category, and should not be used in conjunction with plural nouns; that is, a sections would be incorrect. Asian authors frequently leave articles out of sentences making them sound awkward and unnatural, which would be the case when omitting the the in adenovirus was injected into the fourth ventricle. The antibody was injected into the hippocampus (articles required to specify a particular antibody, presumably already referred to in the text, and a specific hippocampus, belonging to a subject already described). A new method of extraction was devised (a used rather than the because this statement introduces this method to the reader; therefore it is non-specific at that time. Once introduced to the reader, the new method of extraction should be used to refer to that method in the specific sense). Nouns are used in the plural sense by adding an s to the end (in most cases). In the absence of an article, it can sometimes be unclear if the wrong sense (plural vs singular) has been used. For example, in the sentence Acetyl group was added, the reader is not clear whether the author means An acetyl group was added or perhaps Acetyl groups were added. Thus, when referring to multiple items, the plural sense should be used to avoid potential confusion. This is commonly forgotten when describing figures (use arrowheads rather than arrowhead where there is more than one in the figure; likewise, use solid bars rather than solid bar when referring to a bar chart with multiple bars). A biopsy wa s obtained (describing a single biopsy). Biopsies were obtained from eight patients (no article necessary unless these biopsies had already been introduced to the reader, in which case they would need to be referred to in the specific sense The biopsies were obtained). Commas, hyphens and which Used incorrectly these three elements of writing can introduce ambiguities, and the potential for subsequent misunderstanding, into your writing. For example, in the sentence Because A42 levels were elevated in 75% of AD patients in studies using our method , it is critical to obtain fresh samples, moving the comma after method to follow the word patients (or addition of a new comma there) would completely change the meaning. Similarly, in the phrase calcium-induced calcium release, omission of the hyphen completely changes the meaning of the sentence. When the hyphen is present calcium-induced is a compound adjective modifying the noun calcium release; when the hyphen is absent, induced is a verb describing the effect of calcium on calcium release. Thus, it is critically important to use hyphens with such compound adjectives to avoid misunderstandings. However, no hyphen is required to combine an adverb and an adjective; for example highly intense staining and high-intensity staining are both correct, but highly-intense staining is not. Glutamate receptors mediated synaptic plasticity (tells the reader that Glu receptors are involved in the development of synaptic plasticity). Glutamate receptor -mediated synaptic plasticity (identifies synaptic plasticity involving Glu receptors as the subject of the sentence; note the change from plural to singular because receptor is being used in a general sense and not to refer to a single receptor). The word which, when used incorrectly, can also induce considerable confusion. It is often used incorrectly instead of that. Both introduce clauses that modify nouns, but that should be used to introduce defining or restrictive clauses and which should be used to introduce non-defining or non-restrictive clauses. For example, in the sections that were positive for GFP were subjected to cell counting procedures, the that introduces a defining clause that defines exactly which sections were subjected to cell counting. By contrast, in the sections, which were positive for GFP, were subjected to cell counting procedures, the sections that were subjected to cell counting are rather loosely defined, possibly referring to sections that have been described in the previous or recent sentences. The clause about GFP positivity provides the reader with additional information, but is not essential to understand the meaning of the sentence; that is, it is disposable. Because which is used in this way, writers need to ensure that it is absolutely clear what the which is actually referring to, possibly whatever immediately precedes it (most commonly) or possibly the main subject of the sentence. For example, the sentence microglia migrated to the site of the lesion, which was associated with increased levels of ED-1 is somewhat vague, because it is unclear if the which is referring to the lesion or to the migration of microglia. If there is ever any doubt about such a sentence, it is best to rephrase it completely; for example migration of microglia to the site of the lesion was associated with increased levels of ED-1 or microglia migrated to the site of the lesion, and immunohistochemical analysis revealed increased levels of ED-1 at this site, both of which are unambiguous. Data were normalised to the housekeeping gene actin, which was used as an internal reference (here, the which refers to actin, which is therefore the subject of the following clause). Data were normalised to the internal reference housekeeping gene actin, revealing increases in the levels of (to refer to the analyzed data in a subsequent clause, which would be inappropriate and introduce an ambiguity). Respectively The word respectively is frequently misused by native and non-native English-speaking authors alike, and, as with the other elements described above, its misuse can lead to confusion and ambiguities. It is often clearer not to use this term at all, but it can be useful to economise on words where there are two corresponding lists. For example, it is quite useful in the sentence The latencies to withdrawal from a painful stimulus in control and transgenic mice were 3 s and 2 s, respectively, meaning that control mice withdrew after 3 s and transgenic mice withdrew after 2 s. If describing something much shorter than The latencies to withdrawal from a painful stimulus, for example average weights, respectively is not necessary; Control mice weighed 203 g and transgenic mice weighed 172 g is better than Control mice and transgenic mice weighed 203 g and 172 g, respectively, which contains one additional word. Note that respectively can only be used to refer to two corresponding lists at one time, and cannot be used to refer to more. Thus, the sentence The latencies to withdrawal from 5 g and 10 g painful stimuli in control and transgenic mice were 3 s and 2 s, respectively is incorrect and impossible to understand. The proportions of monocytes positive for CD163, CD7 and CD11a were 45%, 63% and 70%, respectively (the respectively makes clear that the three percentages refer to each of the three markers in the same order). Comparisons Comparisons are frequently made in the results sections of papers, and it is especially important to compare like with like. One common error made by non-native authors is overlooking this simple rule and leaving the reader to make an assumption about what is being compared. At best, the language will appear unnatural but the meaning clear; at worst, the wrong meaning can be imparted. As an example, the sentence Expression levels of p53 in smokers were compared with non-smokers should actually be Expression levels of p53 in smokers were compared with those in non-smokers. Another frequent error with comparisons is the use of relative terms (for example, higher, greater, more) without a reference. In the sentence transgenic mice showed higher levels of cortisol it is unclear what these levels were higher than; thus, a than clause, such as than control mice, is required. The reader might make this assumption automatically, but in some cases alternative inferences will be possible; the goal of accurate scientific writing has to be the removal of all assumption. Because comparisons of results are critical to their interpretation and, ultimately, their significance, it is critical that you convey to the reader exactly what is being compared. Finally, the word between should be used for comparisons of two findings, but among should be used for comparisons of three or more. The levels of ubiquitinated proteins were higher in patients than in control subjects (the than clause provides a reference for the term higher). The levels of ubiquitinated proteins in patients were higher than those in control subjects (unlike the first example, where patients and controls are both on the same side of the comparing term, that is, they are both mentioned after higher, here, patients and controls appear either side of the comparing term; therefore, it is necessary to add than those to compare like with like). There was no significant difference in the levels of ubiquitinated proteins between patients and controls (between is appropriate here for a comparison of two groups). There were no significant differences in the levels of ubiquitinated proteins among AD patients, PD patients and controls (among is appropriate for comparisons of more than two groups; note the change to the plural differences because more than one type of difference is possible with more than two groups). Protein and gene nomenclature One very common cause of confusion is use of the incorrect nomenclature to describe changes in the levels of genes, their mRNAs or the proteins that they encode. Constant changing from describing gene expression levels to protein levels and back again can also add to the confusion, especially because the names are often the same. Therefore, it needs to be completely clear to the reader exactly what level you are talking about. Nomenclature differs among species, but generally gene names should be described in italics and protein names in normal font. Case (upper vs lower) is often used to distinguish between species: generally, for mouse, rat and chicken, gene names are spelt with an upper case first letter and the rest in lower case; for humans, primates and some domestic species, gene names are spelt with all capital letters. Descriptions of mRNAs generally use the gene name (for example, levels of p53 mRNA) or you can refer to the mRNA for a given protein (for example levels of the mRNA for p53). The word expression is usually used to describe gene expression and can induce confusion when used to describe protein and mRNA levels; in most cases referring to proteins the word expression can simply be replaced with the word level (or levels). Be aware of the correct nomenclature for your species of subject and ensure that everywhere you refer to a protein, gene or mRNA by name in the text it is completely clear which of those you are referring to. Expression of the Igf1 gene was increased in our transgenic mice (use if italics and the word gene ensure that no confusion is possible here). The levels of IGF1 mRNA were elevated in our patient group (correct nomenclature for human genes). The serum IGF1 levels were elevated in the transgenic mice (here, it is clear that the protein is being referred to; capitals are appropriate in this case, even though the species is mouse, because it is the correct nomenclature for the mouse protein). Summary These are just a few of the most common errors made by non-native English-speaking authors in their scientific writing. There are of course many more that cant be dealt with here, but they all have the same result: a loss of clarity and/or introduction of ambiguity. If you apply the three Cs when writing your next paper, with an awareness of some of the traps that can lead to ambiguities or a loss of clarity, you will automatically improve your chances of getting your study published. If you also focus on removing any repetition and redundancy, and apply attention to detail to ensure that your meaning is clearly conveyed in each sentence, you will increase them further. As a general rule, it is a good idea to keep sentences simple, using shorter expressions wherever possible, rather than long, complicated and confusing. The slogan for the Beijing Olympics was One world, One dream; when it comes to scientific writing you should think One sentence, One idea. The simplest solution is always the best. Exercise Look at your most recent paper written in English and try to identify some of the errors described above. Post these examples on the forum as well as your suggested solutions to them. I look forward to seeing your efforts to correct these problems by applying the three Cs, and will offer comments on your solutions as well as offering a few of my own. Good luck! 练习 请各位检查一下近期自己写过的英语论文，回顾文中是否存在上述列举的错误。欢迎各位积极贴出典型的错误例句以及建议的修改方法，也期待大家应用上面说到的三C标准来纠正这些错误。我将逐一对大家修改好的例句进行回复，并列举出我自己遇到的此类问题。祝各位好运！ 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
The cover letter: your sales pitch 在本帖中， 理文编辑 学术总监 Dr. Daniel McGowan 将向大家展示如何写出吸引读者的 cover letter。 Competition for publication space and for editors attention is now very high, and it is no longer sufficient to send a manuscript to a journal editor along with a letter saying little more than please find my manuscript attached. The cover letter is your opportunity to directly address the editor of your target journal. It can be used to set your study apart from others and directly explain to the editor why your findings are important and why they should be published in their journal. There are a number of important components of a cover letter, all of which should be included. These components are described in detail in the attached Edanz Cover Letter Template, which can be used to develop your own cover letters by following the suggestions in the comments and replacing the bracketed sentences with the types of sentences explained. The format of this letter is applicable for most if not all submissions, although additional sections may be required for some types of paper; for example, information about deposition of clinical trial data would most likely need to accompany a report of a clinical trial, and information about the deposition of sequence data into public databases would possibly need to be provided where such data has been obtained. As always, the target journals instructions to authors should be consulted; these will most likely outline the information that absolutely must be included in the cover letter. Another source of this information is the journals submission webpages. Although not all of the components listed below and described in the cover letter template will be described as required on the target journals webpages, all should be included in your letter, because to do so will increase your chances of grabbing the editors attention. The following principals apply to cover letter development: Some journals have different editors for the different areas of research the journal covers and you can choose the most appropriate one based on area and occasionally also editor profiles. Address your letter personally to the appropriate editor, e.g., Dear Dr. Smith. If one cannot be readily identified, address your letter to the editor-in-chief. Begin by providing the title of your manuscript, the section/publication type you would like to see it published as, and the name of the journal you are submitting it to. You then need to provide a very brief background and rationale for your study, explaining why you did what you did. This can be followed by a brief description of the results. The following paragraph is very important. You will need to explain the significance of your findings to the research community, and specifically to the readers of your target journal. If you find it difficult to explain why the readers of that journal would be interested in your findings, then you may need to select a more appropriate journal. Editors will only send papers to review that they think will be of interest to their readers. Studying the aims and scope of your chosen journal might help with this. The last paragraph of the letter should contain any statements or declarations required by the target journal. These usually include declarations of any conflicts of interest, grant support or other sources of funding, a statement that all authors have read and approved the manuscript and a statement that the same manuscript has not been submitted elsewhere. Confirmation of each authors qualification for authorship may also be required. Finally, include details for correspondence and a polite farewell. Exercise Use the attached Edanz Cover Letter Template to draft a cover letter based on your current research. As well as giving you a ready-made cover letter for when you are ready to submit your next paper, this will help you focus on important aspects of your study, including its rationale and significance, and aid you in selecting the most appropriate journal by contemplating the significance of your findings to the readers of a variety of candidate journals. I will do my best to give feedback on each cover letter. 练习 请使用本帖随附的Cover Letter Template练习写作自己的投稿函。这个现成的投稿函不仅可以用于各位即将投出的稿件，也会帮助你关注研究的重要部分，包括基本原理和重要性，通过仔细斟酌研究的重要性进而在众多期刊中选择最合适的目标期刊。Dr. Daniel McGowan会尽量回复每位提供的投稿函。 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。 Edanz Cover Letter Template
The snapshot: abstract and keywords 在本帖中， 理文编辑 学术总监Dr. Daniel McGowan将向大家展示如何写出吸引读者的摘要和关键词。 Your papers abstract is critical because many researchers will read that part only, rather than reading the entire paper. Therefore, it is critical that it provides an accurate and sufficiently detailed summary of your work so that those researchers can understand what you did, why you did it, what your findings are, and why your findings are useful and important. Your abstract must be able to stand alone, that is, to function as an overview of your study that can be understood without reading the entire text. Readers interested in learning details than could not be included in the abstract will inevitably proceed to the full text. Therefore, the abstract does not need to be overly detailed; for example, it does not need to include a detailed methods section. Even though the abstract is one of the first parts of your paper, it should actually be written last. You should write it soon after finishing the other sections, while the rest of the manuscript is fresh in your head, enabling you to write a concise but comprehensive summary of your study without overlooking anything important. Requirements for abstracts differ among journals, so the target journals instructions for authors should be consulted for specific details. Despite differences among journals, there are a few general rules that should be obeyed when writing an abstract: The word limit should be observed; 250 words is probably about average and commonly adopted as a word limit for abstracts, but many journals request shorter abstracts (for example, Nature Articles and BBRC both have a 150-word limit) while many others (for example, BioMed Central journals) allow longer ones. This is one very good reason why the target journal should be identified before you write your paper. Technical jargon should be avoided so that the abstract is understandable for a broad readership, although what is considered technical may vary depending on the target journals audience. For example, a test of anxiety would generally be clearer than elevated plus-maze test in an abstract, unless the journal was specifically targeted to behavioural researchers. Usually, there simply isnt enough space in the abstract to define and explain technical terminology. If such terminology is unavoidable, it should be defined in simple terms where it is first used. Like technical jargon, abbreviations should be limited as much as possible, although their acceptability may again depend on the target journal. For example, HIV is likely to be acceptable in abbreviated form by most journals. By contrast, RT-PCR might be considered acceptable by a journal reporting molecular biology techniques, but it would need to be spelt in full (reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction) in most journals at first use. Many journals provide a list of acceptable abbreviations on their websites. Necessary abbreviations used three or more times should be defined at first use; however, abbreviations used only once or twice should be spelled out in full unless doing so causes the word limit to be exceeded. Abbreviations that are defined in the abstract will need to be defined again at first use in the main text. Although some journals do allow references to be cited in the abstract, the vast majority do not. Therefore, unless you plan to submit to a journal that allows it, you should not cite references in your abstract. If we look at the instructions to authors for BBRC, we can see the following guidelines: The Abstract should be on page 2, i.e., after the title page The Abstract must be a single paragraph that summarizes the main findings of the paper in fewer than 150 words. A list of up to 10 keywords useful for indexing or searching should be included after the Abstract. Some journals request structured abstracts divided into sections such as background, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions. Clinical journals may require additional or alternative sections. Therefore, it is again necessary to check the target journals instructions for authors to determine the particular formatting/outline requirements prior to writing. Abstracts are frequently followed by a list of keywords selected by the authors. The instructions for authors will state how many keywords are required and may even provide a list of recommended keywords. Choosing appropriate keywords is important, because these are used for indexing purposes. Well chosen keywords enable your manuscript to be more easily identified and cited. Thus, the keywords should be as specific to your manuscript as possible, and general terms, which could apply to an enormous number of studies, should be avoided. Example: Lets consider some appropriate keywords for the example title from the previous post: Region-specific neuronal degeneration after okadaic acid administration (note that this title is and one of two suggested alternatives for the poor title in the example in the previous post). Good keywords would be: okadoic acid, hippocampus, neuronal degeneration, MAP kinase signaling, and possibly mouse (or rat or whatever experimental animal was used). Poor keywords would be: neuron, brain, OA (as an abbreviation), regional-specific neuronal degeneration, and signaling 练习： Suggest 35 suitable keywords to accompany the title in the exercise in the previous post: Carvedilol produces dose-related improvements in LV function and dose-related reductions in mortality and hospitalization rate in subjects with chronic heart failure from systolic dysfunction. They dont all have to relate to information contained in the title, so let your imagination run wild: it is the type of keyword rather than the content (the word itself) that is important to consider. 对于上述练习，希望各位可以例举3至5个合适的关键词；同时也欢迎发来您自己的英文摘要以获得 Dr. McGowan 的改进建议。 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
Dr. Daniel McGowan 论文写作系列第一讲：Making a good first impression: the importance of writing a good title 在本帖中， 理文编辑 学术总监Dr. Daniel McGowan 将向大家展示如何写出吸引读者的文章标题。 Making a good first impression: the importance of writing a good title The title of your paper is a hook that should be used to attract readersit is your opportunity to sell your paper to readers browsing a table of contents or search results. A poor title will cause potentially interested researchers to overlook your work and may attract the wrong audience. By contrast, a good title will attract the relevant researchers and increase the number of citations you receive. Therefore, it is important to get it right. A good title should be as brief as possible while still communicating the main finding(s) of the paper. Avoid excessive detail and unnecessary use of field-specific jargon and abbreviations. Your title must be understandable by a broad scientific audience, some of whom may not have a detailed knowledge of your particular field. How broad depends on the particular target journalconsider the readership of your target journal and write a title that can be easily understood by all, not only those in your immediate field. The target journals instructions for authors should also be consulted to ensure that character limits are complied with and to identify whether a running (short) title is also required. Good title checklist - Specific - Concise - Communicates the main findings - Will attract readers - Does not begin with the, a, or an - Avoids use of non-standard abbreviations Example of a poor title: The degeneration of neurons in the CA3 and DG following OA administration: involvement of a MAPK-dependent pathway in regional-specific neuronal degeneration This title is too long, contains non-standard abbreviations and a redundancy, and is too specific in parts. Further, many journals do not want titles that begin with the, a, or an. A better alternative would be: Region-specific neuronal degeneration after okadaic acid administration. MAP kinase-dependent neuronal degeneration after okadaic acid administration would probably also be acceptable, depending on the target journal, because the abbreviation MAP is widely used and understood. 欢迎各位访友踊跃参与下面的标题练习： Suggest a good alternative title for the following using what youve learned about writing good titles. Carvedilol produces dose-related improvements in LV function and dose-related reductions in mortality and hospitalization rate in subjects with chronic heart failure from systolic dysfunction 各位也可以贴出自己的文章标题，Dr. McGowan 将对您的标题做出评价并提出好的修改建议。 在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
理文编辑 一直致力于通过各种途径，帮助中国作者提高英文写作水平。我们会陆续在博客中发布由理文编辑学术总监 Dr. Daneil McGowan 撰写的 How to Write a World Class Paper 系列英文讲义。Dr. McGowan 通过轻松诙谐的语言，以期刊审稿人的视角深入浅出地为大家解析期刊编辑对文章的评判标准，指出并解决母语非英语的作者在撰写英文学术论文过程中经常遇到的问题。希望能够对大家有所帮助。在每一讲的最后都会有互动练习，欢迎大家踊跃参与。在这里还需提请各位注意，Dr. McGowan 的母语是英语，无法阅读中文，因此请大家尽量使用英文回帖，如有任何需要与他沟通的学术和语言问题也请使用英语，Dr. McGowan 会及时回复大家的。 Dr. Daniel McGowan 曾任 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 副编辑，负责约稿，管理和撰写期刊内容。于2006年加入 理文编辑（Edanz Group） 并从2008年起担任学术总监。Dr. Daniel McGowan 有超过十年的博士后和研究生阶段实验室研究经验，主要致力于神经退化疾病、分子及细胞生物学、蛋白质生物化学、蛋白质组学和基因组学。
标签: 英语论文
